Evolution

Evolution is a gradual process of changes over a long period of geological time. This may result in the origin of new species or the extinction of others. Because evolution is very slow, people may not realize that it is happening. Drug resistance in some species may take the lifetime of a human to develop.

Convergent Evolution produces analogous structures in organisms that have evolved from
different ancestors. e.g. The legs of insects and mammals; and the wings of butterflies and birds.

Divergent Evolution, on the other hand, produces modifications of structures in organisms

that have evolved from a common ancestor, e.g. variations in the fore-limbs of mammals. This is adaptive radiation

Evidence for Evolution

Evidence supporting the hypothesis that evolution occurs comes from the various sources viz. Fossil records Comparative anatomy Comparative embryology Studies of geographical distribution of plants and animals.

Fossil Records
The remains of an organism decays when it dies but if, by chance its body sinks into sediment at the bottom of a river, pond or sea, its soft parts may gradually absorb minerals and turn into stone called fossil. An evolutionary tree can be drawn up from the study of fossil records.

Comparative Embryology
The very young embryo of a human is similar to that of any other mammal, bird, amphibian or fish. At certain stages of development, the embryos of all vertebrates are fish-like. They possess gill slits in the pharynx. They also have a tail and a vascular system with single circulation of blood. The conclusion is that land vertebrates had aquatic ancestors and that a developing organism passes through some of the embryonic stages of its evolutionary ancestors.

Comparative Anatomy
Evidence of evolution also comes from the study of the anatomical structures of vertebrates, e.g. anatomy of the pentadactyl limb of vertebrates. Limb bones of different vertebrates follow the same basic pattern, with bones being arranges in similar order and position. This suggests that they have descended from a common ancestor with unspecialized limbs, and the limbs of these animals have been specialized to perform various functions. There is evidence that snakes which are limbless have evolved from animals with limbs.

Geographical Distribution
Evidence for migration, isolation and independent evolution comes from the fact that, although the animals of the continents differ superficially, in detail they have basic similarities, e.g. Africa and South America have different genera and species of animals but these animals belong to the same orders and families. They are also discontinuously distributed; one group being represented in widely separated areas. An example is the camel family, which is represented by camel in Asia and North Africa and by llama in South America. The Australian fauna demonstrates well the effect of isolation followed by independent evolution (adaptive radiation). Marsupials are the only mammals natural to Australia. Their might have reached there by migration over a land bridge where the Malayan peninsula and the Indonesian islands are now. Australia was thus cut off before placental mammals evolved. Evidence of continental drift can be found in certain fossils of animals being found in both two close continents. Also the shapes of South America and Africa are complementary and can fit together like parts of jig-saw puzzle.

Theories of evolution
A number of theories have been proposed in attempt to explain the infinite variety of life on this planet. The two main arguments put forward are those of special creation and evolution. Supporters of special creation believe that all living organisms were created by a Divine Being called God. Some believed it coincided with the creation of the earth. Others believe it to have happened several times throughout the history of the world. Evolutionary theories argue that the huge variety of organisms present today have slowly developed, or evolved, over millions of years ago from simple life forms.

Lamarcks theory of Evolution

Lamarcks theory involves the inheritance of acquired characters. The theory is broken down int three components; Influence of the environment Use and disuse of body parts Inheritance of acquired characters

Individuals of the same species growing and developing under different environmental conditions differ from one another. e.g. plants in shade develop larger leaves than those grown in higher light intensities. Plants therefore react to external environmental changes and it is possible that cumulative effects, produced by the changed conditions through successive generations, might give rise to new species. In animals the use of certain parts of the body results in the development of those parts. New characters are thus acquired in life and it is possible that these may be passed on to the offspring; giving rise to new species.

Charles Darwins Theory

Darwins theory of evolution, called the theory of evolution by natural selection, is emphasized in his book: The Origin of Species published in 1859. His theory was based on accurate observations. The theory is resolved in to three components; Over-production of offspring and subsequent struggle for the existence among offspring. Variations in natural populations. Elimination of unfavourable variations, which result in the survival of the best adapted or the survival of the fittest. The population growth of organisms is exponential provided there are no mortalities, at this rate there would be a struggle for food supply, water and space hence competition. No two individuals in a species are identical. There are always variations, however slight. Some variations are better suited to the environment while others are not. These slight variations are

preserved and passed on to offspring. These individuals have greater survival value than those with unfavourable variations who perish in competition. The survivors in each generation may be different from those of the previous generation and thus they are better adapted to their environment. Gradual change of this type in isolated populations may result in them differing more and more, eventually being recognized as new species. For example the ancestral giraffes showed variation in neck length. Natural selection favoured those with long necks which were best adapted to reach their food (leaves on trees) and thus survived, those with short necks, unable to complete for food with the longer-necked varieties, died. Eventually only longer-necked giraffes remained.