Functions and relations

Definition. Let f be a function from A into C. Let g function from B into C. The composition of f and g, denoted gf, is the function

Functions and relations

The composition of f and g. A f B f(A) g C g(f(A))

g f: AC

a g ( f(a))
gf

Remark. If the domains and codomains of f and g are equal, it is not always true that fg = gf.

Functions and relations

Example. Consider the realvalued functions

Functions and relations

Exercise. Consider the functions

f(x) = ln x,

g(x) = x

Determine the domain, range, and codomains of h and k if

f: AB g: B C h: C D
Show that function composition is associative, i.e.,

h = f g,

k=g f

(h g) f = h (g f)

Functions and relations

Definition. A function f from a set A to a set B is called one-to-one, denoted 1-1 iff

Functions and relations

Definition. Let f be a 1-1 function with domain A and range Rf. If

a1, a2 A, f(a1) = f(a2 ) a1 = a2

Remark. Loosely speaking, a function that is 1-1 means that every a in A is uniquely mapped by f to a single b in B.

g := {(b, a) B A : (a, b) f}
then g is also a 1-1 function with domain Rf and range A, called the inverse function of f (or the function inverse to f), and is denoted f1.

Functions and relations

Remark. In standard function notation, f and f-1 are related in the following manner:

Functions and relations

Remark. To check if a function

f:RR
has an inverse function f1, we do the horizontal line test: we draw horizontal lines at any part of the graph of f. If every line crosses the graph of f exactly at one point, then f1 exists.

y = f(x)

x = f 1(y)

Thus, by the composition of functions, f and f1 are inverses of each other iff

f 1 ( f(x)) = f f 1(x) = x

Functions and relations

Examples.
y = x2 y = x3

Functions and relations

Example. The natural exponential function and the natural logarithmic functions are inverses of each other. This is due to some following properties from Theorem 2.3: if we let

f(x) = ex
f1 does not exist f1 exists

g(x) = ln x

Functions and relations

then

Functions and relations

y

(f g)(x) = f ( g(x)) = e

y=x y = exp(x) y = ln(x)

ln x

=x

from Theorem 2.3 (i) and

(g f)(x) = g ( f(x)) = ln ex

= x ln e = x
applying Theorem 2.3 (iii) and (viii).

Functions and relations

Remark. A simple way to find an inverse function, given a 1-1 function is to follow the following steps:
1. 2. 3.

Functions and relations

Example. Consider the function

y = x +1
Following the steps in the previous slide, we let y = f(x) = x + 1. Then

Let y = f(x). Interchange the roles of x and y. Solve y in terms of x in (2).

x = y +1
Solving for y in terms of x, we get

y = x 1
Hence, f1(x) = x 1.

Functions and relations

y

Functions and relations

Remark. From the two examples, we see that if f and f1 are inverses of each other, then loosely speaking, their graphs are symmetric with respect to the line y = x of the Cartesian plane.

y=x y=x+1 y=x1

Functions and relations

Example. Consider the function

Functions and relations

Note that earlier, by the horizontal line test,

y=x

Following the steps in the previous slide, we let y = f(x) = x2. Then, we interchange the roles of x and y and get

y = x2
has no inverse. Otherwise, if we graph

x = y2
Solving for y in terms of x, we get

y= x
we obtain the following sketch of a graph

y= x

Functions and relations

y

Functions and relations

Thus, if we redefine y = x2 on the nonnegative real line, i.e.,

y = x2

By the horizontal line test, y = x2 has no inverse (function) By the vertical line test, y = x is not a function

y = x2 ,

x0

(0,0)

then, by the horizontal line test, it will have an inverse function, given by

y=x

y= x

y = x,

x0

We illustrate this redefinition by sketching their respective graphs.

Functions and relations

y

Functions and relations

Remark. A useful result and characterization of functions with inverses is given in the following: Let

y = x2

By the horizontal line test, y = x2 has an inverse

y= x x0
(0,0) x

f:XY
where X,Y are sets. Then the following are equivalent:

y=x

y= x
By the vertical line test, y = x is a function

Functions and relations

i. ii. iii.

Functions and relations

Exercise. Consider the function

The function f has an inverse. The function f is 1-1. There is a function g : Y X such that and

y = f(x) =

1 3 x 8

g ( f(x)) = x, x X y Y

Obtain the inverse of the f (check first if f is 1-1). Verify your answer by sketching its graph.

f ( g(y)) = y,

Proof. Wade [2010], pp. 29-30.

Functions and relations

Exercise. Consider the function

y = f(x) =

x +1 x 1

Absolute value

Show that f is 1-1. By obtaining its inverse f1, show that

f = f 1

Order relation of the reals

Remark. Recall from Axiom 1.9 (in 1) that the set of real numbers satisfies an ordering relation: if a and b be real numbers, then at most one of the three can happen:

Order relation of the reals

Then

a<b a=b a>b

x<0 x=0 x>0

a < b,
Define

a = b,
x = ab

a > b.

This is known as the trichotomy property of the real numbers: Every real number x satisfies at most one property:

x < 0,

x = 0,

x>0

Trichotomy property
Thus, from the trichotomy property, we define the concept of absolute value of real numbers. Definition. Let a be a real number. The absolute value of a, denoted |a|, is given by

Absolute value
Remark. We have shown in the preceding discussion that the trichotomy property and the ordering relation on the set of real numbers are equivalent. These are sometimes referred to in advanced calculus textbooks as the order properties of the real numbers.

a if a < 0 a := 0 if a = 0 a if a > 0

Absolute value
Example.

Absolute value
Theorem 2.4. [Properties of the absolute value]

2 = 2,

3 = 3

Remark. It follows from the definition of the absolute value that

a 0, a R

(i) ( ii ) ( iii ) ( iv )

a =0a=0 a = a , a R ab = a b , a, b R a b = b a , a, b R

Absolute value

Absolute value
Theorem 2.5. [Triangle inequality]

(v)
( vi )

If c 0, then a c c a c
If c 0, then a c a c a c

a + b a + b , a, b R
Corollary 2.6.

( vii )

a a a , a R

(i) ( ii )

a b ab a + b a b a+b a + b

Absolute value
Remark. From Corollary 2.6, no conclusion follows on the relationship of |a + b| and |a b|. For example,

Absolute value
Definition. Consider

(i) ( ii )

a = 2, b = 3 ab > a+b a = 2, b = 3 ab < a+b

x x>0 y = f(x) = x = 0 x = 0 x x < 0

where |x| is the absolute value of x. We call the function above as the absolute value function.

Absolute value
Remark. By the definition of the absolute value, note that

Absolute value
y

a R , a 0
Thus, if f(x) function defined by

f(x) = x
x

then

f(x) 0, x R

f(x) = x ,

xR

Absolute value
Moreover, from the graph of the absolute value function

Intervals on the real line

f(x) = x ,

xR

clearly, it fails the horizontal line test; hence its inverse is not a function (and therefore, it is not 1-1).

Open and closed intervals

Definition. If

Open and closed intervals

Definition. If

a, b R

ab

a, b R

ab

then the open interval determined by a and b is

then the closed interval determined by a and b is

(a, b):= { x R : a < x < b}

We call a and b the endpoints of the open interval.

[a, b]:= { x R : a x b}
We call a and b the endpoints of the closed interval.

Open and closed intervals

Definition. If

Open and closed intervals

Example. Consider the intervals

a, b R

ab

A = [1 ,4),

B = (2,5]

then the half-open (or halfclosed intervals) determined by a and b are

[a, b):= { x R : a x < b}

Obtain the symmetric difference of A and B using the definition and the theorem.

(a, b]:= { x R : a < x b}

Open and closed intervals

Example. Consider the [real] Cartesian plane

Open and closed intervals

The set

R = {(a, b): a, b R}
2

C1 = (x, y): x 2 + y 2 1

The set

S1 := [0,1 ] [0,1 ]
is called the unit square of the [real] Cartesian plane.

is called the unit circle of the [real] Cartesian plane.

Open and closed intervals

y (0,1) y (0,1) (1,0) x (0,0) (0,1) (1,0) x (1,1)

Neighborhoods
Definition. Let a be a real number, and let r > 0. The r-neighborhood of a, denoted Vr(a), is the set

(1,0)

(0,0)

Vr (a):= {x R : x a < r}

unit circle (C1)

unit square (S1)

Remark. From the above definition and from properties of the absolute value, it follows that

x Vr (a) a r < x < a + r

Open and closed intervals

Remark. Using interval notation, we may alternately write Vr(a) as

Open and closed intervals

Since the set of real numbers is represented by an infinite line, we also have the following notation:

Vr (a) = (a r , a + r )
r r

R = (, +)
)
a+r Vr(a)

(
ar a

Cluster points
Definition. Let

Cluster points
cR
Example 1. Every point in the open interval (0,1) is a cluster point. Moreover, the points 0 and 1 are also cluster points. Example 2. The set of natural numbers have no cluster points. Moreover, the set of integers have no cluster points.

A R

We call c a cluster point of A iff

Vr (c)x R ( c x Vr (c) A)