GRAVITY ANALYSIS OF THE TENDAHO GRABEN, AFAR DEPRESSION, ETHIOPIA

A Masters Thesis Presented to The Graduate College of Missouri State University

In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science, Geospatial Sciences in Geography and Geology

By Benjamin Weide August 2011

GRAVITY ANALYSIS OF THE TENDAHO GRABEN, AFAR DEPRESSION, ETHIOPIA Geography, Geology and Planning Missouri State University, August 2011 Master of Science Benjamin Weide

ABSTRACT The Tendaho graben (TG) is located at the intersection of the East African, Red Sea and Gulf of Aden rifts. The TG lies within the southern portion of the Red Sea propagator, which is the landward extension of the Red Sea spreading center. The region has experienced extensional forces resulting in thinned crust and formation of oceanic crust. To investigate the crustal structure of the TG, previous detailed gravity, magnetic, and seismic surveys were completed for geothermal resources. I performed a detailed gravity and magnetic survey within the graben to aid in determining the crustal structure. Bouguer gravity anomaly maps of the Afar indicate a regional gravity maximum in comparison to the Ethiopian and Somalian plateau, which is related to crustal thinning. Additionally, smaller wavelength gravity maxima occur over both the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden propagators. Wavelength filtered gravity maps show that the maximum of the Red Sea propagator terminates in the south-central portion of the TG and does not intersect the Gulf of Aden propagator. Four models, which were constrained by magnetic modeling and drill hole data, indicate that the graben is 1.6 km thick with a 6-8 km wide high density zone correlating to recent volcanic activity. The data suggest the basin evolved from being tectonically controlled and transitioned to being magmatically controlled. KEYWORDS: Afar Depression, Ethiopia, gravity analysis, Tendaho Graben, Bouguer This abstract is approved as to form and content ______________________________________ Dr. Kevin L. Mickus Chairperson, Advistory Committee Missouri State University

ii

GRAVITY ANALYSIS OF THE TENDAHO GRABEN, AFAR DEPRESSION, ETHIOPIA By Benjamin Weide

A Masters Thesis Submitted to the Graduate College Of Missouri State University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Master of Science, Geospatial Sciences in Geography and Geology

August 2011

Approved:

Dr. Kevin Mickus

Dr. Kevin Evans

Dr. Jun Luo _______________________________________ Pawan Kohol, Interim, Graduate College Dean

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my graduate advisor, Dr. Kevin Mickus, for giving me the opportunity to work and travel under him at Missouri State University. Dr. Mickus has given me the encouragement and patience while completing my studies. Also, I would like to thank my other committee members, Dr. Kevin Evans and Dr. Jun Luo for their input and advice. I would also like to thank Statoil-hydro for funding my fieldwork and my research assistantships. I would also like to thank the GGP department at Missouri State University and all of the students for taking me into their academic family. Finally, I would like to thank my parents Christopher and Catherine Weide for all of their support during my academic life.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................1 REGIONAL GEOLOGY AND TECTONIC BACKGROUND .........................................3 East Africa Rift ........................................................................................................3 Crustal Structure of the EAR ...................................................................................6 Timing of the Development of the EAR ................................................................11 Main Ethiopian Rift ...............................................................................................12 STUDY AREA .................................................................................................................15 Geology of the Tendaho Graben ............................................................................15

GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS..............................................................................21 Main Ethiopian Rift and the Afar Depression .......................................................21 Seismic Studies ..........................................................................................21 Gravity and Magnetic Studies ................................................................................28 Tendaho Graben Geophysical Studies ...................................................................34 GRAVITY DATA ANALYSIS.........................................................................................37 Gravity Data Interpretation ...................................................................................41 Residual Gravity Anomalies .................................................................................51 Gravity Data Modeling ........................................................................................53

MAGNETIC DATA ANALYSIS......................................................................................63 Discussion ..............................................................................................................70

CONCLUSIONS................................................................................................................75

REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................76

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Map of the East African Rift (EAR) system. .....................................................4

Figure 2. Topographic relief map of the Afar Depression showing the major structures and microplates .................................................................................................5 Figure 3. Bouguer gravity anomaly map of the central portion of the East African rift .......................................................................................................7

Figure 4. Regional gravity model across the Equator from 25 degrees E to 41 degrees E ......................................................................................................9

Figure 5. Tectonic map of the MER showing the major tectonic features .......................13 Figure 6. Geological and structural map of the Tendaho Graben .....................................15

Figure 7. Geologic map and model of the Tendaho graben..............................................17

Figure 8. Stratigraphic columns of two drill holes in the TG associated with the Tendaho Geothermal Project. .........................................................................19 Figure 9. Seismic refraction model along profile illustrating a crustal model of Afar region. ............................................................................................................22

Figure 10. Seismic refraction model along lines 1 and 2 of the EAGLE project .............23

Figure 11. A velocity slice at 10 km depth of a 3D seismic tomographic model ..............25

Figure 12. Tomographic model from the multimode surface wave study at depths of 75, 100, and 125 km..............................................................................................26

Figure 13. Shear wave splitting results showing two slices of the crust at 50 and 300 km. ..........................................................................................................27 vi

Figure 14. Forward model and predicted Bouguer gravity anomaly of a profile along the MER and southern Afar ..................................................................................30

Figure 15. Bouguer gravity anomaly map of the MER ....................................................31

Figure 16. Band-pass filtered gravity anomaly map where wavelengths between 25 and 250 km were passed. ..............................................................................32

Figure 17. Model and Bouguer gravity anomaly along a profile along the MER and southern Afar ..................................................................................................33 Figure 18. Gravity stations (+) in the study area including Afar, Djibouti, the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden and the edges of the Ethiopian and Somalian Plateaux. .....38

Figure 19. Complete Bouguer gravity anomaly map of the study area including the Afar Depression. ......................................................................................42

Figure 20. Bouguer gravity anomaly map of the Tendaho Graben ..................................43

Figure 21. Bouguer gravity anomaly map of the Tendaho graben ...................................44

Figure 22. Filtered gravity anomaly map of the Afar region. ...........................................46 Figure 23. Filtered gravity anomaly map of the Tendaho Graben ....................................47

Figure 24. Location of the profiles used for the gravity modeling of the TG...................54

Figure 25. Two and one-half dimensional model along Profile A ...................................55 Figure 26. Two and one-half dimensional model along Profile B ....................................56 Figure 27. Two and one-half dimensional model along Profile C that runs along the graben axis .....................................................................................................57 vii

Figure 28. Two and one-half dimensional model along Profile D gravity anomaly due to the model and the black line is the observed gravity anomaly. .........58 Figure 29. Total field magnetic anomaly map of the TG. ................................................64 Figure 30. Vertical derivative magnetic anomaly map of the TG .....................................66 Figure 31. Depth estimation map of the magnetic bodies within the TG determined using Euler deconvolution. ...........................................................................68

Figure 32. Two and one-half dimensional model of magnetic data ..................................69

Figure 33. Illustration of the evolution of the Tendaho Graben .......................................74

viii

INTRODUCTION

The East African Rift System (EAR) is an intra-continental ridge system that has developed along narrow zones of thinned lithosphere due to intrusions from the asthenosphere. The system runs along the eastern edge of Africa and is joined together by series of grabens linked by transform, transfer, and accommodation zones (Chorowitz, 2005). The northern portion of the EAR system is made up of the Main Ethiopian Rift (MER) and the Afar Depression. The MER is similar to the structure of the EAR system to the south; however, it is influenced by the Afar mantle plume (Chorowicz, 2005). The Afar depression is the most developed and thinned section of the rift (Gao et al., 2010). Further thinning is caused by the conversion of three rift systems in this region. The Afar depression represents one of the few places on Earth to study the transition from continental rifting to oceanic spreading and how continental rifts develop into oceanic ridges (Mickus et al., 2007). Within the Afar depression there are several grabens, with the Tendaho Graben (TG) being the largest and most important. This work emphasizes the structural configuration and origin of the TG, which is located near the center of the Afar Depression and has been cited to be the location of the triple junction (Acocella et al., 2008). The southern portion of the Red Sea propagator which is the landward extension of the Red Sea rift system meets the MER in this southern portion of the TG and the landward extension of the Gulf of Aden propagator lies to the east of the TG. Given the lack of subsurface drilling and that the Stratoid basalts are the only exposed lithologies, geophysical analyzes are the only techniques that can be used to determine the structural configuration and thus the geologic history of this region. A recent detailed gravity survey across the TG provided supporting evidence that

significant high-density material from the asthenosphere occurs along the central axis of the graben (Mickus et al., 2010). In addition, geochronologic studies on the surficial basalts (Barberi et al., 1975; Lahitte et al., 2001; Kidane et al., 2003) found that the basalts became younger toward the center of the graben. The gravity data analysis is supported by magnetic data that confirms that dyking in the TG which is responsible for the transition of continental spreading into oceanic seafloor spreading (Bridges et al., 2010). This study will complement the existing gravity and magnetic analyzes (Mickus, 2010) by producing a series of Bouguer gravity anomaly maps residual gravity anomaly maps using wavelength filtering. To further investigate the crustal structure, four twodimensional gravity models will be constructed across and parallel to the graben axis in order to constrain the geometry of the TG. Initial modeling constrained by magnetic modeling and drill hole data, indicates that the graben is 1.6 km thick with a 10 km wide high density zone correlating to recent volcanic activity. These models will be analyzed to better understand the mechanics of the current extension forces within the Afar Depression.

REGIONAL GEOLOGY AND TECTONIC BACKGROUND

East Africa Rift The East African Rift (EAR) is an active continental rift system that trends north to south on the eastern edge of Africa (e.g., Mohr, 1983; Rosendahl, 1987; Braile et al., 1995; Chorowitz, 2005) (Figure 1). The EAR splits the African plate into two subplates: the Nubian on the eastern portion and Somalian plate on the west. The north section of the rift begins at the Afar triple junction in Ethiopia and at this point the Arabian, Somalian, and Nubian plates are being rifted apart. However, the Afar region is made up of several microplates (Acton et al., 1991), so there is no single point for the location of the triple junction (Figure 2). The Afar Depression marks the transition from continental crust (southern part) to oceanic crust (northern part) (Hayward and Ebinger, 1996). From the triple junction, the Main Ethiopian Rift (MER) trends south through the Ethiopian dome and bifurcates into the Eastern and Western branches of the rift system (Figure 1). The EAR splits at the sutured zones surrounding the strong, thick crust of the Tanzanian craton. The eastern and western branches rejoin on the southern side of the Tanzanian craton, and merge into the Malawi rift. This portion of rift trends southeast towards the coast of Mozambique and is thought to terminate there but the lack of data in Mozambique makes this observation difficult. The most characteristic feature of the rift system a as a whole is the narrow zones of thinned continental with intrusions originating from the asthenosphere. The rift system has been divided into five stages based on tectonics.

Figure 1. Map of the East African Rift (EAR) system. Figures on the right, show the crustal structure at different locations of the EAR.

Figure 2. Topographic relief map of the Afar Depression showing the major structures and microplates. 1= Danakil Rift; 2= Red Sea Trend. 3=Erta Ale Volcano. 4=Alyata Volcano. 5=Tat Ale Volcano. 6= Manda Harraro - Gobaad Rift. 7= Awsa Plain. 8=Dobi Graben 9= Tendaho Gobaat Discontinuity. 10= Asal - Manda Inakir Rift. 11= Gulf of Aden Trend (Beyene and Abdelsalam, 2005).

Crustal Structure of the EAR The EAR has all five rift forming stages present making it a unique system (Chorowicz, 2005). The first stage is characterized by increased earthquake activity and a large distribution of strike slip faults. In this stage, there are no true grabens being formed yet. The first stage is found in the youngest part of the rift which is located near the coast of Mozambique. The second stage is identified by divergent movements of the crust, frequent earthquakes, and intrusions which result in a negative Bouguer gravity anomaly value (Figure 3). This stage is represented by the Malawi rift which is the southern part of the western rift. The third stage, called the typical rift stage, is characterized by a well defined rift valley and full graben structures. The portion of the EAR near Lake Tanganyika is representative of the third stage. The fourth stage is represented by a large negative regional gravity anomaly and a positive gravity anomaly in the axis of the rift due the flux on magmatic material (Figure 3). This stage is found in the Kenyan Rift and the central portion of the MER. The final stage is the formation of oceanic crust. The transition between the fourth and fifth stage is likely where oceanic crust first begins forming. The final stage of rifting is found in the Afar region, on the northernmost portion of the MER (Chorowitz, 2005). Voluminous volcanism and uplift started prior to the main rifting phases, suggesting a mantle plume influence on the Tertiary deformation in East Africa (Ebinger and Sleep, 1998). Different plume hypothesis have been suggested (Ebinger and Sleep, 1998; Rogers et al., 2000; Yirgu et al., 2006), with recent models indicating the existence of deep super plume originating at the core-mantle boundary beneath southern Africa,

Figure 3. Bouguer gravity anomaly map of the central portion of the East African rift (Simiyu and Keller, 1997). Legend shows gravity values and contour levels.

rising in a north-northeastward direction toward eastern Africa, and feeding multiple plume stems in the upper mantle. However, the existence of this whole-mantle feature and its possible connection with Tertiary rifting are highly debated (Corti, 2009). The Afar mantle plume has developed the northern portion of the rift system by thermal uplift and extensions due to dyking. The beginning of the track is dated around 30 million years ago when the continental flood basalts erupted in the Ethiopia. However, Ebinger and Sleep (1998) have suggested that magmatism throughout most of eastern Africa can be related to a single deep mantle plume that initiated basalt volcanism in southern Ethiopia about 45 million years ago. The most common theory states the Afar plume has migrated under the current day Tanzanian craton (Rogers et al., 2000). The upward movement puts stress on the ancient suture zones, creating the eastern and western branches of the rift system. The East African plateau is associated with a broad negative gravity anomaly with amplitude of -150 plus or minus 20 mGal (Figure 3). The long wavelength gravity anomaly is a result of lithospheric heating and thinning (Simiyu and Keller, 1997) (Figure 4). The broad Bouguer gravity low correlates negatively with topography (Ebinger, 1989). The regional gravity away from the rift system is -50 mGal, with an average lithosphere thickness of 100 km (Brown and Girlder, 1980). The area west of Lake Tanganyika has Bouguer gravity values of -80 mGal with the gravity values decrease heading eastward towards the rift system. As the two arms of the rift (Figure 3) split around the Tanzanian craton, large gravity gradients are found. This is due to the topography and boundaries between the suture zones (Simiyu and Keller, 1997) (Figure 4). The Tanzanian craton region is characterized by low gradients and Bouguer gravity

Figure 4. Regional gravity model across the equator from 25 degrees E to 41 degrees E showing the lithospheric structure of the EAR as it splits around the Tanzanian Craton (Simiyu and Keller, 1997).

values of -150 plus or minus 20 mGal. The Bouguer gravity increases eastward heading towards the Indian Ocean, due to crustal thinning. The area between the Ethiopia and Kenya dome has an average Bouguer gravity value of -70 mGal, which has a large amplitude, regional positive anomaly (Figure 3).

The high value is related to rifting episodes and very thin crust (Simiyu and Keller, 1997) as shown by gravity modeling (Figure 4). The maximum crustal attenuation occurs beneath the Afar depression, indicating that the Afar depression undergoes an intense fragmentation of the crust resulting from faulting and magmatic activity (Simiyu and Keller, 1997). However, our computed crustal thickness in the Afar depression falls within an upper bound of depths compared to other tectonically active rift zones (Simiyu and Keller, 1997). This can be explained in terms of crustal accretion resulting from an impact of the Afar mantle plume since approximately 30 Ma ago (Hoffmann et al., 1997). The residual gravity anomalies obtained using low-pass filtering reveals a significant density contrast between the northern and southern sectors of the rift (Simiyu and Keller, 1997). The northern part of the rift is characterized by regular patterns of positive gravity anomalies, which can be interpreted in terms of a zone of crustal thinning through which relatively dense materials have intruded the overlying crust. In contrast, south of the MER, the gravity anomalies are characterized by random patterns and low amplitudes. The along-rift-axis variation in gravity anomalies implies that the style of crustal deformation changed progressively, beginning with regionally distributed crustal deformation, such as the one we observe within the more juvenile and wider southern segment of the rift, to localized deformation within the active and narrow rift zones of the northern sector of the Ethiopian Rift (Tessema and Antoine, 2004). Several geophysical methods (broadband seismic, seismic refraction, earthquake analysis and gravity) have been used to determine crustal thickness in the rift system. Modeling of earthquake data have shown the Moho discontinuity is between 30-35 km, in the western rift (Bram et. al, , 1975). Microearthquake data were collected over the

10

Tanzanian craton and analysis of this data shows a crustal thickness of 35 plus or minus 5 km. Gravity data have shown an average of 35 km crustal thickness and slightly thicker crust at suture zones in the central rift system (Tesha et al., 1997). The crustal structure of the majority of the rift system is similar based on seismic analyzes but there are significant differences (Figure 1). The Afar depression region is the oldest and most rifted portion of the EAR. The crustal structure is a combination of oceanic and continental crust, making difficulties in determining the crustal thickness but the thickness is the least of the entire EAR. Seismic refraction studies have estimated thickness of 38km in the Ethiopian plateau and thicknesses between 16-26 km in the Afar depression (Berckhemer, et al, 1975). More recently, thicknesses have been estimated at 26 km in the Afar, and decreasing to 14 km towards the intersection of the Red Sea and Gulf Aden (Makris and Ginzburg, 1987). These studies have shown that the lithosphere is thinned and is believed to be underlain by true oceanic crust. These thicknesses are shallow compared to those of the Kenya Rift (Figure 4), which is approximately 40 km (Simiyu and Keller, 1997).

Timing of the Development of the EAR The initial stages of the development of the EAR occurred around 30 million years ago in the Afar plateau (Hoffman, et al., 1997) as the Afar plume released large basalt flows in this area (Hoffman, 1997). This volcanism coincides with converging grabens near Lake Tana forming a triple junction, which further weakened the lithosphere. Rifting in the Gulf of Aden began between 29.9-28.7 million years ago, and the southern Red Sea at 27.5-23 million years ago (Chorowitz, 2005). Around 20 million years ago, volcanism began in northern Kenya further developing the rift system to the

11

south. The MER began major rifting episodes at 11 million years ago. This rifting merged the Kenyan and Afar rift system creating much of the eastern branch of the EAR (Chorowitz, 2005). The first development of the western branch of the EAR was in Virunga (Congo), with lavas dated at 12.6 million years ago (Chorowitz, 2005). Lake Albert in Uganda experienced its first major rifting episode at 8 million years ago while Lake Tanganyika experienced rifting between 12-9 million years ago. The last rifting period began between 5 and 6million years ago in the Lake Malawi area (Chorowicz, 2005). The EAR has propagated on a north- south trend for the last 30 million years. The propagation rate is estimated to be around 5 centimeters per year (Kampunzu, et al., 1998). The system is continuing to propagate in Mozambique and possibly offshore. The evolution of the EAR has been piece wise, with small area rifting and later connecting to the system as a whole.

Main Ethiopian Rift The MER extends in a NE-SW to N-S direction from the Afar depression, at the Red Sea-Gulf of Aden junction, southwards to the Turkana depression in Kenya. The rift valley of the MER separates the elevated Ethiopian and Somalian plateaus (Figure 5). The MER development is related to the roughly E-W motion between Nubia and Somalia plates (Corti, 2009). Rifting in the MER occurred during the Tertiary around 30 million years ago based on dating of the large flood basalts that cover the areas around the rift. These basalts and continuing rifting from a possible plume system created the Ethiopian and Somalian plateaus to the east and west of the rift.

12

Figure 5. Tectonic map of the MER showing the major tectonic features including the MER, Ethiopian Plateau and Somalian Plateau.

13

Continental rifting during the Miocene and Pliocene in the MER was characterized by displacement along boundary faults, subsidence within the rift valley, and widespread magmatic activity (Chorowicz, 2005). Initially, the rift was dominated by magmatism and transitioned into tectonic extension during the Pleistocene (Corti, 2009). The northern portion of the MER demonstrated the transition through riftward narrowing of volcanic activity (Corti, 2009). Extensional deformation has localized in the Wonji magmatic segments since ~3 mya, in an oblique direction of the Miocene boundary fault (Beutel, et al, 2010). The northern Ethiopian plateau is composed of tholeiitic and basaltic lavas (Mohr and Zanettin, 1988), which erupted 30 mya over a span of ~1 my (Hoffman et al., 1997). The basalts cover an area of ~210,000 km, creating a sequence 2000 m in thickness in the central portion of the MER. However, in the northern and southern segments of the MER, the basalts are only 500m in thickness. On the eastern boundary of the MER, rhyolites have been found in this sequence, characterizing the start of continental rifting, (Ayalew et al., 2006) similar to the sequences found along the TG boundary faults.

14

STUDY AREA

Geology of the Tendaho Graben The Tendaho Graben (TG) is located in the central Afar and is the largest basin in the area (Acocella et al., 2008). On average, the basin is 50 kilometers in width and trends in a NW-SE direction for 100 kilometers. The TG is a combination of the Manda Hararo rift (Figure 6) in the northwest, the Tendaho rift and the Goba Ad half-graben to the southeast (Abbate et al., 1995).

Figure 6. Geological and structural map of the Tendaho Graben (adapted from Acocella, 2010).

15

The MER joins the TG near the Dama Ale volcano and eventually terminates structurally just to the southwest of the TG (Figure 6). The bounding faults of the TG are the Logya fault on the west and the Gamare fault on the east. The basin is tectonically bounded by the East Central Block to the east and the escarpment that is the edge of the MER to the west. The East Central Block is made up of several microplates that are separated by deep graben structures (Acton et al., 1991). The East Central Block has been rotated clockwise about ten degrees in the past 2 Ma because of the dextral shear between the Gulf of Aden propagator and the Red Sea propagator. However, the East Central Block has ceased rotation because of rifting within the TG (Acton et al., 2000). The main lithologies within and surrounding the TG are composed of Stratoid basalts that become younger in age towards the axis of the graben (Kidane et al., 2003; Lahitte et al., 2001). The Stratoid basalts have been dated around 30 Ma with the opening of the rift and large flood basalt episodes (Abbate et al., 1995). They make up the lower unit of the TG, with the deepest units being around 1500 meters in depth. There are two types of basalts that compose the Stratoid basalts within the TG, one that is enriched in light rare earth elements (LREE) and another that is depleted in LREE (Barrat et al., 2003). The cause of the two basalts is likely a result of a LREE depleted component of the Afar plume. However, isotopic ratios have shown that both the Tertiary and Quaternary basalts have a similar mantle source (Barrat et al., 2003). Additionally, along the edges occur Pleistocene rhyolites (Figure 7). However, the floor of the basin is composed of younger volcanic and lacustrine deposits (Lahitte et al.,

16

Figure 7. Geologic map and model of the Tendaho graben (Aquater, 1996). The A to A profile is shown below.

17

2001). The lacustrine sediments have been estimated to have a maximum thickness of 1600 meters based on drill data in the southern sections of the TG (Aquater, 1996). Additionally, there are several basalt flows encountered in several drill holes (Figure 8). The relief from the flanks to the bottom of the basin is only several hundred meters but the greater thickness of the lacustrine sediments suggests there is some type of structural control of the basins depth and this will be explored below in my gravity analysis. The sediment filling is topped by recent volcanoes deposits from the two volcanoes in the basin, Kurub and Damal Ale (Figure 6). The lava flows from the Kurub volcano have been dated as recent as 0.3 mya. However, the youngest volcanic in the TG are found along the Mando Hararo rift and been dated up to 0.3 mya. Absolute dating of the volcanics in the TG has suggested that the basin started to open about 1.8 mya (Acton et al., 1991). The Mando Hararo rift, which is one of the main structural features within the Afar depression, has open fissures and elongate blocks along the rift axis. The vertical throws of faults controlling the formation of the rift have been estimated to be around ten meters (Abbate et al., 1995). This is similar to those found on the graben flanks, which suggests that the region is influenced by some type of deep mechanism. The closely spaced throws on the faults suggest that there is a thin brittle layer over a shallow soft layer (Abbate et al., 1995). As a result of having a soft, possibly warm layer, there is abundant geothermal potential in the area. Northwest striking faults near the Kurub volcano are seen by aligned fumaroles, small hot springs and hydrothermal deposits. To the southwest, there is continued evidence of past and present geothermal activity. Tectonic studies in the region have shown that most faults have a dip slip

18

Figure 8. Stratigraphic columns of two drill holes in the TG associated with the Tendaho Geothermal Project (Battistelli et al., 2002). Both wells drill into the Stratoid basalts.

19

motion with an absence of a strike slip component that can be seen from slickenslides. However, there has been some strike slip evidence from offset by siliceous veins near the TG, which contradicts the dip slip motion found in nearby faults (Abbate et al., 1995). In the Gum Atmali area, dextral shear is seen in the extensional fractures. The northeastern flank of the rift has a discontinuous tectonic regime, that transitions into block-faulted structures within the main basin within the TG. Also, slickenslides near Serdo on the eastern edge of the TG indicate a dip slip movement. However, the Serdo Earthquake of 1969 had a focal mechanism showing dextral shear from the northeast. The variety of focal mechanisms in the TG indicates a complex seismic regime caused by the Afar plume and the surrounding rifting related propagators.

20

GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS

Main Ethiopian Rift and the Afar Depression Seismic Studies. There have been several geophysical investigations of the MER and the Afar Depression in order to determine the crustal and upper mantle structure of the MER and the Afar Depression. These include seismic refraction (e.g., Berckhemer, 1975; MacKenzie et al., 2006), broadband seismic (Walker et al., 2004, Kendall et al., 2005, and Gao et al., 2010), gravity (e.g., Makris et al., 1970; Searle and Gouin, 1972; Mahatsente et al., 1999, 2000; Jentzsch et al., 2000) and magnetic (Girdler, 1970; Courtillot, 1980; Lemma et al., 2010). The first seismic refraction study in the Afar was completed in 1972 by Berckhemer et al., (1975) who collected of five deep refraction profiles that were between 120 and 250 km long. The results show that the crust beneath the Ethiopian Plateau is consistent of continental crust with a thickness of 38 km (Figure 9). The velocity of the mantle was found to be between 7.3-7.6 km/s. The crustal thickness in the Afar ranges from 26 km in the south near Asaita to 16 km in the north near Assab, Eritrea. The majority of the crust has a velocity of 6.6-6.8 km. Berckhemer et al. (1975), Herbert and Langston (1985), and Makris and Ginzberg (1987) all found that the velocity of the crust in the upper 5 km is approximately 6.0 km/s in the Afar Depression. However, the results have a low resolution due to the wide spacing of the seismometers. The most complete seismic refraction study was completed by the EAGLE (Ethiopia-Afar Grand Lithospheric Experiment) project (Maguire et al., 2006). The profiles consisted of a one rift-axial that extended from the central MER to the Afar Depression and one cross-rift profile in the central MER. Additionally, a 2D array

21

Figure 9. Seismic refraction model (dashed and solid lines) along profile 4 of Berckhemer et al. (1975). This model illustrates a crustal model of Afar region. The numbers are velocities in km/sec.

22

of seismic recorders were placed in order to determine the 3D velocity structure of the volcanically active region in the central MER. Figure 10 shows that the velocity of the mid and upper crust ranges from 6.1 km/s beneath the rift flanks to 6.6 km/s along the axis of the rift (Maguire et al., 2006). Also, the thickness of crust varies from 40 km in the southern portion of the MER to 26 km beneath the Afar Depression. The large change in thickness suggests the transition of continental rifting to oceanic spreading (Maguire et al., 2006). Additionally, a high velocity lower crustal layer was found under the Ethiopian Plateau implying magmatic underplating.

Figure 10. Seismic refraction model along lines 1 and 2 of the EAGLE project (Maguire et al., 2006). Line 1 runs perpendicular to the MER, while Line 2 runs along the axis. Also, shows crustal thickness variations along the rift.

23

Keranen et al. (2004) used the 3D seismic station coverage within the central MER and seismic tomography to construct a 3D velocity structure of the upper crust (Figure 11). They found that high velocity zones underlie each of the tectonically active magmatic segments that represent solidified intruded igneous material formed during volcanic events. They implied that these magmatic segments are the zones of future oceanic crustal regions. A recent tomographic study by Debayle et al. (2005) shows seismic shear wave velocity variations within the upper mantle of the MER and Afar region (Figure 12). The model was constructed from 9000 Rayleigh waveforms recorded at 250 stations from the areas earthquakes. The model shows diffuse low velocity zones beneath the Afar depression and the Ethiopian plateaus. In addition to seismic tomography studies, shear wave splitting studies in the MER and the Afar Depression has shown that seismic anisotropy may be due to Precambrian sutures or vertical magmatic dikes (Barruol and Hoffmann, 1999; Barruol and Ben Ismail, 2001; Gashawbeza et al., 2004; Walker et al., 2004; Kendall et al., 2005). However, Gao et al. (2010) conducted a study that analyzed teleseismic data for shear wave splitting using all the available broadband seismic data recorded in the Afar Depression, MER, and Ethiopian Plateau. Their study used over 450 measurements that showed insignificant azimuthal variations over the Ethiopian Plateau and in the MER. These values showed MER parallel fast directions with a single layer of anisotropy (Figure 13). The values of the 150 stations in the Afar Depression showed an azimuthal dependence of splitting parameters with a /2 periodicity which can be explained by a two layers of anisotropy (Gao et al., 2010). The top layer is characterized

24

Figure 11. A velocity slice at 10 km depth of a 3D seismic tomographic model (Keranen et al., 2004). The red areas represent high velocity zones under the magmatic segments. Gray dotted lines represent the boundaries of the MER, solid grey lines represent the boundaries of the magmatic segments and diamonds represent volcanic centers. NMERNorthern Main Ethiopian Rift, FD-Fantale magmatic segment, BMS-Bosetti magmatic segment, GTMS- GademsaTullu Moye magmatic segment.

25

Figure 12. Tomographic model from the multimode surface wave study (Debayle et al., 2005). Map shows the 3D models at depths of 75, 100, and 125 km.

26

Figure 13. Shear wave splitting results showing two slices of the crust at 50 and 300 km (Gao et al., 2010). Both maps show a general NE directed flow of anisotropy in the asthenosphere. The blue dotted line represents the outline of the Main Ethiopia Rift and the violet line is the outline of the Red Sea. Red areas represent regions with lower shear wave velocities. 27

by a relatively small (0.65 s) splitting delay time and a WNW fast direction that can be attributed to magmatic dikes within the lithosphere, and the lower layer has a larger (2.0 s) delay time and a NE fast direction (Gao et al., 2010). The study predicted a depth of 300 km for the source of anisotropy and a NE directed flow based on spatial coherency of the splitting (Figure 13).

Gravity and Magnetic Studies The gravity fields of the MER and Afar Depression have been studied since the 1960s. The first investigations by Gouin and Mohr (1964) and Mohr and Rogers (1966) were undertaken to find the general crustal structure of Ethiopia. The first gravity survey in the Afar Depression was completed by Makris et al. (1975), who recorded 4000 gravity stations and produced a Bouguer gravity anomaly map of the region. They showed that the lowest Bouguer gravity anomaly of approximately -260 mGal was located along the escarpment bounding the Afar Depression. While, the largest Bouguer gravity anomaly was found along the Red Sea off the coast of Eritrea with a value of approximately 15 mGal. The Bouguer gravity field is roughly correlated with the topography and morphology of the Afar Depression. Other early studies such as Makris et al., (1970), Makris et al. (1972), and Searle and Gouin (1972) determined that the MER and the northern Afar region correlated to a regional Bouguer gravity minimum that is related to crustal attenuation, while the southern Afar region is less attenuated and may contain continental crust. Mahatsente et al. (1999, 2000) and Jentzsch et al. (2000) produced a Bouguer gravity anomaly map by merging all know datasets and further adding stations in the Afar region. These three studies performed 3D inversion of the gravity data to determine the crustal thickness and density variations within the crust. All 28

their results showed a zone of thinning along the MER that ranged from 31 km in the central rift to around 50 km along the rift margin. Mahatsente et al. (2000) concluded that the MER is underlain by continental crust due to the horizontal and vertical sizes of the intrusions along the MER. Tiberi et al. (2005) performed a 3D inversion and forward modeling of the regional gravity field to investigate the lateral variations of the crust and mantle. A large merged dataset was used for the study combining data from Hayward and Ebinger (1996) and the Ethiopian Geological Survey data. The modeling and inversion revealed a thinned crust of 23 km at the triple junction zone. Crustal variation is from 33km at the southern portion of the profile to 24 km beneath the southern portion of the Afar depression. Also, significant underplating is seen beneath collapsed caldera sequences in the MER (Figure 14). The EAGLE project also completed a gravity survey and analysis linked to a regional seismic survey in 2003 (Mickus et al., 2007). Mickus et al. (2007) found that the Bouguer gravity field is controlled by a regional gravity anomaly that increases in magnitude from the MER towards the southern Afar region (Figure 15). The Bouguer gravity map shows regional lows over the Ethiopian and Somalian plateau. Also, a high gravity is seen over the MER. However, the residual gravity anomaly shows gravity maxima correlating to the magmatic segments within the MER (Figure 16). Modeling based on the gravity data show that the lower crust in denser because of mafic material from extension, but the mantle is less dense due to a hotter thermal regime (Mickus et al., 2007) (Figure 17).

29

Figure 14. Forward model and predicted Bouguer gravity anomaly of a profile along the MER and southern Afar (Tiberi et al., 2005). The letters on the surface of the model indicate calderas or volcanoes along the transect. U represents the assumed region of crustal underplating. The dotted line in the model is the Moho depth determined from the gravity inversion.

30

Figure 15. Bouguer gravity anomaly map of the MER after the study (Mickus et al., 2007). Contour interval is 10 mGal. (+)-Gravity stations. Also shown are the magmatic segments and border faults shown in bolded lines.

31

Figure 16. Band-pass filtered gravity anomaly map where wavelengths between 25 and 250 km were passed. Contour interval is 10 mGal. Gravity stations are shown by +. The magmatic segments and border faults are shown as bolded lines.

32

Figure 17. Model and Bouguer gravity anomaly along a profile along the MER and southern Afar (Mickus et al., 2007). Aluto, Doseti, Kone and Fantale are volcanoes within magmatic centers. The numbers are the densities of the different bodies.

33

The first magnetic survey in the Afar Depression was completed by the US Magnet Project in 1966. The survey consisted of 8 profiles that trended NW-SE and 1 profile that ran perpendicular through the other 8 profiles. The spacing between profiles was approximately 90 km with the flight height increasing towards the southwest. The survey found that long wavelength anomalies are dominant over the Afar Depression. However, the survey did not cover the entire TG. This led Girdler (1970) to complete a survey with 75 lines and 15 tie lines. Based on these flights, linear magnetic anomalies were found in and near the TG, which is consistent to rifting processes. The first ground magnetic survey was completed in relation to the Tendaho Geothermal project (Aquater, 1996). At each gravity station in the Aquater project, a magnetic reading was taken as well. However, this survey was designed to run parallel and perpendicular to the strike of the TG, unlike the Girdler (1970) survey. The results of the profiles showed the same conclusions found by Girdler, that there are linear magnetic structures in the TG. Values ranged from 400 nT to -600nT, which is similar to values found in other oceanic spreading centers.

Tendaho Graben Geophysical Studies There have been limited geophysical investigations within the Tendaho Graben and most that have been performed have been related to geothermal exploration. The first detailed investigation was a gravity survey (between Tendaho, Serdo and Asayita) that was conducted by Searle and Gouin (1972) in an area that covered 1000 km. They created a Bouguer gravity anomaly map using an average crustal density of 2.67 gm/cm3. The main feature of this map was a decrease in Bouguer gravity field from -40 mGal in the north to -55 mGal along the Awash River in the south, that is mainly caused by in the

34

increase in sediment thickness in the Awash Basin. A few short wavelength Bouguer gravity anomalies were found along the southern edge of the surveyed area. A relative positive Bouguer gravity anomaly was located near Tendaho village and a negative Bouguer gravity anomaly near the Dubti is caused due to active faulting. The Italian company Aquater performed the first high density gravity survey of the Tendaho graben for the Tendaho geoelectric project (Aquater, 1996). The data set for their survey was more complete than the surveys conducted by Makris et al. (1970, 1972, and 1975) because of the use of off road vehicles. The survey area was centered on the Dubti geothermal field situated in the middle of the TG. Bouguer gravity values ranged from -65 mGal along the flanks of the graben and -45 mGal along the axis. A gravity maximum trends along the axis of the Mando Hararo Rift (Figure 14) is probably caused by dyking within the rift. A detailed gravity survey by Lemma and Hailu (2006) indicated that was long wavelength Bouguer gravity anomaly in the Ayerobera geothermal area and Bouguer gravity minimum over the Dubti plantation area. These contrasting Bouguer gravity anomalies were interpreted to indicate the presence of an ENE- trending regional crustal discontinuity. The Bouguer gravity maximum and magnetic minima in the Ayrobera and Gebelaytu plains may indicate the presence of intrusive body or is associated with deposition of hydrothermal minerals on the volcanic rocks (Lemma and Hailu, 2006). Aquater (1996b) has also collected magnetic data in conjunction with their gravity data collection and produced a total field magnetic map that shows a general NW-SE magnetic anomaly. The anomaly extends from northwest to southeast following the

35

Tendaho graben axis with minor anomaly interruptions attributed to near surface in homogeneities. This data is discussed in the magnetic anomaly section. An electrical survey by Oluma et al. (1996) consisted of Schlumberger array soundings. The electrical resistivity data were collected at three well sites (TD1, TD2, TD4). They created an electrical map based on a current electrode separation of 500m that indicated a prominent low resistivity anomaly with deeper parts in the SE section of the survey area. The result of electrical resistivity map for current electrode spacing of 1000 m indicated a narrow NE elongation of the low resistivity zone. This low electrical resistivity anomaly is along dominant regional trend, i.e., NW and NE, and is interpreted to along major structures controlling the flow of hot geothermal fluids.

36

GRAVITY DATA ANALYSIS

The majority of the gravity data for this study (Figure 18) were obtained from the Italian geothermal company, Aquater, which collected detailed gravity data for geothermal exploration in the Tendaho graben. Additional gravity data were obtained from the National Geospatial and Imaging Agency (NGA), the National Geophysical Data Center (marine data) the Ethiopian Geological Survey, and a survey by Kevin Mickus who collected data in 2008. The above data were combined with gravity points taken by the author during the field season of 2009, which collected 81 closely spaced data points. The above data sets were merged together to create a master set of nearly 24,000 gravity values that were used for the analysis of the graben and the surrounding region including the Afar Depression, the Red Sea and the edges of the Ethiopian and Somalian Plateaux (Figure 18). The most important gravity data for this study were the data from the Aquater survey which had data spacing between a and km, while the data obtained by the author and those obtained in 2008, were spaced between and 1 km depending on the targeted structures in the study area. The remaining data have spacing between 1 and 20 km, which makes for detailed analyzes difficult outside the region of the southern Tendaho Graben. The new data were acquired during December 2009 using a Lacoste and Romberg model G gravity meter and a Topcon GB-1000 dual frequency GPS unit. At each station, the field data collected included: 1) multiple observed gravity readings to increase accuracy; 2) geographic location of the station including latitude, longitude and elevation,

37

Figure 18. Gravity stations (+) in the study area including Afar, Djibouti, the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden and the edges of the Ethiopian and Somalian Plateaux. The bolded lines represent country boundaries.

38

3) date and time; and 4) terrain variations surrounding the station. A local base station was established at the kitchen within the Aquater Geothermal camp to correct for instrumental drift in the town of Semera. A regional absolute gravity base station is on the southern edge of Semera and was used to tie our data into the 1971 International Gravity Standardization Net. This was done in order to merge our data into the previously collected data. The Semera absolute gravity base station was established by Cindy Ebinger who tied it to the absolute gravity station at the Geophysical Observatory at the University of Addis Ababa. Gravity meters produce data in meter units and are not a direct measurement of the gravitational acceleration. To determine the gravity value in mGals, the meter reading is multiplied by an instrumental calibration factor. The instrumental calibration factor depends on the type of gravity meter as each meter has its own set of meter constants. The corrected gravity data must be tied to an absolute gravity base station, to make the data universal and thus can be merged with other gravity data. This is done by comparing the gravity values at your local base station versus an absolute base station. The difference is either subtracted or added to the rest of the gravity points in the data set. Since the metal springs in the gravity meter are not truly elastic, they begin to creep over time, resulting in an apparent change in gravity, when there is really not any change in the gravity reading. To correct for this instrumental drift, the difference between successive measurements at the base station are plotted on a graph versus time to produce a drift curve showing the change of gravity during a given time period. The latitude, longitude and ellipsoidal elevation of each gravity station were obtained using a dual frequency GPS unit. At each gravity station, GPS data were

39

collected for 15 minutes using static data collection. These data were then post-processed to remove atmospheric effects using a GPS base station at Serdo maintained by Eric Calais from Purdue University. The resulting horizontal and vertical resolution varied between 0.5 and 2 meters. The ellipsoidal elevations were transformed to geoidal elevations using a geoid of Ethiopia provided by NGA. The observed gravity values are corrected by subtracting the difference in the values at a particular time on the drift curve compared to the initial value taken at a local base station. Large instrumental drift curves (e.g., 1 mGal/hr) are unusual, so a minimal drift (0.05 mGal/hr) is commonly expected for a day in the field. Using the International Gravity formula (Morelli, 1976), the gravity data are corrected for the Earths shape and rotation with is mainly a function of latitude. Since the Earth is an oblate spheroid that bulges at the equator and is not a true sphere, lower latitudes have higher gravity readings. The Free-air correction is used to correct for a reduction in the magnitude of gravity with an increase of the height above the geoid. Therefore, the Free-air correction takes the difference between gravity at sea level and the particular height of your gravity point. This correction is the reason for the use of a dual frequency GPS system in order to collect accurate elevation data. The Bouguer correction is used to account for rock mass between the gravity station and sea level. An infinite slab of rock with a thickness of the elevation about the geoid, is assigned a density, typically 2.67 g/cm^3. However, the density value can change if the area is highly influenced by denser or lighter rocks. Terrain corrections were calculated using 1 km digital elevation models (DEM) and the method of Nagy (1966). The resultant terrain corrections varied between 0.0 and

40

22 mGals for the Tendaho graben and surrounding regions. These values were added to the Bouguer gravity anomaly values in order to obtain complete Bouguer gravity anomalies. These values were used in all subsequent interpretations. The complete Bouguer gravity values were gridded using the minimum curvature technique (Briggs, 1976) with gridding intervals of 2 km for regional gravity maps +0.5 kim for RG maps. Then the resultant grids were contoured at an interval of 10 mGals in order to produce a complete Bouguer gravity anomaly map (Figures 19, 20, and 21). Gravity Data Interpretation The main end-product of gravity data reduction is the complete Bouguer gravity anomaly, which should correlate only with lateral variations in density within the Earth and which are of most interest to applied geophysicists and geologists (Reynolds, 1997). The variation of the Bouguer gravity anomalies should reflect the lateral variation in the density such that a high density feature in a lower density medium should give rise to a positive Bouguer gravity anomaly. Conversely, a low density feature in a higher density medium should result in a negative Bouguer gravity anomaly (Reynolds, 1997). There may be a gentle trend in the Bouguer gravity field, reflecting a long wavelength gravity anomaly attritutable to deep-seated crustal features; this is known as a regional anomaly. Shorter wavelength anomalies arising from shallower geological features may be superimposed on the regional gravity anomaly, and it is these anomalies that are often to be isolated for further analysis (Reynolds, 1997). A separation between the regional gravity anomaly and the Bouguer gravity anomaly will create a residual gravity anomaly, which is usually the anomaly that one is interested in interpreting.

41

Figure 19. Complete Bouguer gravity anomaly map of the study area including the Afar Depression. The contour interval is 10 mGal. Bolded numbers represent anomalies discussed in the text.

42

Figure 20. Bouguer gravity anomaly map of the Tendaho Graben. Contour interval is 10 mGals. Bolded numbers represent anomalies discussed in the text.

43

Figure 21. Bouguer gravity anomaly map of the Tendaho graben. + are the locations of gravity stations. Contour interval is 10 mGal. Bolded numbers represent anomalies discussed in the text.

44

To interpret Bouguer gravity data, anomaly maps are produced that show the variations between gravity values. Bouguer gravity anomalies can be enhanced to show small scale gravitational differences through techniques such as wavelength filtering (Peeples et al., 1986), polynomial trend surfaces (Lance, 1982), edge enhancements, and isostatic residual anomalies. These techniques are used to qualitatively interpret both the regional and residual Bouguer gravity anomalies. However, these techniques are based on mathematical interpretation of the data, and anomalies may be created that are not related to actual density contrasts (Ulrych, 1968). A simple technique in interpreting gravity data is comparing the Bouguer gravity anomaly map to a geological map. For example, the geological map of the TG (Figure 7) shows a strong correlation to the Bouguer gravity anomaly map (Figure 20). For example, young volcanic in the graben produces a high Bouguer gravity value (anomaly 1) while, the flanks of the graben correspond to a low Bouguer gravity value. Additionally, high-pass wavelength filtering of the Bouguer gravity data, which removes the long wavelength anomalies, can be used to enhance shallow features in the basin. The regional gravity anomaly map of the Afar Depression was filtered at wavelengths between 70 to 2500 km (Figure 22). However, the regional map of the TG was filtered between 20 to 1000 km because of the smaller scale anomalies (Figure 23). As a first step in my analysis, a Bouguer gravity anomaly map was constructed for the entire Afar depression using a Bouguer reduction density of 2.670 g/cm3 and sea level as a datum (Figure 19). The newly acquired gravity data have allowed this map to show classic rift features better than previous maps (Mahatsente et al., (1999, 2000),

45

Figure 22. Filtered gravity anomaly map of the Afar region. Wavelengths were passed at 70 to 2500 km. Contour interval is 10 mGal. Bolded numbers represent anomalies discussed in the text. Bolded lines represent country boundaries.

46

Figure 23. Filtered gravity anomaly map of the Tendaho Graben. Wavelengths were passed at 20 to 1000 km. Contour interval is 10 mGal. Bolded numbers represent anomalies discussed in the text. Bolded line is the Ethiopia-Djibouti border.

47

Jentzsch et al. (2000) and Tiberi et al. (2005). However, the white areas are due to lack of data in Somalia and the Arabian Peninsula. The areas bounding the Afar depression are associated with Bouguer gravity values that average approximately -220 mGal (anomalies 1 and 2) which separate the anomalies within the Afar depression and the broad minima related to the Ethiopian escarpment. The Ethiopian plateau and Somalian plateau are indicated by relatively gravity minima (anomalies 1 and 2) on the western and southern portion of the map, respectively. The low amplitude Bouguer gravity values are due to significantly thicker crust than in the Afar depression as shown by several seismic studies (Berckhemer, 1975; MacKenzie et al., 2005; Maguire et al., 2006). The steep Bouguer gravity gradients transition the Ethiopian and Somalian plateaus into the Afar depression. The relatively high amplitude Bouguer gravity anomalies are due to thinning of the crust as shown by seismic refraction (Berckhemer, 1975; MacKenzie et al., 2006) and tomographic studies (Keraren et al., 2004; Debayle et al., 2005). High amplitude Bouguer gravity gradients and a relative gravity maximum occur along the MER found to the southeast of the Afar triangle (anomaly 3). This anomaly continues south to the central MER (Mickus et al., 2007) and represents thinner crust and/or igneous intrusions in the upper crust. The MER Bouguer gravity values ranges from -150 to -100 mGal. Within the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden regions, the gravity field is characterized by regional Free-air gravity maxima with an average value of 10 mGal. These areas are indicated by orange and red colors on the gravity anomaly map (anomalies 4 and 5, Figure 19). These anomalies are due to a combination of crustal thinning within the rift

48

margin and topographic highs associated with the rifting. The extension of the Gulf of Aden rift onto land can be seen at anomaly 6, which is associated with the Tadjoura rift in Djibouti (Manighetti et al., 1998). The rift is associated with a gravity minimum due to the rift valley and extends into Djibouti until label 7 where gravity maxima within Djibouti overprint the rift anomaly. This implies the major rifting features extend only a few kilometers into Djibouti and does not meet at one point with the Red Sea propagator. The majority of the Afar depression is characterized by average Bouguer gravity anomalies of approximately -75 mGal (Figure 19) and is a regional gravity maximum compared to the Ethiopian and Somalian Plateaux. However, there are several maxima where the Red Sea (anomaly 8) and Gulf of Aden (anomaly 7) propagators come on land. Bouguer gravity values over the propagators range from -40 to -10 mGal, while the Red Sea propagator is associated with relatively higher values than the Gulf of Aden propagator. The maxima are probably caused by thinner crust caused by the onset of oceanic spreading. The rifting has not created large scale grabens that produce gravity minima as seen in the Red Sea. These two maxima do not intersect which indicates that Afar triple junction does not meet at one point but is dispersed throughout the region between the two ends of the gravity maxima. The other prominent gravity anomaly in Afar is the region bounded by the Red Sea propagator and the Red Sea. Here, the Danakil block is associated with a gravity minimum (anomaly 9) with an average Bouguer gravity anomaly of -45 mGal which is due to thick Precambrian crust juxtaposed next to highly thinned oceanic crust (Eagles et al., 2002) and is a region that has so far escaped the rifting events in the rest of Afar.

49

In order to analyze the gravity anomalies associated with the Tendaho graben which lies between 40 43 degrees E and 10 -13 degrees N., a smaller scale Bouguer gravity anomaly map was created (Figure 20). This map shows that the TG is associated with a relative gravity maximum (anomaly 1) that trends NW-SE in the center of the graben (Figure 20). This high, which I will show in the modeling section, is probably caused the denser mafic material intruding from mantle in the rift center. The TG is bounded by a broad Bouguer gravity minimum (anomaly 2) on the western flanks due to thicker crust along the graben escarpment. While, a Bouguer gravity maximum (anomaly 3) is along the eastern flanks of the graben may be caused by thinned crust or additional dense mafic in a detailed gravity survey was completed within the southern section of the TG near Semera in order to evaluate the geothermal potential of the region and the structure of the graben. Figure 21 shows that this section of the TG is associated with a series of short wavelength maxima superimposed on a Bouguer gravity minimum. The largest amplitude maxima are associated with two volcanoes, Karub (anomaly 1) and Damal (anomaly 2). Longer wavelength and relative positive Bouguer gravity anomalies (anomaly 3) are found in the northwestern portion of the TG, which are caused by intrusion of mafic material. The low amplitude Bouguer gravity anomalies (anomaly 4) within the Beyhaile plain are due increases in thickness of the graben-fill sediments (mostly lacustrine) and to the attenuation of the mafic dyking seen to the north. The highest amplitude Bouguer gravity maximum (anomaly 5) on the western portion of the Beyhaile plain is associated with hydrothermal minerals and activity (Lemma et al., 2010).

50

The short wavelength Bouguer maxima and minima (anomaly 6, Figure 21) near Serdo are due to rhyolites (minima) and basalts (maxima) in the extrusive complexes along the margins of the graben. The area near the Dubti plantation is associated with lower amplitude Bouguer gravity anomalies (anomaly 7) because of the intrusive and thicker low density sediments above thin layer of basalts erupted from Karub. The thickness of sediments increases to towards the southeast as this can be seen in the decrease in the Bouguer gravity values. Residual Gravity Anomalies The main objective of gravity anomaly enhancement is to produce a map with anomalies that are related to features of interest, which are called residual gravity anomalies. By creating residual gravity anomalies by removing (or enhancing) wavelengths certain sizes by wavelength, anomalies on the Bouguer gravity anomaly map are seen much clearer on the filtered or residual gravity anomaly map. There are no set combinations of wavelengths that define a residual gravity anomaly map so commonly a number of filtered gravity maps are constructed. Then, the user will choose which map best illustrates the features they are interested in interpreting. At first glance, most filtered gravity anomaly maps are similar to the Bouguer gravity anomaly map with certain features (usually shorter wavelength anomalies) enhanced and more easily interpretable. As can be seen in Figure 22 where wavelengths between 70 to 2500 km were passed (or enhanced), the Ethiopian and Somalian plateaus (anomalies 1 and 2) are seen clearly as relative minima on the western and southeastern portions of the map. Also, the general shape of the gravity anomaly due to the crustal thinning in the Afar depression is similar in shape to the Bouguer gravity anomaly map

51

(Figure 19). However, the MER is enhanced and showing a short wavelength regional high trending in a SW-NE direction (anomaly 3). This anomaly has been shown in the MER to the south by Mickus et al. (2007) who interprets this anomaly to shallow intrusion of mafic material into the upper crust related to the magmatic segments (Ebinger and Casey, 2001). The shorter wavelength anomalies due to the shallow, small-scale structures (e.g., grabens, dyking) have been removed by the choice of wavelengths. Both the Gulf of Aden and Red Sea propagators are seen more clearly by regional highs (anomalies 4 and 5, respectively) on Figure 22. The Gulf of Aden propagator can be traced coming onto to land near Djibouti and trending due west until reaching the central Afar. However, this anomaly is not continuous and does not coincide with the Tadjoura Rift and the gravity anomalies (minima related to rift basins) seen on the Bouguer gravity anomaly map (Figure 19) suggesting that anomaly 4 may be due to other mafic intrusions or that the Gulf of Aden propagator is wider than the surface expression of the Tadjoura Rift. While, the Red Sea propagator comes onto land trending N-S and switching to a NW-SE trend at approximately 13.7 N, which is in a similar direction to structures found in the Tendaho Graben (Beyene and Abdelsalam, 2005). Though the Afar depression is the location of the Afar triple junction caused by three rift systems, the filtered gravity anomaly map shows clearly that there is not one intersection point. Figure 23 is a filtered gravity anomaly map where wavelengths between 20 and 1000 km are passed and emphasizes the gravity field due to the TG. The Tendaho Graben is clearly seen by the relative high on the western portion of the map due the mafic dyking within the TG (anomaly 1). Also, the MER is clearly seen trending NE and

52

intersecting the TG on the southwestern portion of the map (anomaly 2). The two relative gravity minima (anomalies 3 and 4) are seen more clearly than on the Bouguer gravity anomaly map (Figure 19). The gravity maximum separating these two regions is enhanced and corresponds with the geothermal activity at Ayrobera.

Gravity Data Modeling The above discussion of the gravity anomaly maps, showed that the anomalies are caused by a variety of sources related to the formation of the Afar depression and TG. By only qualitatively interpreted the sources of these anomaly maps, one may misinterpret the location and geometry of the sources. To make the interpretation of the gravity data more quanitative, three gravity models were constructed in the southern sections of the TG where the most data are abundant and some constraints (e.g., drillholes) are available. The three profiles (A, B, and C on Figure 24) were selected across the TG, two running perpendicular across the basin (profiles A and B (Figure 25 and Figure 26), and the other one (profile C (Figure 27) trending along the axis of the TG. The other profile (profile D, Figure 28) was modeled by Mickus et al. (2010) and follows the main road across the TG and contains the most detailed gravity data. The models were determined using the GMSYS software which computes the gravitational attraction of multiple two and one-half dimensional polygonally-shaped bodies with finite strike lengths. The gravitational attractions due to each body were calculated using the gravity station elevations and the gravitational attraction due to all the bodies were added to together to determine the total gravitational attraction due to entire model. This calculated gravity anomaly was then compared to the observed complete Bouguer gravity anomaly data. When the difference between the observed 53

Figure 24. Location of the profiles used for the gravity modeling of the TG. Each profile is labeled with corresponding letter (A,B,C, and D). The colors and contour interval are the same as Figure 21.

54

Figure 25. Two and one-half dimensional model along Profile A. The solid line is the calculated gravity anomaly due to the model and the squares are the observed gravity anomalies. Bodies include: Lacustrine sediments-light green, young basalts-dark green, Stratoid basalts-blue, basement-purple, mafic intrusions-red. These bodies are the same for profiles B and C.

55

Figure 26. Two and one-half dimensional model along Profile B. The solid line is the calculated gravity anomaly due to the model and the squares are the observed gravity anomalies.

56

Figure 27. Two and one-half dimensional model along Profile C that runs along the graben axis. The solid line is the calculated gravity anomaly due to the model and the squares are the observed gravity anomalies.

57

Figure 28. Two and one-half dimensional model along Profile D. Densities of the bodies in g/cc are labeled on the model. After Mickus et al. (2010) Green-Basement, BrownStratoid, Yellow-Lacustrine Deposits, Gray-Rhyolite, Orange- Mafic body, Pink- Hot Material, Red and Violet- Post Stratoid Basalts. Red line is the calculated gravity anomaly due to the model and the black line is the observed gravity anomaly.

58

complete Bouguer gravity and calculated gravity data was less than 10 percent, the match was considered sufficient. One problem with contructing a gravity model in most locations and in the TG particularly, is the lack of constraints. Subsurface constraints may include drillhole data (depths to geologic units and densities), surface geological mapping, seismic reflection and/or refraction models, and electromagnetic models. Surface geological studies and maps indicates that the basin walls are composed entirely of the Afar Stratoid Series (Abbate et al., 1995). While the basin is filled with lacustrine, alluvial deposits, and younger basalt flows (Lahitte et al., 2001). The only major subsurface constraints come from a project by Aquater which provided limited drillhole data in the TG where four geothermal wells were drilled withint the TG. Three of the four wells were placed inside of the Dubti Cotton Plantation. Three of the wells were drilled into the Afar Stratoids, while the other well was a shallow test well. There was no density information of the major rock units and the starting densities were based on average densities for each rock type (Telford et al., 1988). Additionally, the starting densities were based on a gravity model (profile D) by Mickus et al. (2010). The starting densities were varied by 10 percent during the modeling process. Additionally, based on geological mapping and the drill hole data, five major layers were indentified including lacustrine sediments (light green), young volcanics (dark green), Afar Stratoid basalts (light blue), hot dense mantle material (red) and the basement (dark blue). The final models (Figures 25 through 28) show one possible solution to the oberved complete Bouguer gravity anomalies. These models are reasonable based on the

59

limited constraints and geometries, thicknesses, and depth are reasonable based on the limited geological information (Lahitte et al., 2001, Abbate et al., 1995). The densities of layers in g/cc are: mafic body (2.88); Afar Stratoid basalts (2.75); post Stratoid basalts (2.75); lacustrine/alluvial sediments (2.2); basement (2.72). The basement of the TG was given a density of 2.72 g/cc because the density of the basement rocks (either Precambrian or Mesozoic rock units) are not known. The deepest drill hole only penetrated the Afar Stratoid basalts in the TG. The gravity models show several layers with a varying densities from 2.20-2.88 g/cc. The models assume that the anomalies are caused by upper crustal density variations as the profiles are too short to be affected by lower crustal and/or mantle density variations. The models represent one possible solution based on geophysical constraints. However, more constraints will provide a more accurate solution. The Afar Stratoid basalts, which are the most common exposed lithology within the TG, are located beneath the lacustrine sediments and along the edges of the TG and are modelled directly above the basement lithologies which are of an unknown type. Their thickness ranges from 500-1000 meters which is acceptable due to the flood basalts that covered the area nearly 30 Mya. Also, the thickness I used are based on exposures in nearby grabens (e.g., Dobi) which have thicker exposures of the basalts. Even though the exposed Strataoid basalts are nearly horizontal in most regions, I modeled them with some structure (e.g, model A and B, Figures 25 and 26). These structures were needed into order to fit the observed gravity anomalies. The structures were caused by the extensional faulting that formed the TG and resulted in the Stratoid basalts being displaced deeper within the graben. The post Stratoid basalts are given the same density

60

value as the Afar Stratoid basalts. However, they are represented as a separate unit in my models because their age corresponds to the opening of the TG. The TG is mainly overlain by a layer composed primarily of lacustrine and aeolian deposits that range from 1500-2000 meters thick and this thickness agrees with the few deep drill holes in the study area. However, Figures 25 and 26 indicate that the basin thickens towards the south as the amplitude of the gravity minima increases from the modeled region. The low denstiy layer results in a large density contrast with the surrounding Stratoid basalts producing gravity minimum over most of the TG. The Tendaho graben has been modeled as having a high denstiy mafic body near its center surrounded by lower density basalts, volcanics, and lacustrine deposits (Figure 25 through 28). This body was first modeled by Mickus et al. (2010) as shown in Model D (Figure 28). The body is thought to represent mafic dikes originating from the mantle and Mickus et al. (2010) showed additionally that there may be a lower density portion of the dike that is caused by high heat flow values. These two bodies are nonunique and were originally modeled in conjunction with magnetic data modeling (Mickus et al., 2010). I did not put the lower density body in my mafic dyking as the gravity data did not require such a body and there was no outside constraints that required such a body. Models A and B (Figures 25 and 26) show that the high density mafic body is approximately 6-8 km wide and has its top 1.5 km below the surface. This model may represent deep-seated mafic dyking, which results in the abundance of geothermal activity and could be the source of the recent volcanic activity. This assumption is supported by the gravity maxima over the rift axis on the filtered gravity anomaly map (Figure 23) and drillhole data that indicated 1.5 km thickness of the top unit. The two

61

dense bodies in profile A-A are associated with the central mafic body. Each body is less than 250 meters wide; however, its top is only 1 km from the surface. These bodies coincide with the Dubti fault, as well as hot springs and thermal anomalies. Model C (Figure 27) indicates that the mafic dyking is continuous along the axis of the southern portion of the TG. However due to the lack of gravity data, I could not determine how far to north or south, this high density body continued. Forward modelling (Figure 14) by Mickus et al., (2010) corresponds to profile D (Figure 28). This model was used the starting models for the densities and basin structure of models A-C. Additionally, this model was constrained by magnetic modeling (Mickus et al., 2010) which necessitated the insertion of a lower density region within the mafic dyking region. Additionally, the thin, horizontal basaltic bodies within the lacustrine sediments where not required by the gravity data but were required by the magnetic data modeling. Additionally, drill holes in the region did encounter several thin basaltic layers within the lacustrine sediments. The gravity high on this model is again interpreted as a mafic body, though wider on profile D. Rhyolites which outcrop along the border of the TG are seen bounding the model with a density of 2.35 g/cc, which do not occur on either profile A or B. The small scale thickness variations of the lacustrine sediments are thought to be caused by extensional faulting related to the formation of the TG.

62

MAGNETIC DATA ANALYSIS The magnetic data were obtained from Aquater who collected total-field magnetic data in 1980. A total of 2042 stations were measured with a proton precession magnetometer. The data was input into the Oasis Montaj program and gridded using minimum curvature. The grid size was 10 km and the contour interval was 15 nT. Once the data was gridded, Oasis Montaj generated an anomaly map of the magnetic data. The map is useful in showing structures within the basin. The magnetic total field anomaly map (Figure 29) shows clearly the structure of the rift axis. The problem with interpreting magnetic data within the TG is that it is completely surrounded by the Stratoid basalts and the Afar is located near the magnetic equator. Magnetic anomalies are usually caused by variations in magnetite in a rock and this can be extremely useful in delineating basement structures beneath sedimentary basins (e.g., Mickus et al., 1988). However, when the basement is basalt and there are basalt outcrops within the basin, the anomalies are usually caused by variations of magnetite within the basalts and may not provide a lot of information about structures in the region. Additionally, since the TG is near the magnetic equator, the data are difficult to interpret since positive magnetic anomalies are caused by a lack of magnetite and rocks with a higher magnetite content cause negative anomalies. This is the opposite of what occurs in northern latitude. Despite these limitations, I will show that the magnetic data are useful in determining tectonic information of the TG. The TG is associated with a large amplitude minimum that trends NW-SE and is bounded by relative magnetic highs (Figure 29). As mentioned above, typically in the northern hemisphere, the rift axis would be represented by a magnetic maximum,

63

Figure 29. Total field magnetic anomaly map of the TG. Bolded numbers represent anomalies discussed in the text. Blank regions are areas with no data. Units are gammas.

however, the TG is located at lower latitudes and the resulting inducing field creates a magnetic minimum. I interpret this minimum to be caused by normal polarity basaltic material recently formed (Bridges et al., 2010). Conversely, the linear magnetic maxima (anomalies 1 and 2, Figure 29) that are parallel to the magnetic minimum are interpreted to be caused by reverse polarity segments. The segments consist of older basalts (Bridges et al., 2010). The highest amplitude magnetic minimum is seen from the

64

volcanic center Damal (anomaly 3) and is probably caused by a thicker unit of magnetiterich igneous rocks. There are a number of techniques that can be used to interpret and enhance magnetic and are in general the same as for gravity data. Because I am interpreting the anomalies in the magnetic data to be mainly caused by variations in the polarity of the basaltic rocks, I will not apply wavelength filtering of the data. However, one method that is commonly used in magnetic data interpretation is three-dimensional Euler deconvolution (Reynolds, 1997). This technique uses the gradients of the magnetic field in three-dimensions to differentiate the horizontal boundaries of magnetic bodies and depth to source. Eulers equation relates the Earths magnetic field and it gradient components (dX, dY, and dZ) to the degree of homogeneity. Homogeneity for geological purposes is expressed as a structural index ranging from 0-3, with each value representing a different geological environment or geometry of the source body. I used a structural index of 1 for the TG since a structural index of 1 represents vertical dikes and based on the gravity modeling, there is widespread mafic dyking in the TG. The main advantage to Euler deconvolution is the no geological constraints or model is assumed prior to processing. This is useful in the case of the TG, because few geophysical studies and constraints are available for the region. In performing an Euler deconvolution, gradient components in the x, y, and z direction are determined. These components are useful in determining the lateral boundaries of magnetic bodies with the most useful of the components being the vertical derivative (dZ) (Reynolds, 1997). Figure 30 shows the vertical gradient and the approximate edges of the magnetic bodies. The higher gradients represent the boundaries

65

Figure 30. Vertical derivative magnetic anomaly map of the TG. Numbers represent anomalies discussed in the text. Blank areas represent regions without data. Units are gammas/km.

of the magnetic bodies. The main features are the small magnetic bodies (e.g., anomalies 1 and 2) within the rift axis and are probably caused by variations in magnetite within the Stratoid basalts. These anomalies represent the edges of active dyking along the rift axis. The linear magnetic anomalies related to polarity changes are also seen as in Figure 30

66

(anomalies 3 and 4). This dyking is supported by the previous gravity modeling (e.g., Figure 26). The Euler deconvolution method also provides depth estimation to the top of the magnetic bodies and can be used to obtain a general idea about the depth of sources. However, some of the depths that are estimated may not be valid because of geologic constraints. Since the gravity modeling (Figures 25 through 27) and drillhole constraints showed that most depths of the lacustrine sediments are less than 2km, depths greater than 3 km were eliminated. However, there were less than 10% of the total depths greater than 3 km. Figure 31 shows the depths determining using Euler deconvolution. Most of the depths are between 1 and 2 km, which agree with the gravity models. Additionally, the location of the depths, which are calculated at gradient maxima, can give an idea of structural trends in a region. Figure 31 shows a general NW-SE trend, which is expected given the magnetic analysis shown above. Other trends are probably caused by magnetite variations within the basalts and are not related to structures. Depths less than 1-2 km are probably interbedded basalts within the lacustrine deposits. Magnetic data can be modeled in a similar fashion as is done with gravity data. I did not perform such modeling as Bridges et al. (2010) constructed a series of magnetic models across the TG. Figure 32 shows the final forward model that is similar to the gravity model D (Figure 28) along the main road, has a ~10 km wide region along the axis of the graben exhibits normal polarity (Figure 32) causing a magnetic minimum.

67

Figure 31. Depth estimation map of the magnetic bodies within the TG determined using Euler deconvolution. The symbols indicate different depths to the top of magnetic bodies. The sources are dikes (structure index 1).

68

Figure 32. Two and one-half dimensional model of magnetic data. Densities of the bodies in g/cc are labeled on the models. After Bridges et al. (2010) Green-Basement, Brown-Stratoid, Yellow-Lacustrine Deposits, Orange- Mafic body, Pink- Hot Material, Red and Violet- Post Stratoid Basalts. Red line is the calculated gravity anomaly due to the model and the black line is the observed gravity anomaly.

69

Within the minimum is a short wavelength maximum that is modeled by a region of high flow lowering the effective magnetic susceptibility of the magnetite within the basalts. To each side of the minimum are larger shoulders of dominantly reverse polarity units causing magnetic maxima, similar as those seen on the magnetic anomaly map (Figure 29). A Bouguer gravity maximum coincides exactly with the magnetic minimum (Figure 29). The gravity maximum and magnetic minimum are likely due to the active dyking and/or concentrated high heat flow along the current ridge axis. The magnetic minimum, that follows the ridge axis, exhibits a narrow 2- 3 km zone of slightly elevated magnetic values indicative of higher crustal heat flow as mentioned above.

Discussion The above discussion of the Bouguer gravity and magnetic anomaly maps and models show that they mainly reflect Pleistocene tectonic regime and volcanic events that formed the Afar depression and the TG. The initial stages of the development of the EAR occurred around 30 million years ago in the Afar plateau (Hoffman, 1997) as the Afar plume released large basalt flows in this area (Hoffman, 1997). The TG began to open 1.8 Mya with eruptive fissures that emplace the Stratoid basalts (Acton et al., 2000). When the basin first formed, it opened at a rate of 1.6 cm/ yr and the once surface Stratoid basalts became the walls and basement of the TG. The basin was mainly formed by extensional forces as evidenced by with normal faults now parallel to walls of the TG and later these walls experienced a clockwise rotation (Beyene and Abdelsalam, 2005) due to the interaction with the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden propagators. Throughout the Pleistocene, the formation of the basin transitioned from tectonically controlled to magnetically controlled. However, further post Stratoid basalt eruptions occurred and

70

were interbedded within the basin fill. These events can be evidenced by my analysis of the gravity and magnetic fields within the TG. Bouguer gravity anomaly maps (Figures 29, 30, and 31) of the Afar Depression indicate a regional gravity maximum in comparison to the Ethiopian and Somalian plateaux. The maximum is due to a highly thinned crust with a thickness of 26 km compared to nearly 40 km thickness of the plateaux confirmed by seismic data (Maguire et al., 2006). This difference in thickness is due magmatic underplating beneath the Ethiopian plateau. The Bouguer gravity wavelength filtered maps (Figures 22 and 23) which represent density bodies due to crustal features indicate a deeper, denser structure throughout the center of the TG, which corresponds clearly to the Red Sea Propagator. However, the Gulf of Aden propagator does not terminate in the TG proving there is no single point that can be called the Afar triple junction. The gravity maxima in the TG are caused by the high density basalts released from the dyking and volcanic sequences that date back to the opening of the TG. The geochemistry of the basalts shows that there are two types of basalts in the TG, one associated with the Afar plume and the other associated with oceanic seafloor spreading. Initially, the basin was influenced by the Afar plume and basalts of reverse polarity were formed within the basin. The basalts show a change in polarity around 0.6 Mya from reverse to normal polarity. The magnetic anomaly maps (Figures 29 and 30) suggest a 6-8 wide body of normal polarity bounded by reversed polarity lithologies confirming the transition from continental rift to seafloor spreading.

71

Modeling of the gravity data indicates that the basin thickness ranges from 15002000 meters, thickening towards the southeast of the basin. The basin is bounded by normal faults that produce a graben. Additionally the extensional nature of the basins formation can be seen on the top of the Stratoid basalts where small scale highs and lows are interpreted as normal faults. A 6-8 wide mafic body associated with high heat flow lies underneath the basin fill. The high heat flow and low density layer above it provides a good medium for geothermal activity which is present in the TG. This mafic zone is composed of high magnetic susceptibility bodies with a center of higher heat flow as confirmed by magnetic mapping and modeling. Geochronological data combined with the gravity and magnetic modeling indicates that the basin opened nearly 1.8 Mya with a spreading rate of 1.6 cm/yr (Acton et al., 1991). Recent data suggests that the graben spreading rate is slowing (Bridges et al., 2010) and that the basin is transitioning from being tectonically controlled to magmatically controlled. Several models have been suggested proposed for the evolution of the TG (e.g., Thurmond et al., 2007; Acocella et al., 2008). Common to all models is the placement of the Stratoid and post Stratoid basalts. However, both Acocella (2008) and Thurmond (2007) disagree with the placement of the rhyolites along the border faults. Our proposed model suggests that rhyolites were deposited after the rift initiation of the TG rather than prior to the basin opening. This new work has provided more constraints and can explain the evolution more accurately. Figure 33 shows a new model on the formation of the TG. The Stratoid basalts were emplaced between 2.0-1.8 Mya (model A, Figure 25). Based on spreading rates derived from geochronologic data of the basalts, the TG opened around 1.8 Mya (Model B, Figure 26). The ryholites were emplaced around 1.3 Mya

72

along the escarpment faults (Model D, Figure 28). During its evolution, the basin deepened and post stratoid basalts were deposited on the young basin floor. The data indicate that the mafic dyking is continuous along the axis of the southern portion of the TG (Model C, Figure 27). This dyking led to the young volcanic emplaced along the basin floor during the remainder of the Pleistocene. The period continued with high deposition of Aeolian and lacustrine deposits interbedding with the young volcanics, which is confirmed by drill data (Aquater, 1996). At 0.8 Mya, accommodation of extension in the TG moved from the margins towards the center of the graben (Figure 29). At this time, the basalts in the TG were dominated by reversed polarity. However, the polarity transitioned to normal polarity and confirms the normal polarized mafic body at the basin axis. The present TG width of ~50 km is the result of both brittle deformation and magma emplacement. Dyking and geothermal activity is concentrated in the center of the graben following the Dubti fault as well as the Ayrobeara Geothermal field.

73

Figure 33. Illustration of the evolution of the Tendaho Graben (After Bridges et al., 2010). Brown- Afar Stratoid basalts, Red- Young volcanics, Yellow- Lacustrine Deposits, Purple- Post Stratoid basalts, Tan- Rhyolites.

74

CONCLUSIONS An analysis of the gravity and magnetic field of the Afar depression and the Tendaho Graben revealed the crustal structure of the region. The Tendaho graben is the largest basin within the Afar Depression and is located at triple junction of the East African, Red Sea and Gulf of Aden rifts. The region has undergone extensional forces and that has produced highly thinned crust and evidenced by seismic and gravity analyzes. Gravity data analyzed by a variety of anomaly maps and two-dimensional modeling supported by magnetic, geochemical, and geochronological data clearly show that the extension of the Red Sea propagator created a 6-8 km wide mafic body within the TG. Magnetic maps and modeling correspond with the mafic body at the rift axis and indicate that the body has normal polarity. However, dominantly reversed Stratoid basalts along the margins show a change in polarity that is dated at 0.8 Mya. The mafic body is understood to be the initial stage of magnetic striping that occurs in oceanic crust and thus indicates that oceanic spreading is occurring within a continental setting. The basin geometry supported by gravity data suggests that the TG has transitioned or is transitioning from a continental rift into an oceanic spreading center.

75

REFERENCES

Abbate, E., Passerini, P., and Zan, L., 1995, Strike-slip faults in a rift area: a transect in the Afar Triangle, East Africa: Tectonophysics, v. 241, p. 67-97. Acocella, V., Abebe, B., Korme, T., and Barberi, F., 2008, Structure of the Tendaho Graben and Manda Hararo Rift: Implications for the evolution of the southern Red Sea propagator in central Afar: Tectonics, v. 27, p. 1-17. Acton, G., Stein, S., and Engeln, J., 1991, Block rotation and continental extension in Afar: a comparison to oceanic microplate systems: Tectonics, v. 10, p. 501-526. Aquater, 1996, Tendaho Geothermal Project -final report, Volume 1, Aquater, p. 324. Aquater, 1996b, Tendaho Geothermal Project -final report, Volume 2, Aquater, p. 324. Ayalew, D., Ebinger, C., Bourdon, E., Wolfenden, E., Yirgu, G., and Grassineau, N., 2006, Temporal compositional variation of early syn-rift rhyolites along the western Red Sea margin and northern Main Ethiopian rift, In: Yirgu G., Ebinger C.J., Maguire P.K.H., (Eds.), The Afar Volcanic Province within the East African Rift System: Geological Society Special Publication Volume 259, Geological Society of London, p. 121-130. Barberi, F., Ferrara, G., Santacroce, R., Treuil, M., and Varet, J., 1975, A transitional basalt-pantellerite sequence of fractional crystallization, the Boina Centre (Afar Rift, Ethiopia): Journal of Petrology, v. 16, p. 22-56. Barrat, J., Joron, J., Taylor, R., Fourcade, S., Nesbitt, R., and Jahn, B., 2003, Geochemistry of basalts from Manda Hararo, Ethiopia: LREE-depleted basalts in central Afar: Lithos, v. 69, p. 1-13. Barruol, G., and Hoffmann, R., 1999, Upper mantle anisotropy beneath the Geoscope stations: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 104, p. 10757-10773. Barruol, G. and Ben-Ismail, W., 2001, Upper mantle anisotropy beneath the African IRIS and GEOSCOPE stations: Geophysical Journal International, v. 146, p. 549-561. Battistelli, A., Yiheyis, A., Calore, C., Ferragina, C., and Abatneh, W., 2002, Reservoir engineering assessment of Dubti geothermal field, Northern Tendaho Rift, Ethiopia: Geothermics, v. 31, p. 381-406.

76

Berckhemer, H., Baier, B., Bartelsen, H., Behle, A., Burkhardt, H., Gebrande, H., Makris, J., Menzel, H., and Vees, R., 1975, Deep Seisic soundings in the Afar region and on the highland of Ethiopia, In: Pilger, A., and Rosler, A., (Eds.), Afar Depression of Ethiopia, Proceedings of an International Symposium on the Afar Region and Rift Related Problems, Volume 1: Stuttgart, Germany, E. Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, p. 89-107. Beutel, E., van Wijk, J., Ebinger, C., Keir, D., and Agostini, A., 2010, Formation and stability of magmatic segments in the Main Ethiopian and Afar rifts: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 293, p. 225-235. Beyene, A., and Abdelsalam, M.G., 2005, Tectonics of the Afar Depression: A review and synthesis: Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 41, p. 41-59. Braile, L., Keller, G., Wendlandt, R., Morgan, P., and Khan, M., 1995, The East African rift system: Developments in Geotectonics, v. 25, p. 211-231. Bram K., 1975, Zum Aufbau der Kruste und des oberen Mantels im Bereich des westlichen Grabens des ostafrikanischen Grabensystems und im stlichen ZaireBecken. Ergebnisse einer Untersuchung der Raumwellen von Nah-Erdbeben: Geophysics at the Institute of Geophysics. Freiberg University Berlin, v. 4, p. 65. Bridges, D., Mickus, K., Gao, S., Abdelsalam, M., and Haro, W., 2010, Detailed magnetic study of the Red Sea propagator within Afar, Ethiopia: Implications for the transitioning from continental rifting to sea floor spreading: GSA NorthCentral/South-Central annual meeting, GSA Abstracts with Programs, v. 42. Briggs, T.C., 1976, Machine contouring using miniumum curvature: Geophysics, v. 39, 39-48. Brown, C., and Girdler, R., 1980, Interpretation of African gravity and its implication for the breakup of the continents: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 85, p. 64436455. Chorowitz, J. (2005), The East African Rift system: Journal of African Earth Science, v. 43, p. 379410. Corti, G., 2009, Continental rift evolution: From rift initiation to incipient break-up in the Main Ethiopian Rift, East Africa: Earth Science Reviews, v. 96, p. 1-53. Courtillot, V., Galdeano, A., and Mouel, J., 1980, Propogation of an accreting Plate Boundary: A discussion of new aeromagnetic data in the Gulf of Tadjurah and southern Afar: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 47, p. 144-160.

77

Debayle, E., Kennett, B., and Priestley, K., 2005, Global azimuthal seismic anisotropy and the unique plate-motion deformation of Australia: Nature, v. 433, p. 509-512. Eagles, G., Gloaguen, R., and Ebinger, C.J., 2002, Kinematics of the Dabakil Microplate: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 203, p. 607-620. Ebinger, C.J., 1989, Tectonic development and the western branch of the East African rift system: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 101, p. 885903. Ebinger, C., and Sleep, N., 1998, Cenozoic magmatism throughout East Africa resulting from the impact of a single plume: Nature, v. 395, p. 788791. Ebinger, C.J., and Casey, M., 2001, Continental breakup in magmatic provinces: An Ethiopian example: Geology, v. 29, p. 527-530. Gashawbeza, E.M., S.L. Klemperer, A.A. Nyblade, K.T. Walker, and K.M. Keranen, 2004. Shear-wave splitting in Ethiopia: Precambrian mantle anisotropy locally modified by Neogene rifting: Geophysical Research Letters, 31, L18602, Gao, S., Liu, K., and Abdelsalam M., 2010, Seismic anisotropy beneath the Afar Depression and adjacent areas: Implications for mantle flow: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 115, p. 1-15. Girdler, R.W., 1970, An aeromagnetic survey of the junction of the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Ethiopian rifts-A preliminary report: Transactions of the Royal Society of London, v. 267, p. 49-74. Gouin, P., and Mohr, P., 1964, Gravity traverses in Ethiopia: Bulletin of the Geophysical Observatory Addis Ababa, v. 7, p. 339358. Hayward, N.J., and Ebinger, C.J., 1996, Variations in the along-axis segmentation of the Afar Rift system: Tectonics, v. 15, p. 244-257. Herbert, L. and Langston, C., 1985, Crustal thickness estimate at AAE and NAI using teleseismic P-wave conversions: Tectonophysics, v. 3, p. 299-327. Hoffman, C., Courtillot, V., Feraud, G., Rochette, P., Yirgu, G., Ketefo, E., and Pik, R., 1997, Timing of the Ethiopian flood basalt event and implications from plume birth and global change: Nature, v. 389, p. 838-841. Jentzsch, G., Mahatsente, R., Jahr, T., 2000, Three-dimensional inversion of gravity data from the main Ethiopian rift: Physics and Chemistry of the Earth (A), v. 25, p. 365373.

78

Kampunzu, A., Akanyang, P., Mapeo, R., Modie, B., and Wendorif, M., 1998, Geochemistry and tectonic significance of the Mesoproterozoic Kgwebe metavolcanics rocks in northwest Botswana: Implications for the evolution of the Kibaran Namaqua-Natal belt: Geologic Magazine, v. 135, p. 669-683. Kendall, J., Stuart, G., Ebinger, C., Bastow, I., and Keir, D., 2005, Magma-assisted rifting in Ethiopia: Nature, v. 433, p. 146-148. Keranen, K., Klemperer, S.L., Gloaguen, R., EAGLE Working Group, 2004, Imaging a proto-ridge axis in the Main Ethiopian Rift: Geology, v. 32, p. 949952. Kidane, T., Courtillot, V., Manighetti, I., Audin, L., Lahitte, P., Quidelleur, X., Gillot, P.Y., Gallet, Y., Carlut, J., and Haile, T., 2003, New paleomagnetic and geochronologic results from Ethiopian Afar: Block rotations linked to rift overlap and propogation and determination of a ~2 Ma reference pole for stable Africa: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 108, p. 2102. Lahitte, P., Coulie, E., Mercier, N., Kidane, T., and Gillot, P, 2001, Chronologie K-Ar et TL du volcanisme aux extremites sud du propagateur mer Rouge wn Afar depuis 300 ka: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 332, p. 13-20. Lance, J., 1982, Frequency domain analysis of least squares polynomial surfaces with application to gravity data in the Pedregosa basin area: Ph.D. Thesis, University of Texas at El Paso. Lemma, Y., and Hailu, A., 2006: Gravity and magnetic survey at the Tendaho geothermal field: unpublished internal report, GSE Addis Ababa, p. 23. Lemma, Y., Hailu, A., Desissa, M., and Kalberkamp, U., 2010, Intergrated geophysical surveys to characterize Tendaho Geothermal Field in north eastern Ethiopia: Proceedings World Geothermal Congress: Bali, Indonesia. MacKenzie, G., Thybo, H. and Maguire P., 2005, Crustal velocity structure across the main Ethiopian Rift: Results from two-dimensional wide-angle seismic modeling: Geophysical Journal International, v. 162, p. 9941006. Maguire, P.K.H., Keller, G.R., Klemperer, S., Mackenzie, G.D., Keranen, K., Harder, S., O'Reilly, B., Thybo, H., Asfaw, L.M., Khan, M.A., and Amha, M., 2006, Crustal structure of the northern Main Ethiopian Rift from the EAGLE controlled-source survey: A snapshot of incipient lithospheric break-up. In: Yirgu, G., Ebinger, C., Maguire, P.K.H. (Eds.), The Afar Volcanic Province Within the East African Rift System: Geological Society, London, Special Publications, v. 259, p. 269291.

79

Mahatsente, R., Jentzsch, G., Jahr, T., 1999, Crustal structure of the main Ethiopian rift gravity data: 3-dimensional modeling: Tectonophysics, v. 313, p. 363382. Mahatsente, R., Jentzsch, G., Jahr, T., 2000, Three-dimensional inversion of gravity data from the main Ethiopian rift: Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 31, p. 451 466. Makris, J., and Ginzburg, A., 1987, The Afar Depression: transition between continental rifting and sea-floor spreading: Tectonphysics, v. 141, p. 199-214. Makris, J., Thiele, P., Zimmerman, J., 1970, Crustal investigation from gravity measurements at the scarp of the Ethiopian Plateau: Zeitschrift fur Geophysik, v. 36, p. 299311. Makris, J., Menzel, H., Zimmerman, J., 1972, A preliminary interpretation of the gravity field of Afar, northeast Ethiopia: Tectonophysics, v. 15, p. 3139. Makris, J., Menzel, H., Zimmerman, J., and Gouin, P., 1975, Gravity field and crustal structure of north Ethiopia, In: Pilger, A., and Rosler, A., (Eds.), Afar Depresison of Ethiopia, Proceedings of an International Symposium on the Afar Region and Related Rift Problems, Bad Bergzabern, Germany, 1974, Volume 1: Stuttgart, Germany, E. Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, p. 416. Manighetti, I., Tapponnier, P., Gillot, P.-Y., Jacques, E., Courtillot, V., Armijo, R., Ruegg, J.-C., and King, G., 1998, Propogation of rifting along the Arabia-Somalia plate boundary into Afar: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 103, p. 4947-4974. Mickus, K., Alken, C., Peeples, W., and Ziegler, D., 1988, A gravity and magnetic study of the Triassic Richmond Basin, Virginia: In: Manspiezer, W., (Ed.), TriassicJurassic Rifting and the Opening of the Atlantic Ocean: Elsevier Publ. Co., p. 401-421. Mickus, K.L., Tadesse, K., Keller, G.R., and Oluma, B., 2007, Gravity analysis of the main Ethiopian rift: Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 48, p. 59-60. Mickus, K., Weide, B., Bridges, D., Abdelsalam, M., Gao, S., and Alemu, A., 2010, Gravity analysis of the crustal structure within the Tendaho graben, central Afar, Ethiopia, presented to North-Central/ South-Central GSA meeting, Branson, Mo., v. 42, p. 37. Mohr, P., and Rogers, A., 1966, Gravity traverses in Ethiopia: Bulletin of the Geophysical Observatory Addis Ababa, v. 10, p. 1552.

80

Mohr, P., 1983, Perspectives on the Ethiopian volcanic province: Bulletin of Volcanology, v. 46, p. 23-43. Mohr, P. and Zanettin, B., 1988. The Ethiopian food basalt province. In: Macdougall, J.D. (Ed.), Continental flood basalts. Kluwer Academic Publishers, p. 63-110. Nagy, D., 1966, The gravitational attraction of a right rectangular prism: Geophysics, v. 31, p. 987. Oluma, B., Ayana, D., and Demisse, Y., 1996, Geophysical survey of Tendaho geothermal field: MME, EIGS, geothermal exploration project, unpublished report, p. 23. Peeples, W., Coultrip, R., and Keller, G., 1986, Quasi-ideal spatial filters for large maps: Annales Geophysicae, v. 4, p. 547-554. Reynolds, J., 1997, An introduction to Applied and Environmental Geophysics: Wiley and Sons. Rogers, N., MacDonald, R., Fitton, J., George, R., Smith, M., and Barreiro, B., 2000, Two mantle plumes beneath East African rift system: Sr, Nd, and Pb isotope evidence from Kenya rift basalts: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 176, p. 387-400. Rosendahl, B., 1987, Architecture of continental rifts with special reference to east Africa: Annual Reviews of Earth and Planetary Sciences, v. 15, p. 445-503. Searle, R., and Gouin, P., 1972, A gravity survey of the central part of the Ethiopian rift valley: Tectonophysics, v. 15, p. 4142. Simiyu, S., and Keller, G., 1997, An integrated analysis of lithospheric structure across the East African plateau based on gravity anomalies and recent seismic studies: Tectonphysics, v. 278, p. 291-313. Telford, W., Geldart, L., and Sheriff, R., 1988, Applied Geophysics: Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press, p. 770. Tesha, A., Nyblade, A., Keller, G., and Doser, D., 1997, Rift localization in suturethickened crust: Evidence from Bouguer gravity anomalies in northeastern Tanzania, East Africa: Tectonophysics, v. 278, p. 315-328. Tessema, A. and Antoine, L., 2004, Processing and interpretation of the gravity field of the East African Rift; implication for crustal extension: Tectonophysics, v. 394, p. 87-110.

81

Thurmond, A., Abdelsalam, M., Thurmond, J., 2006, Optical radar DEM remote sensing data integration for geological mapping in the Afar Depression, Ethiopia: Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 44, p. 199-134. Tiberi, C., Ebinger, C., Ballu, V., Stuart, G., Oluma, B., 2005, Inverse models of gravity data from the Red Sea-Aden-East African rifts triple junction zone: Geophysical Journal Interna- tonal, v. 163, p. 775787. Ulrych, T., 1968, Effect of wavelength filtering on the shape of the residual anomaly: Geophysics, v. 33, p. 1015-1018. Walker, K.T., Nyblade, A.A., Klemperer, S.L., Bokelmann, G.H.R. and Owens, T.J., 2004, On the relationship between extension and anisotropy: Constraints from shear wave splitting across the East African Plateau: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 109, p. B08302. Yirgu G., Ebinger C.J., Maguire P. (Eds.), 2006. The Afar Volcanic Province within the East African Rift System: Geological Society, London, Special Publications, v. 259, p. 269291.

82