Bust of Caligula

After Augustus
When Augustus died in A.D.14, a crisis of leadership of the Empire developed. This crisis arose
basically because the senatorial class were unsure of their political power. Indeed, they could
control administration of the State, but true power lay in the hands of Augustus alone. After the
death of Augustus, Tiberius (42 B.C.-A.D. 37; emperor, A.D. 14-37), the stepson of Augustus,
became the leader of the state. A rather dark, vengeful, complex man and a soldier by training,
Tiberius was suspicious of the Senate who were equally befuddled by his behavior. The reign of
Tiberius eventually became a tyranny -- in the wake of his paranoia, dozens of members of the
Senate and equestrians were denounced and killed. The reign of Tiberius ended the illusion that
the Republic had been restored and revealed some of the future of the Principiate.

Imperial power fell to the megalomaniac, Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (12-41; emperor,
37-41) the third child of Augustus' adopted grandson, Germanicus, and Augustus' granddaughter,
Agrippina. Gaius accompanied his parents on military campaigns and was shown to the troops
wearing a miniature soldier's outfit, including a sandal called caliga, hence the nickname,
Caligula. According to the will of Tiberius, Caligula and his cousin Tiberius Gemellus were joint
heirs. Caligula ordered Gemellus killed and with the support of the Praetorian Prefect, he
declared Tiberius will void on the grounds of insanity. Caligula than accepted the powers of the
Principiate. His popularity was great but within four years he was assassinated by discontented
members of his bodyguard.

Ancient and modern sources would agree -- Caligula was insane. The stories of Caligula's
insanity are well known: his excessive cruelty, incestuous relationships with his sisters (he
deified Drusilla), laughable military campaigns (picking up sea shells as the "spoils of war") and
the plan to make his horse a consul. Of course, we could easily argue that Caligula was merely
pushing the limits of the imperial cult, something already established by Augustus.

Following the murder of Caligula, Claudius (10 BC-A.D. 54; emperor, 41-54) emerged as ruler.
According to one story, the Preatorian Guard found Claudius hiding behind a curtain after
Caligula's brutal murder. They picked him up and declared him their emperor. He was the son of
Drusus Claudius Nero, the son of Augustus's wife Livia, and Antonia, the daughter of Marc
Antony. Claudius was plagued from the start because of his many defects: he drooled, stuttered,
limped and was constantly ill. The historian Seutonius wrote in his Twelve Caesars, that
"Claudius' mother, Antonia, often called him 'a monster: a man whom nature had not finished but
had merely begun'." Claudius was secluded from public view throughout his childhood and
youth.

At the death of Caligula there was talk among the Senate of restoring the Republic. Of course,
various Senators proposed that they be chosen as princeps. In the end, it was the Praetorian
Guard who had made the decision and Claudius, the army's choice, became Rome's fourth
emperor. This is important since it shows how the Romans had not established a line of
succession. Caligula had been murdered by his body guard and Claudius became princeps only
through the support of the army.

Claudius' ambitious wife, Agrippina, seeing that the time was ripe to dispose of Claudius, had
him poisoned with a treated mushroom. Claudius was dying but needed to be poisoned again.
With Claudius finally out of the way, the princeps fell to his adopted son, Lucius Domitus
Ahenobarbus, known as Nero Claudius Caesar, or Nero (37-68; emperor, 54-68). Since Nero was
an adolescent, the early part of his reign was characterized by direction from Agrippina and the
Roman philosopher and statesman Seneca (the Younger). Nero eventually married Poppaea in
62. In the same year Nero passed a series of treason laws directed at anyone he perceived to be a
threat. In 64, a great fire destroyed much of Rome -- the legend is that Nero had to destroy Rome
in order to rebuild it.

Nero had many enemies and there was more than one assassination plot against him. A number
of the conspirators were forced to commit suicide, including Lucan, Petronious and Seneca.
Continued unrest within the Senate and the provinces gave his enemies the chance to depose him
but in early June 68, Nero committed suicide. He was the last of the Julio-Claudians.

Control of the Roman Empire between Augustus and Nero was based on military tyranny. In 68,
Rome had four emperors, three who died early, leaving the title of princeps to Titus Flavius
Vespasianus or Vespasian (9-79; emperor, 69-79). Vespasian restored the peace and brought
stability to the Empire following the rule of Nero. He also established the Flavian dynasty as the
legitimate successor to the throne. As an emperor Vespasian was sound in his financial dealings
and restored the city and government of Rome following a series of civil wars early in his reign.
Unlike the four previous emperors, Vespasian died peacefully in his sleep. His administration of
the Roman Empire anticipated the period of the "Five Good Emperors."

Despite the general fear that he would become the next Nero, it was Titus Flavius Vespasianus,
or Titus (30-81; emperor, 79-81), the eldest son of Vespasian and brother of Domitian, who
became emperor. Titus played an important role in the assault of Jerusalem (70), an assault
which showed him to be a capable, but not an innovative military leader. Tales of Titus' violence
as a praetorian prefect and his sexual debauchery preceded his office. Despite his reputation,
Titus was a capable ruler. Huge amounts of money poured into Rome to finance an extensive
building program. The Flavian Amphitheater, or Coliseum, was built during his reign. In A.D.
79, Vesuvius erupted, destroying Pompeii and Herculaneum, and killing almost 4000. Titus spent
huge sums of money to relieve the hardships of the people affected. Known for his generosity,
Titus died in 81, after only twenty-six months in office.

Titus was succeeded by his younger brother, Titus Flavius Domitianus, or Domitian (51-96;
emperor, 81-96). Titus and Domitian were not close (they were separated in age by 21 years) and
so while Titus was dying, Domitian left for the praetorian camp where he was hailed as emperor.
As emperor, Domitian produced a financially sound administration. After a series of catastrophes
in Rome (the great fires of 64 and 80, and the civil wars of 68-69), Domitian erected, restored or
completed more than fifty public buildings. In 85, Domitian made himself censor perpetuus,
censor for life, and thus took charge of the conduct and morals of Rome. He was not much of a
military figure and his campaigns were minor at best. It was instead his domestic policies that
earned him some respects in the early years of his rule. It is odd that while Domitian was severe
in his attempt to curb moral and political corruption, should turn out to be a murderer himself.
The catalog of his crimes is long and he inflicted death on young and old alike. He called himself
"Lord God" and spoke of himself as divine. There were numerous conspirators and in 96 he was
murdered in a palace coup. The people did not mourn the loss of Domitian. That same day
Domitian was succeeded by Nerva.