CHAPTER - 1

REACTI VE POWER FUNDAMENTALS

1.0 I ntroduction

Voltage is proportional to the magnetic flux in the power system element. Most of the Power
System elements are reactive in nature. They absorb / generate reactive power depending on system
loading conditions. The balance in reactive power availability and requirement at a node indicates steady
voltage. Drawal of reactive power leads to reduction in voltage and supply of reactive power leads to
increase in voltage at the node. Ideally, the reactive power balance should be effected within each region,
within each distribution system.
Excess of MVAr high voltage
Deficit of MVAr Low Voltage
MVAR balance Good voltage low system losses
A great many loads consume not only active but also reactive power. The electric network itself both
consumes and produces reactive power. Transmission and distribution of electric power involve reactive
power losses due to the series inductance of transformers, overhead lines and underground cables. Lines
and cables also generate reactive power due to their shunt capacitance; this generation of reactive power
is, however, only of significance at high system voltages.

During the steady-state operation of an AC power system the active power production must match the
consumption plus the losses, since otherwise the frequency will change. There is an equally strong
relationship between the reactive power balance of a power system and the voltages. In itself, a reactive
power balance will always inherently be present, but with unacceptable voltages if the balance is not a
proper one. An excess of reactive power in an area means high voltages: a deficit means low voltages.
The reactive power balance of a power system also influences the active losses of the network, the
heating of components and, in some cases, the power system stability.

Contrary to the active power balance, which has to be effected by means of the generators alone, a proper
reactive power balance can and often has to be effected both by the generators and by dispersed special
reactive devices, producing or absorbing reactive power. The use of shunt reactive devices. i.e. shunt
compensation, is a straightforward reactive-power compensation method. The use of series capacitors,
i.e. series compensation is a line reactance compensation method.

No special reactive compensation devices were used in the early AC power systems, because the
generators were situated close to the loads. As networks became more widespread, synchronous motors,
small synchronous compensators and static shunt capacitors were adopted for power-factor correction.
Ever larger synchronous compensators were installed in transmission systems. Along with the
development of more efficient and economic capacitors, there has been a phenomenal growth in the use
of shunt capacitors as a means of furnishing reactive power, particularly within distribution systems.
With the introduction of extra-high-voltage lines, shunt reactors and series capacitors became important
compensation devices. The latest development is the Thyristor-controlled static var compensator, which
is now well established not only in high- power industrial networks but also in transmission systems.

In the following a distinction is made between transmission and distribution systems and also between
different voltage ranges in terms of HV, EHV, etc. It should therefore be appropriate to explain briefly
these terms.




1
Classification of System Voltages

Voltage Level in kV Category of Voltage
<33 kV Distribution System
33 kV to132 kV Sub. Transmission System
230 kV to 400 kV HV Transmission System
750 kV and above UHV System

Transmission systems form those parts of power systems conveying comparatively large amounts of
electrical power. They link the generating sources with the distribution systems and interconnect parts of
the power system or adjacent power systems. Distribution systems form the continued links to the
consumers. The boundary between transmission and distribution systems is not very well defined.
Systems for voltages higher than 132 KV are usually called transmission systems. Systems for voltages
lower than 33 KV are usually called distribution systems. Systems in the range 33 to 132 kV are called
distribution, sub transmission systems.
All the figures given in this introduction refer to the highest voltage for equipment.

1.1 Need for management of reactive power
In an integrated power system, efficient management of active and reactive power flows is very
important. Quality of power supply is judged from the frequency and voltage of the power supply made
available to the consumers. While frequency is the measure of balance between power generated (or
power available) and MW demand impinged on the system, the voltage is indicative of reactive power
flows.

In a power system, the ac generators and EHV and UHV transmission lines generate reactive power.
Industrial installations whether small or large as also the irrigation pump motors, water supply systems
draw substantial reactive power from the power grid.
The generators have limited defined capability to generate reactive power- this is more so in respect of
large size generating units of 210 MW/500 MW capacity. Generation of higher reactive power
correspondingly reduces availability of useful power from the generators. During light load conditions,
there is excess reactive power available in the system since the transmission lines continue to generate
the reactive power thereby raising the system voltage and this causes reactive power flows to the
generators.

Particularly in India, the load curves show wide fluctuations at various hours of the day and in various
seasons of the year. When load demand is heavy, there is low voltage, which is harmful to the consumers
as well as utilitys installations. Burning of motors occur. When load demand is very low, high voltage
occurs in the system and this has harmful effect on insulation of power transformers. Failure of power
transformers occur.

For better efficiency, it is necessary to reduce and minimize reactive power flows in the system.
Besides harmful effects, the reactive power flows also affect the economy adversely both for the utility
and the consumer. If reactive power flows are reduced i R power losses as well as i X losses are
reduced. The generators can produce additional active power. If the consumer reduces reactive power
requirement his demand KVA is reduced. For energy conservation also there is need to reduce reactive
power demand in the system.

It is therefore very clear that for efficient management of power system and for improving the quality of
electric supply, it is very essential to install reactive compensation equipment. Such installations are
necessary and essential for utility as well as the consumer. Infact the utility should be made responsible
for making available only the active power to the consumer. Unfortunately, in India, the responsibilities
2
of users are not well defined and there is not enough realization in this regard. Utilities have now
introduced power factor clause in the tariff structure. However. It would be worthwhile to note that even
a 90% power factor load requires 43% reactive power from the grid.

1.2 Basic Principles:
A phasor description of voltage and current, the reactive power supplied to an AC circuit is the product of
the voltage and the reactive (watt-less) component of the current, this reactive current component being
in quadrature with the voltage.

A single-phase circuit according to Figure 1.1 the reactive power Q is given by
Q=VIsin |------------------------------------------------------(1)
Unit is volt-ampere reactive (VAR) The sign of Q is a matter of convention, it depends on the definition
of the direction of |. According to the IEC the sign shall be such that the net reactive power supplied to
an inductive element is positive. Consequently, the net reactive power supplied to capacitive element is
negative. In the past the opposite sign convention has also been used. With the sign convention as base,
reactive power is said to be produced/generated by overexcited synchronous machines and capacitors,
and consumed or absorbed by under excited synchronous machines, inductors, etc.
Reactive power can be considered as a convenient evaluation quantity, giving information about the watt-
less current, which greatly influences voltages, active losses.
1.3 Sources and sinks of Reactive power :

S.No. Sources (Q- Generation) Sinks (Q Absorption)
1 Gen. Over excited Gen. Under excited
2 Transmission Lines - charging Transmission Lines - series reactance drop
3 Shunt Capacitors Shunt Reactors
4 Static Var Compensators (Q gen mode) Static Var Compensators (Q absorb
mode)
5 Series Capacitors (C
se
) -
6 Synchronous Condenser over excited Synchronous Condenser under excited
7 Loads -Capacitive Loads - Inductive

1.4 Power transmission in a Transmission line:






G M
VsZo VrZ0
I
r

S
r

j X
Fig. 1.2 Simple Transmission System
3
Let
Vs =Sending end voltage
Vr =Receiving end voltage
Sr =Receiving end complex power
Pr =Receiving end active power
Qr =Receiving end reactive power
o =The angle difference between Vs and Vr
Ir =Receiving end current
X =Line reactance
Ps =Sending end active power
Qs =Sending end reactive power

Sr =Pr +j Qr =Vr . Ir
*
(1)
=V
r

*
cos
(

+
X j
V Sin jV V
r s s
o o


=
(

+
X
V Cos V V
j Sin
X
V V
r r s r s
2
o
o


P
r
=
s
r s
P Sin P
X
V V
= = o o
max
sin
(2)

For a loss less line.
P and o are closely related.
Q
r
=
X
V Cos V V
r r s
2
o
(3)

Qs =
X
Cos V V V
r s s
o
2
(4)

For small angles of o

Q
r
=
( )
X
V V V
r s r

(5)

Qs =
|
.
|

\
|

X
V V
V
r s
s
(6)
4
Q and V are closely coupled.

I nferences:
If V1and V2 are the sending end and receiving end voltages
The transmission capacity increases as the square of the voltage level
1. the direction of MW flow is determined by o
V1 leading V2 P is 1 2
V1 lagging V2 P is 2 1
2. Magnitudes of V1 and V2 do not determine the MW flow direction
3. Though P1=P2, Q1= Q2
4. The reactive loss in line reactance is
x
r V s V
Qr Qs
Q
ave
2 2
2
2

=
+
=

5. If Vs > Vr the MVAR flows 1 2
If Vr> Vs the MVAR flows 2 1

1.5 Power Losses in a Transmission line:

Losses across the series impedance of a transmission line are I
2
R and I
2
X.

Where I =
|
.
|

\
|
*
V
J Q P
;

I
*
=
|
.
|

\
| +
V
J Q P


I
2
=I.I* =
( )( ) ( )
2
2 2
* .
V
Q P
V V
jQ P jQ P +
=
+


P
loss
=I
2
R =
R
V
Q P
.
2
2 2
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
(7)

Q
loss
=I
2
X =
X
V
Q P
.
2
2 2
+
(8)

Hence in order to minimise losses we have to minimise the transfer of Q.





5

1.6 Voltage Regulation:

Voltage regulation is defined as the change of voltage at the receiving end when rated load is
thrown off, the sending end voltage being held constant.

Vr
X.Qr


V
E
Th
Zo
X.Pr
V
Fig 1.3 Voltage regulation in a loss less system

E
Th
Zo =VZ0 +j X I =V +j X |
.
|

\
|
*
V
jQ P
r r

=V +
V
XP
j
V
XQ
r r
+
(9)

The voltage rise term in phase with V depends on Q.
The angle, o depends mainly on the quadrature term involving P.

Three methods of system voltage control are available : (a) Varying excitation of generators, (b)
Varying the turns ratio of transformers by OLTC and (c) Varying shunt compensation.

Shunt compensation is drawing or injection of reactive power at a node. Reactor absorbs reactive power
and so reduces system voltage. Capacitor injects reactive power and so increases system voltage.

1.7 Short circuit capacity:
f sc
I V S 3 =
MVA (10)
Where
V = Phase to phase voltage in kV
I
f
= The three phase fault current in k.A.

Expressed in p.u parameters
S
sc
=(V
0-
)(I
f
) p.u. =I
f
p.u. = |
|
.
|

\
|
Th
X
1
(11)
V
0-
=The prefault voltage in p.u. =1.0 p.u.

X
Th
=Thevinin impedance =Driving point impedance of the network.
The change in voltage when certain quantity of reactive power is supplied to the system is given by
. pu
S
Q
V
SC
A
= A

6
Where
AQ = Change in Q injection
S
sc
=Short circuit capacity
AV =Change in voltage in per unit

1.8 Reactive power - physical analogy

The reactive power is the extra effort needed to pull a load along the rail when the effort, s is at an
angle, u to the rails.
u
S
P
Q
Fig 1.4. Physical analogy for Active and Reactive powers

1.9 Power transfer components
Transformers, overhead lines and underground cables make up the major AC power transfer components
and are discussed in this subsection.

1.9.1 Transformers
Fig 1.5 Equivalent Circuit of Transformer

Figure 1.5 shows a simple equivalent circuit of a two-winding transformer. The series reactance X is of
main interest, usually lying within the range 0.05 to 0.15 p.u. based on the transformer power rating, with
low values for small and high values for large transformers. The resistance is usually negligible. The total
reactive power losses due to the magnetizing shunt reactance Xm of many small transformers within a
distribution system can, however, be of some importance. The magnetizing reactive power may also
increase rapidly with the voltage level, due to core Saturation.
7
1.9.2 Overhead lines

Overhead lines and underground cables are distributed-constant circuits, which have their series
resistance, series inductance and shunt capacitance distributed uniformly along its length. Figure 1.6
shows a lumped-constant equivalent circuit. If we assume constant operating voltages at the ends, the
reactive power generated due to the capacitance, the charging reactive power, is practically independent
of the power transferred. Particularly when we are dealing with long EHV lines, the so-called Surge
Impedance Load (SIL) P
0
or natural load of an uncompensated line is a convenient value for reference
purposes. It is given approximately by:

MW
x
b
V P
o
2
=
------------------------------------------------(12)
where
V =voltage, line-line kV
b =susceptance mho/km
x =reactance ohm/km
A loss less line (a reasonable approximation of an EHV line) transferring an active power P
0
and with
equal voltages at the line ends has reactive power balance. The reactive power loss due to the line
inductance is equal to the reactive power generated by the line capacitance.

Operating voltage
kV
SIL
MW
Line charging
Mvar/km
X
Ohm/km
X/R
0.4
10
130
220
400
500
750
-
-
50
130
550
910
2200
-
-
0.05
0.14
0.6
1.0
2.3
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.33
0.30
0.28
0.5
0.5
3
6
15
16
30
Table 1. Typical values of overhead line characteristics at 50Hz.

Table 1 gives typical values of overhead line characteristics at 50Hz. At 60 Hz the SIL values are the
same while the line charging, X and X/R values are 20 per cent higher. The SIL is usually much lower
than the thermal rating. Below 69 kV the line charging is usually negligible while it is a significant
source of reactive power for long lines of higher system voltages.

Paradoxically, the series reactance is fairly independent of the system voltage, assuming a single
conductor. The lower values at 400 kV, 500 kV and 750 kV illustrate the effect of the necessary use of
bundle conductors for these system voltages. In reality there is a great spread in the X/R values, for a
system voltage under consideration, in particular at low system voltages. The figures are however,
included in order to illustrate that the X/R ratio increases rapidly with the system voltage.
8
1.9.3. Underground cables:
Table 2 gives sample values of underground cable characteristics. The spread in parameter values for a
system voltage under consideration is very much larger than for overhead lines, depending on the cable
type, size and conductor geometry and spacings. Except for low voltage cables, the SIL is usually much
larger than the thermal rating. The line charging of polyethylene insulated cables, now being introduced
at ever higher system voltaes, is much lower, e.g. 50 per cent of that of paper-insulated cables.

Operating voltage
kV
SIL
MW
Line charging
Mvar/km
X
Ohm/km
X/R
0.4
10
130
220
400
-
3
500
1000
3200
-
0.01
2
4
13
0.07
0.10
0.15
0.18
0.2
0.3
0.4
2
6
9
Table.2 Sample values of underground cable characteristics at 50 Hz. 0.4. 10 kV:PVC, 132,400kV paper-
insulated cables.

1.10 Loads
A great many loads consume not only active but also reactive power.
The Industry wise power factor is generally observed to be as follows:
I NDUSTRY POWER FACTOR

Textiles 0.65/0.75
Chemical 0.75/0.85
Machine shop 0.4 / 0.65
Arc Welding 0.35/ 0.4
Arc Furnaces 0.7 / 0.9
Coreless induction furnaces and heaters 0.15/0.4
Cement plants 0.78/0.8
Garment factories 0.35/0.6
Breweries 0.75/0.8
Steel Plants 0.6 / 0.85
Collieries 0.65/0.85
Brick Works 0.6 / 0.75
Cold Storage 0.7 / 0.8
Foundries 0.5 / 0.7
Plastic moulding plants 0.6 / 0.75
Printing 0.55/0.7
Quarries 0.5 / 0.7

Some typical values of reactive power consumption of individual loads are given below:
- Induction motors 0.5 to 1.1 kvar/kW, at rated output.
- Uncontrolled rectifiers 0.3 kvar/kW.
- Controlled rectifiers usually consume much more kvar/kW than uncontrolled ones and with
dependence on the rectifier delay angle.
- Arc furnaces around 1 kvar/kW.
9

Both controlled rectifiers and arc furnaces of steel mills have a reactive power consumption characterized
by a high average value and fast variations. Purely resistive loads, like filament lamps and electric
heaters, do not, of course, consume reactive power.
The synchronous motor is the only type of individual load,
which can produce reactive power. it consumes reactive power
when under excited and produces reactive power when
overexcited. Synchronous motors are usually operated
overexcited and thus usually produce reactive power.
Individual loads may, of course, vary within short or long time
ranges. The composite loads of a power system. Each one
being the total load of a certain area, usually vary with the
time of the day, the day of the week and the season of the year
and may also grow from year to year. The consumer demand
for reactive power varies in a somewhat similar way to the
demand for active power. Figure 1.7 illustrates how the active
and the reactive power supplied from a transmission
substation into a load area, with mixed industrial and domestic
loads, may vary during a Sunday and a Monday.
The resultant active power demand of a power system varies
roughly as the variation of total toad. The resultant reactive
power demand may vary considerably more due to the
changing series reactive power losses in the networks.

Fig.1.7 Examples of load

1.11. Relationship of voltage to reactive power
As regards the study of terminal voltages of a transmission or a distribution link, the link can be
represented by the series impedance only if the shunt admittances of the equivalent circuit are included in
the treatment of the connecting parts of the power system,
Fig. 1.8. The link may be an overhead line, an underground
cable, or a transformer. The voltage drop, i.e. the scalar
voltage difference, is defined by:

AV=|V1| |V2|--------------(13)

The Phasor diagram of Figure 1.8, for a case with lagging
power factor, shows that it can be approximately expressed
by the following equations:



AV=RI cosu+XI sin u --------------- ----- ------------------(14)
AV=(RP+XQ) / V2 --------------------------------------- (15)

The accuracy of the equations (14) and (15) is better, the less the voltage-angle difference is. The
equations are usually sufficiently accurate for calculations concerning a single link with lagging power
factor. The equations are less accurate and should not be used in calculations for -leading power factor.
Precise calculations concerning a complete network are, nowadays, performed by means of computer
power flow programs.


10
The equation (15) is, however, generally useful for qualitative discussions of voltage versus reactive
power. For transformers, R can always be disregarded. For transmission (not distribution) lines and
cables. X is usually much larger than R. For all these many links, where X is -much larger than R, there
will evidently be a much greater influence on AV per kvar of reactive power than per kW of active power
transmitted.

When power is supplied through a single link, Figure 1.8, assuming V1 constant, V2 varies with changes
in P and Q. Load variations create voltage variations if not counteracted. This is a general, and sometimes
-troublesome, operation feature of AC power systems.
There are three major methods of power system voltage control:
- Varying the excitation of the generators by means of their excitation systems.
- Varying the turns ratio of transformers by means of their on-load tap changers.
- Varying the shunt compensation, where applied.

By shunt compensation is meant drawing or injection of reactive power, at a point of a power system by
means of a shunt-connected device, which is installed for this sole purpose. Drawing reactive power. e.g.
absorption by means of a shunt reactor, effects voltage reduction. Injection of reactive power, e.g.
production by means of a shunt capacitor, effects voltage rise. The equation (15) and Figure 1.8 show
how shunt compensation influences the voltage. The voltage-change directions mentioned arise because
the network equivalent impedance has an inductive character at the fundamental frequency. The shunt
compensation may be fixed, switchable in steps or continuously controllable. Around the nominal
voltage, the voltage change AV, when the shunt compensation is changed in step, is approximately
expressed by;
AV =
sc
S
Q A
------------------(16)
Where
AQ- change in nominal three phase reactive power injection Mvar
Ssc- Short-circuit capacity in MVA
Adjacent generators with voltage regulators and adjacent transformers with voltage-relay controlled on-
load tap changers will, of course, more or less reduce the voltage change after a certain time. By series
compensation is meant compensation of line inductive reactance by means of a capacitor in series with
the line, thus reducing the effective inductive reactance of the line and the effects thereof.

1.12 PV Curves
PV Curves are the product of parametric analysis. Take into consideration the system shown at right.
Power is transferred from the Sending Area to the Receiving Area via a set of transmission lines forming
an Interface. As the transfer increases, the conditions on the lines and buses along the transfer path,
including those within the Sending and Receiving area, change. The voltages may drop, flows on
branches may increase or decrease.
11

Monitoring voltage at a particular bus and plotting this against the power transfer produces a familiar
diagram known as the PV Curve. A sample curve is shown below. When the voltage at the selected bus
goes below some pre-defined criteria, then the transfer at which this occurs is the Low Voltage transfer
limit for that bus. Ignoring the low voltage and continuing to increase transfer would eventually bring the
curve to a point where the system collapses. The point of collapse can likewise be designated as the
Voltage Collapse transfer limit.

In PSSTPLAN, PV curves are provided as a distinct Analytical Engine. As such it is provided with
powerful features:
- Easy setup
- Comprehensive results
- Adaptive step size. You define a range for the transfer increment, and PSSTPLAN will select a
step size which will maintain the accuracy of the simulation at minimum loss of resolution.
- Non-divergent power flow. The last point on the curve is always accurately determined by a
special algorithm which can identify divergence.


1.13 Need to optimize reactive power resources:
The need to optimize reactive power sources is essential to
Capacity utilization of existing transmission facilities for power transfer.
12
Maximize the existing reactive power resources to minimize investment in additional
facilities.
Minimize transmission losses
Improve system security
Maintain power supply quality by maintaining bus voltages close to nominal value.
1.14. Remarks
Active power must, of course, be transmitted from the generators to the loads. Reactive power need not,
and with regard to voltage differences, losses and thermal loading as discussed in the preceding
subsections, should not be unnecessarily transferred. Ideally, a reactive power balance should be effected
within each region of a power system, within each transmission system and within each distribution
system. In practice, however, this principle is not always followed for one reason or another. The subject
of reactive power compensation is easy to understand if we consider a single link of a power system, but
quite complex when we consider an entire power system with its different conditions and behaviors.
----
13
CHAPTER - 2
REACTI VE POWER SOURCES AND SI NKS
2.0 I ntroduction:
Sources of reactive power are
- Generating units
- Synchronous condenser
- On-load tap changers and phase-shifting transformers.
- Capacitors and reactors
- Static compensators.

Power system component characteristics
A brief look at characteristics for power system components will help to explain reactive power matters.
The role of power system components in reactive power control are briefed below.

2.1 Generators
The purposes of generators are to supply the active power, to provide the primary voltage control of the
power system and to bring about, or at least contribute to, the desired reactive power balance in the areas
adjacent to the generating stations. A generator absorbs reactive power when under excited and it
produces reactive power when overexcited. The reactive power output is continuously controllable
through varying the excitation current. The allowable reactive power absorption or production is
dependent on the active power output as illustrated by the power charts of Figures 2.1 and 2.2. For short-
term operation the thermal limits are usually allowed to be overridden.

The step-response time in voltage control is from several tenths of a second and upwards. The rated
power factor of generators usually lies within the range 0.80 to 0.95. Generators installed remotely from
load centers usually have a high rated power factor; this is often the case with large hydro-turbine
generators. Generators installed close to load centers usually have a lower rated power factor. In some
cases of large steam-turbine generators the rated power factor may have been selected at the lower end of
the above range in order to ensure reactive power reserve for severe forced outage conditions of the
power system.

Fig 2.1 Typical Power chart for large steam turbine and gas turbine generators
where
a Turbine power limit
b Stator winding thermal limit
c Field winding thermal limit
d Steady-slate stability limit with proper AVR
e Assumed intervention curve of under excitation limiter
14










Fig.2.2. Typical power chart for large hydro-turbine generators (salient-pole machines)

Large generators are usually connected direct to transmission networks via step-up transformers. The
terminal voltage of a large generator is usually allowed to be controlled within a 5% range around the
nominal voltage, at rated load. In most countries the generator step-up transformers are usually not
equipped with on-load tap changers.

Excitation Control: The MVAR output of a generator is dependent on its excitation. The MVAR is
generated during over excitation and is absorbed during under excitation. The rotor current depends on
the excitation. The rotor winding temperature, the air gap temperature and the machine temperature
increase during over excitation. The winding temperature is limited to about 90
o
C during normal
loading. It increases to 100 105
o
C during over loading. The machine which is already over heated due
to MVAR generation can not take MW load to its full capacity. Hence MW load is to be compromised
when the unit is excited beyond its normal limits.

When the unit generates MVAR and supplies to the system, the system voltage profile around the
generating station increases. This increase in voltage is more in first neighbourhood. The load end
voltages which are beyond, say second neighbourhood will not get effected because of this unit
excitation. Hence the influence of a unit on voltage profile in the system is local in nature. The load end
voltages can not be controlled by the generating units.

However depending on the capability curve of the generating unit and as long as margin is available in
the unit, it can be used to control the system voltages in its vicinity.

The change in the voltage AV in the first neighbourhood of the generating station depends on the relation
AV =AQ/S in p.u.
Where AV =change in bus voltage in pu
AQ =Amount of Q supplied through over excitation in p.u.
S =Fault level of the system at first neighbourhood in p.u.

2.2 Shunt reactor
A shunt reactor is a reactor connected in shunt to a power system for the purpose of absorbing reactive
power. In some cases where a fixed or mechanically switched shunt reactor can be used with regard to
the voltage control requirements. It is usually the most economic special means available for reactive
power absorption. The majority of shunt reactors are applied in conjunction with long EHV overhead
lines. They are also applied in conjunction with HV and EHV underground cables in large urban areas.

Shunt reactors in use range in size from a few Mvar at low medium voltages and up to hundreds of Mvar.



15
Shunt reactors are necessarily installed to suppress high voltage during light load conditions. For
400kV and UHV lines, shunt reactors are directly connected on line. This is for the purpose of
compensating leading charging MVAR released by the line. Shunt reactors are also connected on tertiary
delta windings of autotransformers so that these can be switched on during light load periods.

Reactor Operation: The shunt reactor is a coil connected to the system voltage and grounded at the
other end. It draws the magnetizing current, which is purely inductive, from the system and hence forms
an inductive load at the point of connection. Hence the reactor absorbs reactive power from the system
as long as it is connected to the system. Hence it is complimentary to a capacitor bank in its function.
The reduction in voltage at the point of connection is given by AV =AQ/S, all expressed in p.u. terms.
The reactors are required to be used at EHV voltages of 400 kV and above, as the line charging at this
voltage is quite significant, it increases the receiving end voltage to unacceptable limits under light load
conditions. A 400 kV line generates about 55 MVAR per 100 km and hence this Ferranty effect is high
for lines of 300 km and above.

Two types of reactor connection are adopted in EHV systems.
A) The bus reactor, which is connected to the bus through a circuit breaker and hence can be
switched as and when required.
B) The line reactor; which is connected to the line through only an isolator and hence can be
removed from the system only when the line is switched off.

The functions of both bus reactor as well as line reactor are same. They absorb the reactive power from
the system depending upon their capacity.
The bus reactors are switchable and hence are cut-in whenever the system voltage is higher and can be
cut-off from the system whenever the system voltage reduces.

The line reactors are permanently connected to the lines and hence the system. Their role is to
a) Reduce the effect of line charging
b) Provide a least impedance path for the switching over voltages generated in the system due to
inductive load currents switching. The switching over voltages are of power frequency and
equal to 1.5 to 2.5 p.u. in magnitude.
c) When the EHV lines have single phase switching facility and auto reclose protection scheme is
implemented, the abnormal voltages developed across the circuit breaker can be contained only
with a line reactor on the line side.
d) The line reactors provide a least impedance path for low frequency (power frequency) switching
over voltages. Hence they act as surge diverters for power frequency over voltages. The
lightning over voltages cannot pass through the line reactor because of their high frequency.

2.3 Shunt capacitors
A shunt capacitor is a single capacitor unit or, more frequently, a bank of capacitor units connected in
shunt to a power system for the purpose of absorbing reactive power. When a fixed or mechanically
switched shunt capacitor can be used with regard to the voltage control requirements, it is the most
economic means available for reactive power supply. The majority of shunt capacitors are applied within
distribution systems of different types: Industrial, urban, residential and rural. They have a widespread
use there, for power-factor correction. Some shunt capacitors are installed in transmission substations.
Very large shunt capacitor banks (usually filters) are to be found in HVDC terminal stations.
Shunt capacitors in use range in size from a single unit rated a few kvar at low voltage up to a bank of
units, rated hundreds of Mvar.

16
Capacitor Operation: The capacitor banks are reactive power sources. They produce reactive power
equal to their rating when connected to the bus. In order to keep the insulation costs less, they are
connected to the system at distribution voltage levels, e.g. 0.4 kV, 11 kV, 33 kV etc.
The output of a capacitor bank is Q
c
=V
2
ec

Where Q
c
=output in MVAR
V =the system voltage in k.V.
C =in farads

Hence the output is proportional to the square of the voltage. If the system voltage to which the capacitor
bank is connected reduces to 0.9 p.u. the MVAR generated by the capacitor reduces to 0.81 p.u. Hence
the performance of a capacitor bank will be poor under low voltage conditions, at which time it is
required most.

The influence of a capacitor bank on the system voltage is again local like in case of a generator. It is
most pre dominent at the bus to which it is connected. Its effect gets reduced as we go to next
neighbourhood. The change in voltage at the point of connection is governed by the relation AV =AQ/S
Where AV =change in bus voltage in pu
AQ =Amount of Q supplied through the capacitor bank in p.u.
S =Fault MVA of the bus in p.u.
Hence it is possible to compute the capacitor requirement of the system at a location using
AQ =(AV)(S)
where AQ is the amount of Q to be supplemented
AV is the voltage raise required to reach the nominal value in p.u.
S is the fault level of the system in p.u.

Outstanding features of shunt capacitors are their low overall costs and their high application flexibility.
An unfavorable characteristic, most important in conjunction with major outages and disturbances, is that
they provide the least support at the very time when it may be most needed, because the reactive power
output is proportional to the voltage squared. If used in a proper mix with other reactive power sources,
this is, however, no obstacle to an extensive use of shunt capacitors. The losses of modern shunt
capacitors are of the order of 0.2w/Kvar, including the losses of fuses and discharge resistors
Shunt capacitors are useful in
- Power factor correction
- Voltage control and reactive power balance
- Reducing transmission losses
- Meeting requirements of reactive loads

Pf correction by shunt capacitors is by far the most satisfactory and economical method. The static
capacitor owing to its low losses, simplicity and high efficiency, is finding very wide and universal use
for pf correction.

A detailed description on construction, operation, protection and trouble shooting of capacitor banks is
provided in Chapter 3.

2.4 Transformer Tap Changing: A transformer in the grid is like a node. Its voltage is maintained by
the requirement and availability of reactive power at its terminals. If the HV voltage is low, due to
bucking tap at, say -5, for e.g. at 0.96 pu the HV bus will get a net reactive power in-flow of say 200
MVAR through its EHV transmission network. The same reactive power flows towards the LV bus.
The LV bus voltage now increases. This is illustrated in Fig 2.3.
17


If the transformer tap is raised to say 5, it is now boosting the HV voltage to say, 1.02 pu. Now the
reactive power in-flow reduces to HV bus, to say 20 MVAR. This reduced MVAR is flowing to LV bus.
Hence the LV bus voltage reduces. This is illustrated in Fig 2.4. Hence the transformer tap only alters
the number of turns in the HV winding there by altering the HV voltage. If this HV voltage is less than
the neighbourhood voltage it receives MVAR, if it is more, then it pumps MVAR to its neighbourhood.
The LV bus voltage is maintained only as a consequence of MVAR inflow or outflow to it from the HV
bus.


2.5 Synchronous condensers
Synchronous condenser is another reactive power device, traditionally in use since 1920s. Synchronous
condenser is simply a synchronous machine without any load attached to it. Like generators, they can be
over-exited or under-exited by varying their field current in order to generate or absorb reactive power,
synchronous condensers can continuously regulate reactive power to ensure steady transmission voltage,
under varying load conditions. They are especially suited for emergency voltage control under loss of
load, generation or transmission, because of their fast short-time response. Synchronous condensers
provide necessary reactive power even exceeding their rating for short duration, to arrest voltage
collapse and to improve system stability.

Synonymous terms are synchronous compensator and synchronous phase modifier. The synchronous
compensator is the traditional means for Continuous control of reactive power. Synchronous
compensators are used in transmission systems: at the receiving end of long transmissions, in important
substations and in conjunction with HVDC inverter stations. Small synchronous compensators have also
been installed in high-power industrial networks of steel mills; few of these are in use today.
Synchronous compensators in use range in size from a few MVA up to hundreds of MVA.

Both indoor and outdoor installations exist. Synchronous compensators below, say, 50 MVA are usually
air-cooled, while those above are usually hydrogen-cooled. Modern synchronous compensators are
18
usually equipped with a fast excitation system with a potential-source rectifier exciter. Various starting
methods are used; the modern one is inverter starting.

The size of a synchronous compensator is referred to the Continuous MVA rating far the generation of
reactive power. In the generating mode of operation it usually has a rather high short-time overload
capability. The absorption capability is normally of the order of 60 per cent of the MVA rating, which
means that the control range is usually 160 per cent of the MVA rating. The reactive power output is
continuously controllable. The step-response time with closed-loop voltage control is from a few tenths of
a second, and up. The losses of hydrogen-cooled synchronous compensators are of the order of 10 W/kvar
at rated output. The losses of small air-cooled machines are of the order of 20 W/kvar at rated output.

In recent years the synchronous compensator has been practically ruled out by the SVC, in the case of
new installations, due to benefits in cost performance and reliability of the latter. One exception is HVDC
inverter stations, in cases where the short-circuit capacity has to be increased. The synchronous
compensators can do this, but not the SVC.

Comparison between Synchronous Condenser and shunt capacitor:
Sl.No Synchronous condenser Shunt capacitor
1. Synchronous condenser can supply kVAR
equal to its rating and can absorb upto 100% of
its KVA rating
Shunt capacitor should be associated with a
reactor to give that performance
2. This has fine control with AVR This operates in steps
3. The output is not limited by the system voltage
condition. This gives out its full capacity even
when system voltage decreases
The capacitor output is proportional to V
2

of the system. Hence its performance
decreases under low voltage conditions
4. For short periods the synchronous condenser
can supply KVAR in excess of its rating at
nominal voltage
The capacitor can not supply more than its
capacity at nominal voltage. Its output is
proportional to V
2
.
5. The full load losses are above 3% of its
capacity
The capacitor losses are about 0.2%
6. These can not be economically deployed at
several locations in distribution
The capacitor banks can be deployed at
several locations economically in
distribution
7. The synchronous condenser ratings can not be
modular
The capacitors are modular. They can be
deployed as and when system requirements
change
8. A failure in the synchronous condenser can
remove the entire unit ability to produce
KVAR. However failures are rare in
synchronous condensers compared to
capacitors
A failure of a single fused unit in a bank of
capacitors affects only that unit and does
not affect the entire bank
19
9. They add to the short circuit current of a system
and therefore increase the size of (11kV etc.)
breakers in the neighbourhood.
The capacitors do not increase the short
circuit capacity of the system, as their
output is proportional to V
2

10. This is a rotating device. Hence the O&M
problems are more
These are static and simple devices. Hence
O&M problems are negligible

2.5 Thyristor-controlled static var compensators (SVCs)
A Thyristor-controlled static var compensator is a static shunt reactive device, the reactive power
generation or absorption of which can be varied by means of Thyristor switches. The adjective static
means that, unlike the synchronous compensator, it has no moving primary part. Because it is the latest
developed means of reactive compensation, it will be described and discussed in greater detail than the
other devices. In a strict sense, the term static var compensator covers not only Thyristor-controlled
compensator but also other, types and in particular, the self-saturated iron-core reactor type. Even though
the self-saturated reactor compensators introduced before the Thyristor-controlled one, the later
completely dominates the applications of compensators in transmission systems, covering more than 95
per cent of all compensators. Today, it also leads industrial applications in conjunction with arc furnaces.
The following description is restricted to Thyristor-controlled compensators utilizing traditional Thyristor
(not GTO Thyristor).

As early as the first half of the 1970s the SVC became a well-established device in high-power industrial
networks, particularly for the reduction of voltage fluctuations caused by arc furnaces. In transmission
systems the breakthrough came at the end of the 1970s. Since then, there has been an almost explosive
increase in the number of applications, in the first place as an alternative to synchronous compensators,
but also for a more extensive use of dynamic shunt compensation, i.e. of easily and rapidly controllable
shunt compensation.

Compensators in use range in size from a few Mvar up to 650 Mvar control range, and with nominal
voltages up to 765 kV.

2.5.1. Function of SVCs in Power systems:
SVCs are used to improve voltage regulations, improve power factor, reduction of voltage and current
unbalances, damping of power swings, reduction of voltage flicker, improved transient stability of the
system etc. This can result in saving in operational costs, increased power transfer capability, reduced
line losses, higher availability of power etc.

2.5.1.1. Voltage control in Power systems :
The voltage variations in power systems are caused due to load switching, power system elements
switching. These variations are compensated by SVC. Three phase system voltages are compared with
adjustable voltage reference and the error signal is used to generate firing pulses. All three phases are
fired at the same angle making a balanced control system. A voltage droop proportional to the
compensator current is added to the measured system voltage and filtered to get low ripple feed back
voltage signal.

This way the SVC not only improves the voltage characteristic but also helps in damping oscillations
during post fault period. This property is also used for damping of power swings. Damping of angular
swings are improved by feeding a properly conditioned signal derived from power flow on the line to the
voltage regulator.


20
2.5.1.2. Reactive Power Control for I ndustrial loads:
SVC can be used to compensate the reactive power to the loads, like furnaces, roller mills. The load
power factor is measured from voltage and current signals, compared with a reference signal. Error signal
controls the firing angle of TCR or switching of TSC to generate the required reactive power.

2.5.1.3. Load Balancing for unbalanced systems:
Unbalanced loads are created in traction loads, electric arc furnaces. The SVC regulator consists of
separate reactive power measurement control and firing pulse generation circuits for each phase to enable
individual phase control. The firing angle for each phase will be different depending on its load
conditions thus effecting unbalanced control

2.5.1.4. Flicker control for electric arc furnaces:
Arc furnaces used to melt scrap in steel mills represent highly unbalanced and rapidly fluctuating loads.
They produce the following types of disturbances.
- Rapid open/short circuit conditions during arc initiation in the furnace
- Wide and rapid current fluctuations with unbalance between phases
- Fluctuations in the reactive current resulting in voltage variation which causes flicker.
These loads cause flicker in lamps, interference in TV reception and other electronic loads
To control flicker, furnace voltage and current are measured and reactive power requirement calculated.
Control of firing angle is done by open loop to get very fast response.

The following subsections 2.5.2 to 2.5.5 apply in the first place to transmission system SVCs. Industrial
system SVCs in conjunction with arc furnaces usually differ in some respects: No SVC transformer, fixed
capacitor (filter)/Thyristor-controlled reactor main circuit arrangement only, open-loop reactive-power
compensation control instead of closed-loop voltage control.

Principles of operation:
Two types of Thyristor-controlled elements are used in SVCs:
1. TSC Thyristor-switched capacitor
2. TCR Thyristor- controlled reactor
From a power-frequency point of view they can both be considered as a variable reactance, capacitive or
inductive, respectively.

2.5.2 Thyristor-switched capacitor:
Fig. 2.5 shows the basic diagram of a TSC. The branch shown consists of two major parts, the capacitor
C and the bi-directional Thyristor switch TY. In addition, there is a minor component, the inductor L., the
purpose of which is to limit the rate of rise of the current through the Thyristor and to prevent resonance.
Problems with the network.
Fig. 2.5 illustrates the operating principle. The problem of achieving essentially transient-free switching
on of the capacitor is overcome by choosing the switching instant when the voltage across the Thyristor
switch is at a minimum, ideally zero. In Fig 2.5 the switching-on instant is selected at the time (t1) when
the branch voltage has its maximum value and the same polarity as the capacitor voltage. This ensures
that the switching on takes place with practically no transient.
Switching off a capacitor is accomplished by suppression of the firing pulses to the Thyristor so that the
Thyristor will block as soon as the current becomes zero (t2). In principle, the capacitor will then remain
charged to the positive or negative peak voltage and be prepared for a new switching on.

The TSC is characterized by:
- Stepwise control
- Average one half-Cycle (maximum one cycle) delay for executing a command from the regulator,
as seen for a single phase
21
- Switching transients are negligible.
- No generation of harmonics



Fig. 2.5 operating principle of Thyristor-switched Capacitor.

2.5.3 Thyristor controlled reactor:




















Fig. 2.6 Operating principle of Thyristor-controlled
22
Fig. 2.6 shows the basic diagram of a TCR. The branch shown includes an inductor L and a bi-
directional Thyristor switch TY. The current and there by also the power frequency component of the
current are controlled by delaying the closing of the thyristor switch with respect to the natural zero
passages.

The TCR is characterized by:
- Continuous control.
- Maximum one half-cycle delay for executing a command from the regulator, as seen for a single
phase.
- Practically no transients.
- Generation of harmonics

If stepwise control is acceptable, a switched mode of operation with constant delay angle. =90
o
, can be
used (TSR mode of operation). The advantage of this mode of operation is that no harmonic current is
generated. A sufficiently small SVC step size can usually be achieved by a few TSRs, sized and operated
in a so-called binary system.

2.5.4 Static Var Compensator:

It is configured as FC +TCR or TSC +TCR.
The TCR and TSC are connected in delta for trapping harmonic currents of zero sequence (3
rd
, 9
th
etc.)
Fig 2.8 illustrates the operating performance of the compensator according to fig 2.7 (b)
Most transmission applications require closed-loop bus voltage control by an AVR.
For a rapid change of the control order the change from full lagging current to full leading current takes
place within a maximum of one cycle of the network voltage.

Fig 2.7 (a) SVC of the FC/ TCR type
(b) SVC of the TSC / TCR type





23
Fig 2.8 Operating principle of a SVC of type TSC +TCR for a slow change of control order

2.5.5 SVC Characteristics:
According to CIGRE an SVC shall be considered as a reactive load on the power system. That means the
reactive power, Q, of an SVC is positive when the SVC absorbs reactive power, and negative when the
SVC generates reactive power.
















Fig 2.9 SVC current verses voltage Characteristic.





24

Harmonics in SVC:
A TSC does not produce harmonic currents, but a TCR does. All SVCs with continuous reactive power
control include one TCR or more thus they produce harmonic currents. The harmonics of zero sequence
character (eg. 3
rd
, 9
th
etc.) are eliminated by some delta connection. The 5
th
and 7
th
harmonics are in some
cases eliminated by 12 pulse arrangement. As a last resort a filter is included. The allowable amount of
harmonic currents into the Power System expressed in terms of voltage distortion at the point of SVC
connection are :
- The allowed voltage distortion caused by a single harmonic current =1.0%
- The allowed total voltage distortion caused by all harmonic currents=1.5%

Dynamic Performance:
The small-signal performance of an SVC with closed-loop voltage control may be characterized by its
step-response time. It is defined here as the time required to achieve 90% of the called-for change in
voltage, for a step change in the reference voltage. The step change must be small enough for the SVC
not to reach a limit. The step-response time depends on the power-system equivalent impedance at the
SVC point of connection. It is typically less than a few cycles of the power-frequency voltage at the
minimum short-circuit MVA level considered when choosing the voltage regulator gain.
If there is a risk that the short-circuit MVA level can be even lower and thereby cause SVC voltage
control instability, this can be cured by a gain supervisor automatically reducing the gain in case of
instability.

If there are frequent wide variations in the short-circuit MVA level and if it is judged important to get as
fast small-signal voltage control as possible for all operating conditions, this can be achieved by a gain
optimizer, automatically and repeatedly adjusting the gain up or down versus the short-circuit MVA
level.

The above discussion is primarily referred to continuously acting SVCs, but does in principle also apply
to discrete acting SVCs (SVCs of TSC, TSR or TSC/TSR type in a binary arrangement).
The large-signal performance is essentially characterized by the actuating time of the SVC triggering and
main circuits only. For a large voltage deviation, the SVC response time is typically of the order of one
power-frequency cycle, considering the power-frequency voltage component only.

25



Fig. 2.11 Illustrates the dynamic performance of an SVC for a large step change in the reference voltage
IT, IC and IB mean total, capacitor and reactor current respectively.

2.6 Series Capacitor:
It is a bank of capacitor units inserted in a line for the purpose of canceling a part of the line inductive
reactance and so reducing the transfer impedance.
The reactive power generated in a series capacitor is proportional to I
L
2
and so increases with increasing
transmitted power and thus influences the reactive power balance of the system.
The typical uses are:
- To increase the transmission loading capability as determined by Transient stability limits
- To obtain a desired steady state active power division among parallel circuits in order to reduce
overall losses
- To control transmission voltages and reactive power balance
- To prevent voltage collapse in heavily loaded systems
- To damp the power oscillations in association with Thyristor control

The degree of compensation is 20 to 70% of line inductive reactance. The series capacitor (C
se
) can be
located at the ends of a long Transmission line or in a switching station in the middle of it.
Considerations are voltage profiles, efficiency of compensation, losses, fault currents, over voltages,
proximity to attended stations etc.

2.6.1. Comparison between shunt and series compensation
S.N Shunt compensation Series compensation
1. The shunt unit is connected in parallel
across full line voltage. The current
through the shunt capacitor is nearly
constant as the supply terminal voltage and
its reactance are constant.
The series unit is connected in series in
the circuit and therefore conducts full
current
26
2. The voltage across the shunt capacitor is
substantially constant as it is equal to the
system voltage and generally within
certain limits of say 0.9 to 1.1 pu.
The voltage across the series capacitor
changes instantaneously as it depends on
the load current through it, which varies
from 0 to I
Lmax

3. The power developed across the shunt
capacitor is
Csh KVAR =
Csh cSH
x
v
v
x
v
2
. =
|
|
.
|

\
|

The power developed across the series
capacitor is
Cse KVAR =(I
L
X
Cse
) (I
L
)=I
L
2
X
Cse

4. The shunt capacitor supplies lagging
reactive power to the system. Hence
directly compensating the lagging KVAR
load. It improves the load power factor
substantially. Hence its main purpose is to
compensate the load Power factor
The series capacitor reduces the line
reactance as it introduces leading
reactance in series of the line. Thus series
capacitor at rated frequency Compensates
for the drop, through inductive reactance
of the feeder. Hence it is used to increase
the line transmission capacity.
5. The size and capacity of shunt capacitor is
generally higher for the same voltage
regulation
The size and capacity of a series capacitor
is relatively lesser for the same voltage
regulation
6. Not suitable for transient voltage drops
caused by say, frequent motor starting,
electric welding etc.
The voltage regulation due to series
capacitor is proportional to the I
L
2
hence it
meets the requirements of transient
voltage changes
7. Performance is dependent on terminal
voltage. Hence not effective in fluctuating
voltage conditions.
The performance does not depend on the
system voltage variations. But depends
on system load current. Hence gives full
output under low voltage and heavily
loaded conditions
8. The shunt capacitor need not be on the
source side. But closer to the load point
The series capacitor should always be on
the source side of the load.
9. The rating is based on
KVARCsh =KW(Tan|1 - Tan|2) where
|1 is the power factor angle before
correction, |2 is the pf angle after
correction
The rating is based on percentage
compensation of the line reactance.
Generally XCse =0.3 to 0.4 of Xline Ex:
A 220KV, 0.4O/km, 100km line, 40%,
XL =0.4 X 100 =40O, Xcse =
0.4 x 40 =16O =1/2tfCse Cse =
F F
x
x
200
16 314
10 1
6
~
10. The Ferranti effect is aggravated by shunt
compensation
The Ferranti effect is reduced by the
series capacitor
27
11. Power transferred through a line
P= o Sin
X
V V
r s

with shunt capacitor, Vr increases P
increases
With Cse, Vr increases and X decreases
hence P increases much more.
12. The shunt compensation does not require
special protection arrangements as the
terminal voltage of the capacitor bank falls
under fault conditions
The voltage across series capacitor
abnormally rises due to flow of fault
current through it. Hence it requires
special protection schemes.

The fig. 2.12 Shows the bypass arrangement series capacitor (C
se
) in case of faults as large voltage
develops across the series capacitor. But the transient stability warrants reinsertion of C
se
into the system
at the earliest. This is achieved by the Zinc Oxide (Zno) varistor. It provides instantaneous capacitor
reinsertion after fault clearing. A triggered spark gap is provided to take care of excess energy absorbed
by Zno. Damping circuit (D) limits the discharge current.
C
sc

Fig.2.12 Series Capacitor with Zinc-oxide varistor by-pass system.
Zno arrestor is highly non linear. It is connected across the series capacitor in addition to the triggered
gap and by pass switch. The varistor clamps the capacitor voltage below its short time over voltage
rating during the fault. The re-insertion is almost instantaneous. Thus both capacitor protection and
system stability aspects are taken care of.

Series Capacitor in radial distribution systems:
A Series Capacitor is becoming popular in radial distribution systems because
- C
se
is a cost effective device of reducing voltage drops caused by steady loads on a 11 or
33 KV radial line with load Power factor of say 0.7 to 0.9
- To take care of starting of a large motor and consequential voltage fluctuations
- To decrease line losses due to the lower current
- To increase load ability of the feeder
- Simple and reliable bypass systems are available
- Advanced resonance detectors are available.
28
2.6.1. Sub Synchronous Resonance (SSR):
The SSR is generated in radially connected turbo generators with a series Capacitor (C
se
) in the line.








Two basic phenomenon:
Fig 2.13 System of the type most exposed to the sub-synchronous resonance
- The generator appears as an induction generator for sub synchronous armature currents
- If the difference between the synchronous frequency and the sub synchronous natural frequency of
the electrical system lies close to a natural frequency of the shaft mechanical system, the bilateral
coupling between the two systems becomes strong. If the net damping of the two systems is
negative, electrical and torsional oscillations will build up, either spontaneously or after a
disturbance, e.g. a line fault.

In case of hydro-turbine generator units, the risk of torsional oscillation problem is practically negligible.
Preventive Measures:
- SSR detection and relaying leading to tripping of unit
- Compensating sub synchronous currents with Dynamic stability
- Pole-face amortizer winding against induction generator effect
- Thyrister Controlled Series Capacitor.

The use of a Thyristor-controlled module, appropriately controlled, of the series capacitor bank seems to
be a promising counter measure.

Another subject often discussed is how to ensure correct operation of line relay protections in conjunction
with series capacitors. According to service experience the risk of maloperation of line distance
protections seems small. Ultra-high-speed line protections based on traveling wave detection can
eliminate the possible problems of line protection in conjunction with series capacitors.

---
29
CHAPTER - 3
CAPACI TORS
3.0 The Capacitance:
Absolute permitivity (c) =(Electric Flux density/ Electric Field Intensity)
c =c
o
c
r
;
c =Absolute permitivity
Permitivity of free space =c
o
Relative permitivity =c
r
Electric field Intensity =(V/d) =( Voltage across the dielectric / Thickness of the dielectric)
Electric Flux density =(Q/A) =( Charge in coulombs/ Area of the dielectric)
Q =Charge accumulated in coulombs =(Current in Amperes X Time in seconds)
C =Capacitance =(Q / V) farads
A Farad is the capacity of a capacitor between the plates of which there appears a difference of
potential of one Volt when it is charged by a quantity of electricity equal to one coulomb.
C =(c
o
c
r
A / d) =c A/d farads
A=area of the dielectric field in sq. mts.
d =distance between plates in mts.
c =Absolute permitivity
Capacitors in series = .....
1 1 1 1
3 2 1
+ + + =
C C C C

Capacitors in parallel = C=C
1
+C
2
+C
3
+

3.1 Capacitor in AC circuits:

Ic
V
Fig 3.1. Voltage and current relationships in a.c. capacitive circuits
Leading Ic
V
90
0
Xc
Ic
3.2 Circuit containing Resistance & capacitance
V
R
=IR
V
C
=IX
C

2 2
2 2
2 2 2
)
1
(
1
1
) ( ) (
C
R
V
Z
C
R I IX IR V
C
e
e
+ = =
+ = + =

30

Fig 3.2. circuit containing resistance and capacitance a) Circuit b) Phasor diagram

KVar =(I
C
) (V) =eC V.V =2tfC V
2

KVA = =
3
10 ) )( (

V I
2 2
KVar KW +

KW =VI Cos| x10
-3
KVar =VI sin| x10
-3
Pf = | Cos
KVA
KW
=
KVar = |
|
|
Tan KW
KW
KW KVA = =
cos
sin
2 2


3.3 Dielectric Loss: The dielectric loss is present due to dielectric in a capacitor instead of perfect
vacuum. The phase angle of current falls short of 90
o
by o. Hence Power factor of capacitor =Cos (90-
o) =Sin o ~ tan o.
Tan o =r.ce
| =(90-o)
Power absorbed by capacitor =VI cos | =VI tan o for low values of o
Tan o =0.0006 Loss of 0.6 w/KVar

Tan o =rCe
| =90
o
- o
Fig 3.3 Power absorbed by the capacitor equals VI cos | ~ VI tan o








31
3.4 Charge and discharge of a capacitor
C
F


Fig 3.4. Charge / Discharge of a capacitor through a pure resistor
3
10 x
KVar
I = =Single phase capacitor current
V
C
V
KVar
I
C
. 3
10
3

= =Three phase capacitor Current

V =line to line voltage
|
|
.
|

\
|

t
V
=
CR
e ch
e
R
I 1
arg

CR =Time constant of the unit
CR
t
V

e disch
e
R
I =
arg

Energy stored in a capacitor =J = CV
2
joules
.5 Capacitor for Power factor correction
(tan| -tan|
Where C in F and V in kV

3
KVar
1
=KW tan|
1
;
KVar
2
=KW tan|
2 ;
(KVar
1
-KVar
2
) =KW
1 2)

Fig 3.5.a Capacitor connected in parallel with load where V=supply ltage, I
L
=current taken by load, vo
I
C
=Current taken by capacitor, I=current drawn from supply.

32

Fig 3.5.b. Determination of shunt capacitor requirement




Fig 3.6. Phasor diagram showing the effect of adding capacitance where I
L
=current flowing when no
capacitor is connected. I
C
=current due to capacitor only; I=current taken from supply with capacitor
connected

3.6 Shunt Capacitors applied to Power Supply System:

33

Fig 3.7. Simplified distribution system a) System b) simplified circuit c) Phasor diagram lagging power
factor d) phase diagram unity power factor with shunt capacitor bank.

The reactive power is generated at the receiving end. Hence the HV transmission and distribution system
is relieved of this reactive power flow in the system.





















34
3.7 Series capacitors in Power Systems:



Fig 3.8. Simplified distribution system with series connected capacitors a) System b) Simplified circuit
c) Phasor diagram without capacitor d) Phasor diagram with capacitor

3.8 Protection Of A Capacitor Bank

3.8.1 Design considerations for protection of HT Capacitors:
The protection of HT Capacitors should consider abnormal voltage variations, distorted current and
voltage wave forms due to non linear loads, resonance, parallel switching, restrike of switching device,
identification and elimination of failed capacitors etc.
a) BIS, IEC specify capacitors to be suitable to take care 10% over voltage for 12 hours a day
b) The harmonics can be taken care of by a series reactor in series with capacitor. The series
reactor shall be say 6%. This combination offers lower impedance at 5
th
harmonic. Net
impedance at 5
th
harmonic is inductive and hence no resonance takes place. Explained in section
3.9.
c) The capacitor offers very low impedance at the time of switching. These in rush currents will be
larger when subsequent banks are switched on. In order to limit this in rush current a 0.2 to 1%
reactor is used in series.
35
d) Restrike: When capacitor is switched off, one side of the switch is system voltage and the other
side the charge. Hence double system voltage may appear across the contacts. If a restrike
occurs the capacitor gets damaged. Hence the switch should be restrike free.
e) The failed units of the capacitor bank shall have to be eliminated in order to avoid over voltage
on the remaining units.

3.8.2. A one line diagram of a protection scheme of a capacitor bank is as shown in fig (3.9)
As per IEC 70, Capacitor banks must
i) Withstand 10% over voltage
ii) Withstand 30% over load due to over voltage and/or harmonics
iii) Peak value of in rush current must not exceed 100 times the rated current of the capacitor.
iv) Capacitor must not be re-energized until residual voltage falls below 10% rated voltage.
v) CB must be restrike free

3.8.3 Over load protection (50):
The capacitor bank tuning factor =8.9
Rated load current =I = A 289
10 33 3
10 5 . 16
3
6
~



(1.1) Ir =1.1 x 289 =318 Amps
Hence the CT ratio at 33kV is 320/5 Amps
The relay should trip at 30% over load 289 x 1.3/320 x 5 =5.87 Amps
=117%
The above overload current is not sufficient for an 1DMT relay. Hence an O.C. relay with
adjustable definite time delay is provided.
Recommended settings
a) Current =1.3 x Ir
b) Timer =0.3 sec.

3.8.4 Over voltage protection (59):
Recommended settings
a) Voltage =1.1 V rated
b) timer =7 to 10 sec.



36
3.8.5 Over current/Short circuit Protection:
An IDMT relay is provided to take care of short circuits in the capacitor bank

3.8.6 Under voltage relay:
This is provided with bus PT and set at 60% of rated voltage. A time delay of 2 sec. is provided.
This takes care of auto re-close CB on the in coming feeder.

3.8.7. Capacitor Unbalance protection:
This is to disconnect the bank when a fault has occurred inside the bank in order to prevent a healthy
unit from being exposed to more than 1.1 rated voltage.

a) Voltage unbalance scheme (60):
The unbalance can be detected by sensing the residual voltage coming across the open delta of
PT secondary as shown in fig.3.10
Disadvantages: i) The scheme can not distinguish between unbalance due to capacitor internal
fault and unbalance due to external fault or unbalanced load.
ii) Sensitivity of voltage unbalance scheme is always less than sensitivity of current unbalance
scheme.

Fig. 3.10 Unbalance protection of 3 phase capacitor bank with RVT

b) Current unbalance scheme (61):
3 phase capacitor banks are connected in double star. The CT between two neutrals detects the
unbalance current and trips.



37
Delay in re-closing operation:
Once tripped the capacitor should be allowed to discharge to an appreciable limit of ~ 10% of
Vrated within 5 mts. To facilitate this, a time delay interlock is provided to prevent the reclosure of
the breaker within 5 minutes.

The CB should be re-strike free: It should be capable to break the capacitor current at maximum
permissible bus voltage

I nrush current: Since generally the capacitor banks are used in series with reactors as filter banks.
Peak value of the in rush current is limited by the reactor within specified limit. If it is used alone a small
reactor is considered in series with the capacitor to limit the peak in rush current.

3.9 Series reactor for harmonic suppression:
When there are harmonic generators like rectifiers or arc furnaces present in the system, there is a
possibility of capacitors drawing much more current than permissible limit.
A series reactor connected to a capacitor forms a circuit with tuning frequency, fo:
At tuning frequency X =X
L
X
C
~ 0
f
o
X
L
=2tf
o
L; X
C
=1/(2tf
o
C)
X = X
L
X
C
=0 2tf
o
L =1/2tf
o
C
f
o
2
=
( ) LC
fo
LC t t 2
1
2
1
2
=


Fig 3.12 the series reactor for harmonic suppression
The tuning frequency (fo) is the frequency at which the LC circuit offers least impedance. In order to
suppress harmonics, the series reactor is so chosen that tuning frequency falls below the harmonics of the
lowest order that may be present in the system.

For example if 5
th
harmonic is the lower order present in the system then the tuning frequency should be
say 240 Hz so that the LC circuit will offer higher impedance to the 7
th
, 11
th
. harmonics.
38
The tuning number =n =
L
C O
X
X
L f C f LC f
f
f
= = =
1 1 1
1 2 . 2
1
2
1
t t t

Where fo =tuning frequency
f1 =fundamental frequency i.e. 50 Hz
X
C
=capacitive reactance
X
L
=series reactor reactance

The frequency response characteristic of the series LC circuit with 6% series reactor:
n = 4 7 . 16
06 . 0
1
~ = =
C
C
L
C o
X
X
X
X
f
f
.09

f X
L
X
C
X
50 0.06 X
C
X
C
(1-0.06)X
C
=0.94X
C

100 0.12 X
C
X
C
/2 (1/2 0.12)X
C
=0.76X
C

150 0.18 X
C
X
C
/3 (1/3 0.18)X
C
=0.46X
C

200 0.24 X
C
X
C
/4 (1/4 0.24)X
C
=0.04X
C

250 0.3X
C
X
C
/5 (1/5 0.3)X
C
=-0.5X
C






Fig 3.13 the frequency response characteristic of a series LC circuit
n =f
o
/f
1
=205/50 ~ 4.09

The LC circuit does not offer high impedance to the harmonic currents close to the tuning number.
Hence the series reactor and the capacitor should be designed to withstand these currents also.

S.No. f
0
/ f
1
X
L
=X
C
/ (f
0
/f
1
)
2
X
L
as %ge of X
C

1 1 X
L
=X
C
(1.0) 100
2 3 X
L
=X
C
(0.11) 11
3 5 X
L
=X
C
(0.04) 4
4 7 X
L
=X
C
(0.02) 2
5 9 X
L
=X
C
(0.012) 1.2
6 11 X
L
=X
C
(0.0083) 0.83


39
3.10 Causes Of Capacitor Bank Failures And Remedial Measures
It has been found invariably, whenever capacitor bank failure takes place leading to failure of capacitor
units, the tendency of the user is to get the failed units replaced as soon as possible or to use the bank
with remaining lesser number of units without going into details of failure and causes thereof, Instead of
rushing to re-install the capacitor bank one must analyse the failure and arrive at the root cause of failure
so that necessary remedial measures can be taken to avoid recurring of such failures in future.


Capacitor Failures Can be segregated into following categories
- Failures due to internal unit faults.
- Failures due to installation problems.
- Failures due to system problems.

3.11 Failures Due To I nternal Unit Faults
Faults are generally due to defective material used or due to manufacturing defects.

Defective Materials include mainly POLYPROPYLENE FILM having voids or spaces where thickness
of the film is lower than average thickness stipulated by film manufacturer. This gives rise to higher
voltage stresses thereby leading to puncture in the capacitor element and subsequent failure of the unit. In
case of units with internal element fuse protection, may be such defective elements are Isolated and
balance units continue to be in service. However, In case of units having external fuse protection, such
faulty elements may lead to arcing, rise in Internal pressure, bulging (and may be unit bursting) before
the external fuse can identify the fault to trip the unit.

I mpregnate Oil is also important from the point of view of providing interlayer insulation and cooling.
Any impurities in the oil are likely to give flashovers at lead wires/interconnections and containers and
thereby failure of the unit.

CRCA Sheets are used for containers because of their higher tensile strength, which leads to distortion in
the shape of the container in the event of abnormal internal pressure. If the sheet material is not CRCA,
rusting of container, bursting due to internal pressure etc. are seen as reasons for unit failure.

Defective Workmanship include defects during the manufacturing process such as Element Winding,
Impregnation. Container Welding. Sealing of bushings.

Element Winding is necessarily required to be done in dustfree atmosphere. Generally pressurised
rooms are used for this purpose to avoid dust entering into the winding room. Any dust particles in the
element give arcing in the elements and thereby failure of the unit

I mpregnation process is most vital. Longer the impregnation cycle, better will he the quality of
capacitor. During impregnation cycle full vacuum should be maintained in order to ensure complete
drying of elements and then proper oil impregnation shall take place. If during the process vacuum is lost
or oil impregnation is not done properly, premature failure of elements is likely.

I f Container Welding & Sealing Of Bushings is not done properly, oil leakages start and when oil leaks
out, air contamination leads to subsequent failure of tank. Generally raw material and process problems
are identified during inspection stage and testing. Such portion of faulty unit or entire unit can be rejected
during the process of manufacture. However, sometimes these units pass the in-house testing but do not
sustain field conditions and lead to premature failure in operation. However, one must note, such failures
are only isolated cases and are restricted to one unit failure at a time and generally within one month of
commissioning of the bank.
40

3.12 Failures Due To I nstallation Problems:
Capacitor Bank installations should he done properly as per SUPPLI ERS DRAWI NGS and
I NSTRUCTI ON MANUALS. Unit configuration and number of series groups should be strictly
followed as per drawings. Mass failures are likely to occur if the series groups and number of units per
series group are not installed properly.

If Handling of capacitors at the time of installation is done by dragging the units on the floor with the
help of bushings, oil leakages from bottom welding portion or bushings solder may start leading to
failure of the units. Sometimes units damaged in transit with OIL LEAKED out completely are used in
the installation, which will cause subsequent failure. Interconnections between unit bushings and busbars
should be done with L clamps using 2 spanner method to avoid breakage of solder joint of bushing.
Sufficient space should be available between units for better COOLING of the units particularly for
indoor banks

For open type banks live parts should be minimum 8 feet above ground level. Either elevated structures
or wire mesh enclosures should be used. This is important with more than one series group is involved
when the containers become live. Electrical Safety clearances should be maintained as per IE rules.

Earthing of installation is necessary but remember not to earth live structure or floating neutral point of
capacitor bank.

At places where BIRD FAULTS are likely, insulate live parts with insulating tape, sleeving. Whenever
live structures are involved with capacitor banks of more than one series groups, bird faults may lead to
mass failure. Wire mesh may be used to avoid bird fault under such conditions.

Balancing Of Capacitor Units Per Group should be done before commissioning with the help of
capacitance meter or by applying low voltage single phase AC supply. Failure of any unit in the group
will also give unbalance leading to overvoltage on balance units of the same group which may be
dangerous enough to cause failure of the units.

3.13 Failures Due To System Problems:
As mentioned earlier, generally the capacitor bank should stabilize within one month of operation. If
however, it is found that the units fail one by one or mass failure occurs, system study like harmonics,
load variations, power factor measurements at various loading conditions, voltages and voltage/current
surges due to loads/capacitor banks switching, will have to be carried out, to ascertain cause of failure.

In case HARMONICS are present in the system, capacitor system should be designed to take care of
harmonics present since capacitor system offers lowest impedance path to harmonics. By adding
appropriate size of reactor in the capacitor system, we can increase the impedance and curtail harmonics
entering into capacitor thus reducing loading on capacitors. However, if harmonic contents are large
enough to give loading on capacitors more than designed value, we have to use capacitors in the form of
tuned filter circuit designed to carry the required harmonics. If capacitors are not designed to take care of
these aspects they are likely to fail due to harmonics.

3.14 Selection Of Capacitors:
Rating of capacitors, basic technology and operating conditions are vital in selecting appropriate
capacitors.

Rating should be selected to ensure that the Power Factor does not go leading under all conditions of
loading. Leading power factor particularly under light load conditions is likely to rise system voltages as
41
also resonance phenomena between incoming transformer and capacitor bank may occur to build up
voltages and thereby failure of capacitors. Rated voltage of the capacitors should be selected based on the
highest system voltage keeping some safety margin and considering effect of harmonics.

As per the latest trend and due to lowest loss figures 100% PP film capacitors are used in HT
applications. However, in case of LT applications, selection of TECHNOLOGY will be vital. Metallised
Polypropylene (MPP) capacitors are available at moderate rates and loss figures. These are best suited for
LT system where harmonics are not present and application does not involve frequent switching. For
system with harmonics or application involving frequent switching these capacitors output goes on
reducing due to self healing property. Under such conditions either Mixed Dielectric (MD) capacitors of
Paper plus polypropylene film dielectric or latest version with very low losses, 100% polypropylene film
(All PP) capacitors should be used. Generally MPP capacitors are provided with inductor coil to reduce
effect of switching surge currents thereby extending life against self healing under normal operating
conditions.

When capacitors are connected directly across MOTOR in individual feeder compensation, due care
should be taken to check that under all loading conditions of the motor, capacitors dont overcompensate.

Number of SWITCHING OPERATIONS should not exceed 3-4 per day. If the number of switching
operations are likely to be more, the life of capacitor bank, reduces as each time the capacitors have to
carry high inrush currents. While SWITCHING ON the capacitor bank, it shall be ensured that system
voltage is less than the rated voltage of the capacitor. Again, life expectancy goes down with switching
at higher voltages. In case capacitors are used near to transformer with on-load cap changer it would be
safer to have OLTC on the primary side of the transformer and capacitor on secondary side as each
OLTC operation generates surges, dangerous to capacitors.

3.15 SELECTI ON OF ASSOCI ATED EQUI PMENT:
Associated equipment selection is as import as capacitor selection for better performance of capacitor
bank system.

In order to avoid overvoltages generated at the time of opening of BREAKER, the same should be
restrike free. Necessary test certificates for breaker suitability for capacitor duty should be obtained.
Sometimes it may be necessary to use surge absorbers With breakers used for capacitor duty. It has also
been noticed that switching of fully loaded inductive feeder by vacuum circuit breaker (VCB)

gives rise
to voltage surges. If capacitors are connected to the same bus, these surges are likely to damage
capacitors. Here also it is advisable to use surge absorbers.

Series Reactors are used with capacitors to (i) Limit switching surge currents particularly during parallel
switching (ii) Limit harmonic currents (iii) For tuned filter circuit. Depending upon the application
involved, the parameters of the series reactors are decided. Capacitor rated voltage should be increased to
the extent of drop in the series reactors. The series reactor current rating should be chosen to cover 130%
continuous current rating of associated capacitor bank. The heat run test should be carried out at 130%
current rating for series reactors, to ensure this compliance and to avoid failures due to higher currents.
Series Reactors are available in magnetically & non-magnetically shielded versions. Generally in systems
with harmonics, non-magnetically shielded reactors are used to avoid failures due to harmonic fluxes
flowing through shielding.

It is a common practice to reduce one unit from each phase if one of the unit fails and use reduced
capacity bank with same reactor. This should be avoided as reduced capacity bank has higher Xc value
thereby percentage of series reactor compared to Xc reduces. Reduced value of series reactor may not be
effective to curtail harmonics. A small value reactor at neutral end of the capacitor bank is always useful
42
to improve capacitor bank performance as it reduces considerably switching surges particularly during
parallel switching thereby reducing the duty on all the associated equipment including breakers.

Lightning Arrestors to some extent restrict switching surge voltages. Whenever high surges are expected,
Lightning arrestors of higher discharge handling capacity should be used. Also, Lightning Arrestor
leakage currents should be periodically checked to confirm the same are not more than 150% of the value
recorded at the time of installation.

If RVT windings are not mechanically strong enough to sustain voltage surges due to capacitor bank
switching, RVT is likely to fail.

3.16 Nature Of Failures
Whenever capacitor unit failure occurs, this necessarily gives rise to NDR (Neutral Displacement Relay)
operation. In case of capacitor units protected with external expulsion fuse (or HRC FUSE), the fuse may
operate to protect the unit, which will also give rise to NDR operation. NDR will also operate if RVT has
internal fault. Therefore whenever capacitor bank trips on NDR operation, one has to find out if fuse has
blown but unit is intact. This can be due to (i) Transient overcurrent or (ii) Overheating of fuse due to
loose end caps.

Capacitor bank may trip due to other protections offered like overcurrent, over voltage, under voltage
which are common protections. Here again bank may trip without any failure of units, one has to identify
by checking the capacitance value of the unit and certify unit failure. From the protective relay operation
one can identify the type of fault which might have caused failure of unit.

3.17 Summary:
Any unit failure should be analysed based on information given above and such failures can be attributed
to (a) manufacturing defects or (b) wrong applications. Failures due to harmonics, switching over
voltages or inadequate protection shall not be attributed to manufacturers.

In order to find out cause of failure, full data of capacitor bank at the time of commissioning and at the
time of failure may be noted.

IEEE have standardised ratings of capacitor units to take care of normal site conditions and safety
margins in the form of adjusted rated voltages. After the capacitor bank system is fully stabilized, spare
units should be kept to replace any of the failed units under circumstances beyond control, but only after
ascertaining the cause of failure.

Problems:
1) A load of 85 KVA is working at pf of 0.6. The demand charges per KW of Maximum Demand per
month =Rs.180/-. If the power factor in a month is less than 0.9 the MD charges for that month are
increased by 1% for each 0.01 by which the pf is below 0.9. Find payback period if cost/KVar =
Rs.100/- and the power factor is to be raised up to 0.95.

Sol
n
: a) Total demand charges prior to correction:
85 x 0.6 =51.0 KW x 180 = 9180
pf penalty =30% of above = 2754
11934 per month
b) The cost of capacitor:
Correction KVAR =Kw[Tan(cos
-1
pf1) Tan(cos
-1
pf2)]
KVAR=51 [Tan(cos
-1
0.6) Tan(cos
-1
0.95)] =51 x 1.005
Hence 51 KVar is required to correct the power factor to 0.95
43
Cost per KVar =Rs.100/-
51 KVar 100 x 51 =Rs. 5100/-
c) Improved Load conditions:
New total charges per month = 51 x 180 =9180
Difference/month =11934 9180 =2754 Rs.
Hence the investment can be recovered in about 2.0 months

2) A HT consumer has 50 KW MD at 0.8 pf and average consumption of 5000 units per month. The
distribution company penalizes @ 3 ps/kwh for each 1% decrease in power factor below 0.9. If the cost
of capacitor bank along with associated switchgear is Rs.200/kVar. In how many months the investment
on capacitor can be recovered if the power factor is raised to 0.98.

Solution: Percentage of pf inviting penalty =(0.9 0.8)/1 x 100 =10%
Energy charges penalty =10 x 3 x
100
5000
=1500/- Rs.
penalty is Rs.1500/ month on average consumption of 5000 units
Correction KVar =50 kW [(tan(cos
-1
0.8) tan (cos
-1
0.98)]
=50 (0.541) =27.050 KVar
Cost of 27 KVar = 27 x 200 = 5400/Rs.
It can be recovered in
1500
5400
=3.6 months
3) Find the average reactive power flow through a 220 kV, 120 km line operating at Sending end voltage
(Vs) of 1.0 pu and Receiving end voltage (Vr) of 0.9 pu and the o =30
o
.
Sol
n
: coso =cos 30 =0.866
Qs =

( )
pu
x x x x
VsVr V
s
22 . 0 7794 . 1 ) 866 . 0 )( 9 . 0 )( 0 . 1 ( 0 . 1 cos
2 2
=

=
o


Qr =
x x x x
Vr VsVr 03 . 0 81 . 0 78 . 0 ) 9 . 0 ( ) 866 . 0 )( 9 . 0 )( 0 . 1 ( cos
2 2

=
o

220 kV, 120 km x =48O
Base impedance = O = = 484
100
220
2 2
MVA
KV

Line impedance in pu = PU 1 . 0
484
48
=
Qs = pu
o
2 . 2
1 . 0
22 .
= =220 MVAR
Qr = pu 3 . 0
1 . 0
03 . 0
=

Qaverage pu
Qr Qs
95 . 0
2
9 . 1
2
) 3 . 0 ( 2 . 2
2
= =
+
=
+
= =95 MVAR

4) A 100 MVAR capacitor is connected at a bus with 5000 MVA short circuit capacity what is the
expected voltage change.

Let 1 pu =100MVA;

44
AV = ;
sc
S
Q A
AQ =100 MVAR,
AQ in pu =100/100 =1 pu
S
sc
=5000 MVA
S
sc
in pu =5000/100 =50 pu

AV (pu) = =
A
pu
Sscpu
QPu
02 . 0
50
1
% 2

5) A bus experiences 3% voltage fluctuation. The S
sc
is 5000 MVA. We wish to size the Static Var
Compensator to smoothen the voltage fluctuation, what shall be the size of SVC?
Sol
n
: AV =0.03 pu; S
sc
=5000/100 =50 pu
AQ =(AV )(Ssc) =(0.03)(50) =1.50 pu = 150 MVAR
Hence the size of SVC required is 150 MVAR

***
45
CHAPTER 4

REACTI VE POWER COMPENSATI ON I N TRANSMI SSI ON SYSTEMS

4.0 I ntroduction
Well-planned and coordinated reactive power compensation is an indispensable element in the design and
operation of a reliable power system. The effectiveness of reactive power control on power system may
be of utmost importance not only under normal conditions, but also during major system disturbances.
It is often advantageous to operate the transmission parts of a power system.
with a fairly flat voltage profile, in order to avoid unnecessary reactive power flows.
With a relatively small supply of reactive power into the distribution systems.
With reactive power capacity reserves available for use in connection with major
disturbances and under generator, transformer or line outage conditions.

4.1 Transmissions with long overhead lines
This section discusses transmission and sub transmission systems, where shunt compensation, in one
form or another, is necessary or useful for reactive power and voltage control and possibly also for
synchronous stability improvement. Problems of voltage control and synchronous stability are most
pronounced in systems with high transfer impedances. With low transfer impedances the question is
more that of only balancing the reactive loads by reactive power production. The heading transmissions
with long overhead lines has been chosen because long lines means high transfer impedances.
The discussion is grouped into the subjects of steady-state var and voltage control, prevention of voltage
collapse, reduction of temporary over voltages, other voltage quality improvements and synchronous
stability improvement.
4.2 Steady-state var and voltage control
The aim of the steady-state voltage control is to keep the transmission bus voltages within fairly narrow
limits, while the load transferred varies. The desirable voltage range under normal operating conditions is
usually defined by the nominal voltage +/- 5 to 10 per cent, usually with higher voltage during heavy
load conditions than during light load conditions. Usually a larger voltage deviation is allowed under
circuit outage operating conditions than under normal operating conditions. The set voltages on the
different buses, for which the voltage can be controlled directly, should be such that the reactive power
flows are minimized.
Since the reactive power transmitted may greatly vary hour by hour, the variation of the reactive power
balance of a line may be considerable, as illustrated by Figure 4.1. In the case of a long EHV
transmission, where variations in the hundreds of Mvar per line are involved, this greatly influences the
reactive power balance of the entire transmission systems.





46



Reactive power
p.u.of line
generation
Fig 4.1 Reactive power balance of a transmission line






If there is an outage, either, forced or scheduled, of one line out of a number of heavily loaded parallel
lines, a great increase in reactive power demand may be created. The line generation of reactive power is
reduced and the line consumption of reactive power is greatly increased.
The basic voltage control of a power system is provided by the large generators, each having its own
excitation system with an automatic voltage regulator. The generators are used for voltage control at the
terminals to which they are connected; reactive power is generated or absorbed, depending on the load
conditions. Transfer of reactive power from the generators to electrically remote points of the power
system or vice versa is usually avoided under normal operating conditions.

Generators are, however, very important as reserve sources of reactive power, needed also rather far from
the generators, after contingencies such as the sudden loss of a main generator or a major line section.
The short-time reactive overload capability of generators may also be valuable on such occasions.
Further, pure synchronous compensator operation of generators can be valuable under unusual system
operating conditions.

4.3 Passive shunt compensation:
The coarse reactive-power balance and voltage control, in particular of the parts of transmission systems
which are not adjacent to generators, is brought about through passive shunt compensation by means of
breaker-switched and permanently connected shunt reactors and breaker-switched shunt capacitors. Also
series compensation comes into picture.

Under light load conditions of a long EHV transmission, the excessive line-generated reactive power
must be drawn out at the buses in order to keep down the voltages. Shunt reactors are frequently used on
EHV lines of lengths exceeding about 200 km they are also needed on shorter lines, if these are supplied
from weak systems. With this method, shunt reactive-power absorption; the adjoining parts of the power
system are released from reactive power flows. There is a trend towards the highest degrees of
compensation for the highest system voltages and the longest lines. Degrees of compensation of 60 to 70
percent of the line charging are not unusual for the highest EHV levels.

Shunt reactors in EHV systems are usually connected either to tertiary windings of transformer, for
instance at 12 KV, or direct at line potential; in a few cases to generator buses. Nowadays. Most new
47
EHV system reactor installations are at line potential. Shunt reactors are also used in EHV transmissions
with long lines or cables but less frequently than in EHV transmissions.
With increasing load transferred by a long EHV transmission, the excessive line-generated reactive
power decreases and the reactive power absorption has to be reduced. At least some of the shunt reactors
are usually disconnected so as not to cause an unnecessary voltage drop. Very long EHV transmissions
without series compensation are usually not operated above 1.0 p. u. of SIL per line.
The reactive power injections, which may be needed under heavy load conditions are supplied from
generators, shunt capacitors and dynamic shunt compensation means; the latter is discussed under the
next subheading. Shunt capacitors are not frequently used in EHV transmission systems. They are usually
to be found in systems with lower nominal voltages; in HV transmission systems and sub transmission
systems, and in distribution systems, in particular.
Series compensation is employed on long EHV lines; the main purpose is usually to improve the transient
stability or to obtain a desired load division among parallel circuits. At the same time series
compensation has a greatly beneficial effect on the coarse reactive-power balance and voltage control.
Because of a smaller variation the net reactive power balance at the lines versus the variation in the load
transferred.
4.4 Dynamic shunt compensation

In cases where the voltage has to be better controlled than is possible with passive shunt compensation,
i.e. by breaker-switched shunt reactors and shunt capacitors, active or dynamic shunt compensation may
be needed to provide high-performance voltage control. The latter term is referred here to the control
quantities of Continuity, rapidity, accuracy and frequency of control actions.
The synchronous compensator and the Thyristor-controlled Static Var Compensator (SVC) make to the
devices for dynamic shunt compensation. Synchronous compensators were installed and continue to be in
service in AC transmission systems at the receiving end of long radial transmission and at main buses
within meshed networks with long lines, particularly in regions where there is only little local generation.
For new installations of dynamic shunt compensation devices the SVC has virtually replaced the
synchronous compensator due to benefits in costs, maintenance and performance characteristics. A great
many SVCs are in use for high-performance voltage control, worldwide.
4.5 Prevention of voltage collapse
By voltage collapse is meant a severe voltage depression without inherent recovery, The voltages do not
necessarily decrease to zero but to low values, making the continued proper operation of a small or large
part of a power system impossible. The phenomenon has appeared occasionally and is sometimes
difficult to predict. Generally, less attention is paid to voltage collapse than to synchronous instability,
but it can, nevertheless, be of great importance. Particularly when leading to power system blackout.
Voltage collapse is a form of voltage instability. The key cause at its appearance is inadequate reactive
power supplies. One or more of the following factors are usually involved:
- High transfer impedances
- High load content of induction motors
- Insufficient reactive power generation reserves
- Temporary operating conditions
- Generator, transformer or line outage
48
- High system loading
- Maintenance work
- Erroneous human action
- Equipment malfunction
- Automatic control of transformer on-load tap changers
- Actions of generator current limiters

The load-voltage characteristics, i.e. the real and the reactive power of the actual composite loads versus
the voltage have a tremendous influence on the phenomenon. The process leading to voltage collapse
takes place within time ranges from a fraction of a second to half an hour very much depending on how
it is triggered but also on the network configuration and the operating conditions. Three examples
referring to different time ranges are given below:
A forced outage, e.g., of a line, may cause a fast voltage collapse for a limited load area of a
power system.
A large-scale voltage collapse preceding a system blackout, may take a minute or more to develop
after the initial disturbance. During this time there may be cascade line disconnections, actions by
field and stator current limiters of generator excitation systems, actions by transformer on-load
tap changers. etc.
Voltage collapse in a distribution system fed via a long sub transmission line and due to
receiving-end transformer tap changing as the load increases, may take half an hour to develop.

Voltage collapse can usually be prevented by installing sufficient amounts of controllable reactive-power
supply sources at proper buses, e.g. in cases of conceivable slow voltage collapse breaker-switched shunt
capacitors and in cases of conceivable rapid voltage collapse, SVCs. Network reinforcement by series
compensation, if applicable, can also prevent voltage collapse.

4.6 Reduction of temporary over voltage
Fundamental-frequency over voltages, the kind of temporary over voltages primarily considered in this
subsection, originates from switching operations and faults. A rough rule of thumb is that temporary
over voltages should usually not exceed 1.5 p.u. And their duration not 1 second.

Figure 4.2 illustrates a marked case of conceivable high fundamental-frequency over voltages, if not
counteracted; a very long EHV line between two systems and with a low short-circuit capacity Ssc of the
sending system. If receiving end load dropping occurs at high load, leaving the line energized from the
sending end only for some time, a high fundamental-frequency over voltage will appear at both line ends

and at the receiving end in particular. The voltage rise is due to the change from active/inductive load to
capacitive load for the sending system and due to the so-called Ferranti effect of the line. If the load
Fig 4.2 Reactive power absorption by shunt reactors at line potential
49
dropping brings about a separation of the systems, problems of frequency rise and of generator self-
excitation may appear.
Perhaps the very worst case, sometimes considered, is a single line-to-ground fault at the receiving end
followed by load dropping. Fundamental-frequency overvoltages, as discussed here, are usually most
critical during the initial period of transmission development, when the short circuit capacities and the
number of interconnections are low.

Energization of a long EHV line is similar to load dropping, but with lower overvoltages; a long line is
usually energized from the best end, i.e. the end with highest short-circuit capacity.

The remedy for fundamental-frequency overvoltages, if they are a problem, is reactive power absorption.
The shunt reactors installed for the steady-state voltage control and the line energization are usually
sufficient. There is, however, a problem in that some or all of the reactors may be disconnected during
heavy load conditions. One method to overcome this is to use a combination of a minimum installation
of permanently line connected shunt reactors and switchable bus-connected shunt reactors. A third
alternative is SVCs with reactive power absorbing capability.

4.7 Other voltage quality improvements
Two special voltage quality subjects in conjunction with sub transmissions are discussed.

Reduction of voltage asymmetries, caused by time-varying single-phase traction loads.
Unbalanced loads of the type mentioned give rise to asymmetrical currents and voltages, the negative-
sequence components of which can have undesirable effects, particularly on rotating machines.
Let us consider first an unbalanced load consuming active power only. The possibility to balance a
steady-state load of this type by means of reactive devices (capacitors and inductors) has been wellknown
for many years. To balance a rapidly varying load of this type has been practically impossible. Now, the
SVC with individual phase control allows this possibility. The unbalance in reactive power consumption
can, of course, also be balanced by proper individual phase control. Several SVCs are in use for this
purpose.

4.8. Reduction of voltage fluctuations caused by dragline loads.
Dragline loads of remote mining plants create voltage fluctuations, which often represent a problem both
for the plant itself and for other consumers in the vicinity of the plant. The power of a large dragline
excavator is characterized by:
- Relatively rapid variations
- Shock loading
- The digging cycle, typically 1 minute
- Driving motor oscillations, if synchronous motor, typically 2 Hz
The SVC is an excellent means to reduce these voltage fluctuations.

4.9 Synchronous stability improvement:
The term synchronous stability denotes the ability of a power system to retain the synchronous
machines in synchronism without sustained rotor oscillations, both after large disturbances (transient
stability) and during steady state conditions (steady-state stability). By the term stability limit is meant
the maximum power, which can be continuously transmitted stably. The critical transient stability limit is
usually lower than the steady-state stability limit. From the economic point of view, transient stability,
and in particular the first-swing transient stability is the most important type of stability, because it may
influence the choice of high power elements of power systems: transmission voltage levels, number of
parallel lines, line sectionalization, etc.


50
4.9.1 First-swing transient stability:
When transient instability occurs for a severe disturbance, it usually, but not necessarily, appears during
the first swing of rotor oscillation and within one second. Loss of synchronism occurs between one
machine and the rest of the system or between groups of machines. If the system is stable through the
first swing, the behaviour during the subsequent swings is usually a matter of damping only.

Let us consider a two-machine system, similar to that of with a link of parallel lines, the resulting
reactance of which, X, is an essential part of the impedance between the generators. Under both steady-
state and transient conditions the voltage-angle difference u of the link is approximately determined by:
P = sin
2 1
X
V V
u
Now, without going into a discussion of transient stability as such, the following statement is made: there
is a close relationship between the first-swing transient stability and this voltage angle difference u.

In a critical case of first-swing stability (not all cases are critical) it is important that the contribution u
from the link to the total difference of the generator internal voltage angles does not become too great.

As can be seen from the equation, both rapidly controlled shunt compensation and fixed series
compensation can be used to reduce u, thereby raising the first-swing stability limit. Shunt reactive
power injections at the nodes of the link during the critical power swing after a disturbance will keep up
the voltages, thereby reducing u. Series compensation, reducing X, means both a lower value of u before
the disturbance and a smaller increase in u during the critical power swing.

If a severe stability criterion, such as a three-phase short circuit or a double line-to-ground fault, is
applied, the first swing transient stability may be critical and of main concern. Full advantage should, of
course, be taken of low-cost countermeasures such as rapid fault clearing, rapid reclosing, etc., but in
critical cases this may not be sufficient.

Shunt reactive-power injections, as discussed above, through dynamic shunt compensation by SVCs
(voltage support) can be used. However, studies performed have demonstrated that even with optimum
locations of the SVCs with regard to stability improvements, the necessary large normal size of the SVCs
will usually make this method less attractive than series compensation. (The optimum locations of the
SVCs are not necessarily at the ends of the link as discussed above).

Series compensation is in many cases the most cost effective method of raising first-swing transient
stability limits.

4.9.2 Damping of Power Oscillations:
The damping of synchronous machine eletromechanical rotor oscillations is of interest to both steady-
state stability (small disturbances) and subsequent swings of transient stability (large disturbances).

The connected synchronous machines of a power system can be considered as a system of coupled
oscillatory objects, as long as the machines are in synchronous operation. The system can be
characterized by a number of latent or developed modes of electromechanical oscillations, expressed in
terms of incremental rotor angle displacements and speeds. In principle, the number of modes related to
the machine inertias are equal to the number of machines minus one. Usually, however, modes coincide
with the result that a fewer number of modes show up in the oscillations.

The oscillation frequency and the damping of each mode depend on several factors. The oscillation
frequencies are usually to be found within the range 0.2 to 2 Hz, in a few cases down to 0.1 Hz or up to 4
Hz. In many cases the damping can be considered low; sometimes one has to accept damping ratios
51
down to 0.05 and even lower. Fig 4.3 illustrates the meaning of different damping ratios. In the network
the rotor oscillations show up as oscillations in power, voltages, etc. The term power oscillation is often
used.



As to steady-state stability, if the damping of a mode becomes negative, an oscillatory instability will
appear. An oscillation will occur spontaneously or after a small disturbance. The oscillation amplitude
will be either constant or growing in the former case the instability will disturb the continued operation of
the power system, in the latter case it will lead to loss of synchronism.

As to subsequent swings of transient stability, the oscillatory behaviour is similar to that of steady-state
stability, but with pronounced effects of the non-linear characteristics of the power system.
In those cases where damping improvement is necessary or desired, advantage should, of course, first be
taken of the two low-cost measures available:
- Ensure that the most important generators are equipped with excitation control systems with good
performance qualities and that the voltage regulator parameters of these systems are properly
adjusted.
- Equip the voltage regulators of the above generators with so-called power system stabilizers(PSS).
For those cases where the above measures are not sufficient, e.g. cases of low-frequency inter-area or tie-
line oscillations, SVCs may, depending on some conditions, be an excellent means for further damping
improvement. This matter is discussed in the following of this sub-section.

Fig 4.4 illustrates the ideal control principle for optimum damping of one type of a symmetrical two-
machine system. Each machine may represent a number of generators. Ideally the reference value for
the midpoint voltage should be composed of a fixed component and a component proportional to the
speed difference between the two equivalent generators. This means that the modulation of the reactive
power injection at the midpoint should lead by 90 degrees the power oscillation between the segments of
the system.

52


In some few cases, and due to the load area locations in the power system, a certain damping can be
achieved by keeping the SVC bus voltage constant. Usually, however, the SVC has to be equipped with
a supplementary controller, a so called power oscillation damper (POD) modulating the SVC bus voltage
with a proper relationship to the oscillations. POD input signals used so far are local signals: active
power of the passing lines or frequency of the SVC bus voltage.

The use of an SVC with POD may raise the steady-state stability power limit of a transmission link, i.e.
of a tie line. This may be of great economic value. Improvement of the damping of the oscillations after
large disturbances may also be desirable.
The following remarks are recommended to be considered when planning to use an SVC for damping
improvement:

- Whether an SVC will be useful for damping improvement or not depends on the network
configuration, where the power stations and load areas are situated in the network and in particular
where the SVC is connected
- A study should usually be performed for each application in order to determine if the desired
53
damping improvement can be achieved and to establish the POD parameter values to be set. Both
frequency-domain analysis based upon a linearized description of the power system and time-
domain simulations by means of a transient stability type program are useful.
nd SVCs, of a type that can absorb reactive power only,
hould be the ideal solution in several cases.
temporary over voltages. The remaining reactive power need is then usually covered by shunt capacitors.
he dual tasks of reactive power production
at fundamental frequency and diverting of harmonic currents.
nks and 1200 MVA (2000 Mvar control range) of
synchronous compensators at the inverter station.
ous compensators only, where such are needed. This would be for the reasons of rapid
control and costs.

4.10 Extensive cable networks:
Cables produce up to twenty to forty times more reactive power per km than overhead lines. This creates
voltage and reactive power control problems in some large metropolitan or urban areas with extensive
underground EHV cables, particularly during light load periods. Local generators and shunt reactors are
used in the first place to absorb the excessive reactive power. In the EREB (India) power system an
unusual method, named tap staggering, has also been applied. By this is meant operating parallel
transformers on different tap position thus creating a circulating current and increasing the reactive power
losses. Also in conjunction with long submarine EHV cables, there may be a need for considerable
absorption of excess reactive power. So far, normal shunt reactors have usually been applied. It seems
that a combination of fixed shunt reactors a
s

4.11 HVDC terminal stations:
HVDC converters always consume reactive power when in operation. The reactive power consumed is
normally around 50 per cent of the active power converted, which means that the terminal stations need
large reactive power supplies. Rectifier stations with adjacent generators, the reactive power need is
usually covered partly by the generators and partly by shunt capacitors in the stations. At inverter stations
with low short-circuit capacity, synchronous compensators have often been installed in order to increase
this, so as to avoid some undesirable effects. These synchronous compensators are, naturally, also used
for reactive power production (or absorption), the AC voltage control and to reduce load -rejection
Most of the shunt capacitors, if not all of them, in a terminal station, form integral parts of the necessary
AC filters, which means that these shunt capacitors perform t
The MVA amount for reactive power compensation devices needed in conjunction with an HVDC
transmission is quite high. For example the 6300 MW Itaipu HVDC system of FURNAS, Brazil, has
1541 Mvar of 500 kV AC filter banks at the rectifier station and 2483 Mvar of 345 kV AC filter banks,
588 Mvar of 345kV normal shunt capacitor ba
It seems that a combination of synchronous compensators and SVC s should be an attractive solution, for
easily and continuously variable reactive compensation and voltage control, in several inverter plants,
instead of synchron
54
55
CHAPTER - 5
REACTI VE POWER COMPENSATI ON I N DI STRI BUTI ON SYSTEMS

5.0 I ntroduction
Distribution systems need to be supplied with reactive power to equalize the reactive power consumption
of the loads and the net reactive power losses of the distribution network itself. The required reactive
power is supplied from one or more of the following sources:
1. Possible synchronous machines within the distribution system
2. Shunt capacitors
3. Static compensators
Absorption of excessive reactive power is seldom needed. Many electric supply utilities are, for the
reasons discussed in the previous sections, restrictive in supplying reactive power from transmission to
distribution systems. This is often reflected in the supply tariffs to large consumers, such as retail
distribution utilities and high-power industrial customers, with a penalty for low power factor.
Under normal steady-State conditions, the voltage at the consumer terminals should lie within a certain
range around the nominal voltage. The limits vary between different countries, different classes of
service, etc., but are usually from 5 to 10 per cent from the nominal voltage. The term power-factor
correction is used in conjunction with slowly varying loads of distribution systems. It usually refers to the
method of generating reactive power relatively close to the loads consuming it.
Power-factor correction by means of fixed and switched shunt capacitors is much used in many urban,
residential and rural systems and extensively also in high-power industrial systems. The objective is
usually one or more of the following:
- To reduce power costs by avoiding low power-factor penalty, if applicable.
- To reduce active (iR) and reactive power (iX) tosses in the distribution network.
- To release current capacity of transformers and cables (and, possibly, overhead lines).
- To increase the voltage level and, in the cases of switched shunt capacitors, to improve the voltage
regulation (to reduce the voltage variation from light to peak load conditions).

In many existing systems the two latter effects can postpone or even eliminate otherwise necessary large
investments in new equipment. Because of the large number of parameters involved and the many
alternative combinations of shunt capacitor equipment possible, it is difficult to give universally
applicable recommendations for the location and rating of shunt capacitors. An evaluation of the above
gains versus the shunt capacitor costs has to be made, considering different constraints such as maximum
size of switched banks with regard to voltage change, space availability, etc.

The control of switched shunt capacitors is an area with many alternative methods in use: manual, time
switch, automatic regulator or relay control of voltage or current, or reactive power, or power factor, etc.

5.1 Application of shunt capacitors to HV distribution
Use of shunt capacitors in HV Distribution Systems result in the following advantages
a. They ensure that the transmission of inductive kvar to the load area from the generating
source is kept to reasonable limits.
b. They avoid overloading of circuits and/or release circuit load-carrying capacity.
c. By avoiding overloading they release spare MVA capacity on the generators.
d. They reduce the system I
2
R losses
e. They reduce the system I
2
X losses
56
f. They improve the voltage regulation and/or restore it to an acceptable level for a given
load.
g. Shunt Capacitors have low dielectric loss =0.006 W/KVar
h. Have no moving parts R&M is easy
i. Do not require heavy foundation like Synchronous Condensers
j. Automatic switching can be done
k. Series and parallel arrangements are possible to suit the system voltage

5.2 The effect of improved power factor on a radial distribution system:
The Fig 5.1 illustrates the effect of improved power factor on a radial distribution system




Fig 5.1. Radial distribution system effect of improved load power factor

57
5.3 Application of series capacitor to distribution systems

Fig 5.2. A general radial distribution system with series capacitors (a) Equivalent series capacitor circuit
(b) phase diagram without series capacitor (c) Phasor diagram with series capacitor
The following formula gives the line to line voltage drop :
Voltage drop line-to-line =
| | kv X X R I
R C L R
3
10 sin ) ( cos 3

+ | |


This is approximate short line formula and from consideration of this formula it follows that :
1) With high power-factor loads, the value of Cos |
R
is high and Sin |
R
is small. Hence, the
resistance drop is predominant so that if the total circuit resistance exceeds the total circuit
reactance, the effect of a series capacitor will be small.
2) Conversely, with a low power-factor load, and comparatively high circuit reactance, the
inductive voltage drop is dominant. Series capacitors will produce the maximum effect in
reducing total voltage drop as they directly compensate for inductive voltage. Provided that
improvement only in voltage regulation was required, under these conditions a series capacitor
would be more effective than a shunt capacitor of the same KVar.
3) Series capacitors reduce voltage drop by compensating for the line reactance but they have no
effect on receiving-end power factor, and, in radial circuits, no significant effect on the reduction
58
of line losses. The improvement in power factor of the load at the sending end is due to
compensation of the I
2
X
L
component of the line.
4) Series capacitors are self-regulating, because, at any load, the IX
L
component of the voltage drop
is automatically cancelled by the voltage appearing across the series capacitor.

Applications of series capacitor
a. Reduce voltage drop and improve voltage regulation on Transmission lines.
b. Reduce flicker or rapid voltage fluctuation due to loads of repetitive and rapidly fluctuating
nature
ex: Large motors, arc furnaces, saw mills, welders etc.
c. Large resistance welders impose very high currents on the supply circuit for only 2 or 3 cycles.
Series Capacitor can reduce voltage drops in such cases.
d. Control of load sharing in parallel lines : The series capacitor in a parallel line will reduce its
impedance and hence power carrying capacity
e. The maximum power transmitted in a transmission line can be increased for the same regulation
with Series Capacitor. Hence the stability margin can be improved.

5.4 Urban, residential and rural systems
There are many different configurations and voltages of these systems. One simple example: A 132/11
kV distribution substation transfers power from a 132 kV transmission to 11 kV distribution feeders
(primary circuits). Each distribution feeder supplies a number of 11/0.4 kV distribution transformers,
each of which supplies consumer feeders (secondary circuits) at the utilization voltage. The loads are
usually many but small. The voltage level and voltage regulation (voltage drop) are usually considered
when dimensioning the distribution circuits. Voltage control is actuated by means of on-load tap
changers on the distribution substation transformers. Often, as the load increases, the controlling device
raises the substation secondary voltage to compensate for the increased voltage drops in the distribution
feeders.

Possible local generators are, naturally, utilized for reactive power supply and fine voltage control. Shunt
capacitors are much used in these distribution systems, in several countries, for the purposes previously
discussed, and including voltage control. In spite of the difficulties of stating generally applicable
location rules a Swedish committee investigation gives the following summarizing rules of thumb for the
location of shunt capacitors in these types of distribution system:
- Locate the shunt capacitors as close to the loads as possible.
- In the first place install shunt capacitors, which can postpone the reinforcing of the network
otherwise needed.
- In the second instance, install low-voltage (utilization voltage) fixed shunt capacitors in such an
extension so that in total they equal the yearly minimum reactive load of the system.
- Meet the remaining need by installing switch able shunt capacitors: in the first instance, low-voltage
banks at large customers and medium voltage banks at intermediate switching stations.

The above rules should, of course, not be dogmatically applied, but with good judgment, considering the
actual conditions. Another recommendation given is that the maximum voltage change when switching a
bank should not exceed 2 per cent for hourly switching, 3 per cent for daily switching and 5 per cent for
seasonal switching.

5.5 High-power industrial systems
Many major industrial plants purchase power at 66 kV or above. The distribution systems usually have at
least two lower voltages: a medium voltage, e.g. 11 kV, for the primary distribution and large loads, and
a low voltage at 0.4 kV for other loads.
59

5.6 Steady-state var supply and voltage control
Induction motors are common loads, which consume reactive power. Static power converters and
uncompensated fluorescent lamps are other examples. Static power converters for rolling-mill DC motors
and arc furnaces, in steel mills, have reactive power consumptions with a large average value and are
subject to substantial rapid fluctuations.






















Fig.5.3 Industrial shunt capacitor

The primary voltage control is usually achieved by means of on-load tap changers of the step-down
transformers from the metering point. Existing synchronous machines are naturally also used for reactive
power generation: generators for reactive power supply and fine voltage control, synchronous motors for
reactive power supply. In some few cases, existing small synchronous condensers may possibly still be
used.

Power-factor correction by means of fixed and switched shunt capacitors is extensively used in industrial
systems, for the reasons previously discussed. Figure 5.3 indicates different locations: A)System level
correction, B) plant correction, C) group correction, D) motor correction.
Static power converters and arc furnaces produce current harmonics, which must be considered during
the planning and designing of shunt capacitor installations, in many cases, shunt capacitors are arranged
for both functions, reactive power production at fundamental frequency and filtering of harmonic
currents.








60

5.7 Capacitor location for industrial power factor improvement
5.7.1 H V Distribution

Fig 5.4. Schematic diagram of layout for a larger size factory with high voltage supply and high voltage
distribution showing possible location of capacitors A,B,C,D are distribution sub stations with A showing
detail typical of the others.

5.7.2 HV distribution with loads fed direct from H.V.


61
Fig 5.5. Schematic diagram of layout for a large factory with high voltage distribution and loads fed
direct at high voltage and low voltage. A,B,C,D are distribution sub stations with A showing detail
typical of others.
(a) Factories not operating continuously, and which may be supplied at high voltage but with
low-voltage load, should employ low-voltage capacitors for power factor improvement. Low
voltage switchgear is much cheaper than high voltage gear and obviously is available with
much lower ratings which enable relatively small capacitor steps (100 kvar and below) to be
employed for automatically controlled capacitors. This ensures flexibility of operation
without excessive switchgear costs.
(b) High voltage capacitors should be employed for power-factor improvement of all loads
supplied directly from the high voltage supply, e.g. large induction motors, electric furnaces,
a.c./d.c. converter plant etc.
(c) Splitting total requirements LV capacitors for power factor improvement between various
locations may well increase capital and installation costs. Such action can only be justified
when special distribution or operational requirements must be met or when, for example,
individual connection of suitable motors may reduce the cost of capacitor control gear hence
the total capital cost.
(d) In a factory where the low-voltage is supplied from several distribution substations, local
automatic control at each substation is generally much cheaper as well as operationally
superior to an elaborate method of overall contrl operated from the point of incoming supply.
(e) To reduce initial costs, whenever practicable, switchgear for controlling capacitors should be
operated as closely as possible to its maximum capacitive load rating. This condition, while
easily met with low-voltage switchgear (contractors), can only be satisfied with high voltage
switchgear when the capacitor steps are relatively large, i.e. up to 5 MVAr. For a multi-
stage high-voltage bank with, say 500 KVar steps, the switchgear could cost considerably
more than the capacitors.
(f) For the power factor improvement of large continuously operating industrial plants with no
local distribution problems or special operational requirements, the most economical scheme
is one which employs a large high voltage capacitor bank manually controlled by means of a
circuit breaker connected to the line continuously. The cost per KVar is low, switchgear
operates close to its maximum capacitive rating and installation charges are at a minimum.

5.8 Reduction of voltage fluctuations
Rapidly fluctuating loads create voltage fluctuations, which may cause annoying disturbances,
particularly flicker of filament lamps in adjacent load areas. The most pronounced load of this kind is the
arc furnace.















Fig.5.6 Typical arc-furnace supply
62




Fig 5.7 typical arc-furnace reactive power consumption

In AC arc furnace is usually a large load on a power system. Furthermore, it is a nasty load, characterized
by:
Low power factor
Unbalance
Rapid large active and reactive power fluctuations of more or less random character and
with an irregular frequency of 2 to 20 Hz.
Harmonic currents.

Figure 5.6 shows a typical arc-furnace supply of a steel mill. The reactive-power consumption fluctuation
is the most Important one for the voltage fluctuations, due to the relatively high reactance/ resistance ratio
of the supply network. Figure 5.7 shows a typical arc-furnace reactive-power consumption.

The mean reactive power consumption can be compensated for by means of a shunt capacitor. The
voltage fluctuation remains. However even somewhat magnified by the shunt capacitor, both at the arc
furnaces bus C and at the bus B. The latter, named the PCC bus (point of common coupling with other
consumers) is the critical one with regard to voltage fluctuations.

63

Before the era of SVCs, there were no good means for effective reduction of these rapid, unbalanced
voltage fluctuations. The SVC is such a means. When used, it is connected to the arc furnace bus C in
Figure 5.6. Due to the effective reduction of the voltage fluctuations also at the bus C, it is possible to
operate the arc furnace at a higher average voltage level without adverse effects, thus increasing the
furnace active power and reducing the meltdown time; This was first overlooked, but it became later on
an economic incentive for the installation of SVCs.

A great many SVCs are installed in conjunction with arc furnaces. The majority of them are of the type
Thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR) in parallel with a fixed capacitor (filter).

Fig 5.9 shows the single-line diagram of a typical SVC arrangement in conjunction with arc furnaces; the
figures apply to a particular large installation.

5.9 DC arc furnaces
The majority of arc furnaces in operation are of the AC type. During recent years the AC arc furnace has,
however, met with competition from the DC arc furnace. A Thyristor rectifier supplies the direct current.
The voltage fluctuations caused by a DC arc furnace are different from those caused by a comparable AC
arc furnace. However, as in the case of the AC arc furnace, depending on the short-circuit level, an SVC
will normally still be needed to reduce the voltage fluctuations. AC filtering is usually needed to divert
the harmonic currents produced by the rectifier and arc furnace.
64

5.10 Reduction of voltage drop during starting of large motors
Direct-on-line starting is the simplest, most straightforward and cheapest of all the starting methods for
induction motors. It creates, however, a high inrush current at low power factor, in turn causing a voltage
drop. In cases of one or more large motors in relation to the network short-circuit capacity, these voltage
drops may be intolerable due to their size and frequency of occurrence. They may disturb the
performance of other loads in the plant and the loads of other consumers. In cases of very large load
torque during starting, the starting of the motor itself might be critical. One method of several of reducing
the voltage drop is the use of a starting shunt capacitor, which operates during starting only. A technically
much superior method is the use of an SVC.

Fig. 5.10 shows the single-line diagram of such an SVC application. The SVC is installed in a mining
load area with sometimes very low short-circuit MVA capacity and with frequent starting of relatively
large induction motors.

















Fig.5.10 SVC in a mining load area.

5.11 Location of power factor improvement capacitors on induction motors
Fig 5.11 illustrates the alternate methods of connecting a capacitor to a motor fitted with a star/delta
starter.
Connection A: When a motor is started with the windings connected in star, the phases of the capacitor
are also connected in star and therefore the capacitor will provide only one third of its minimum KVar
output. When maximum, KVar should be available for correction.

Connection B used a standard 3 terminal delta connected capacitor, which gives maximum power factor
correction at the start when the power factor is low.
65


Fig 5.11. Alternative methods of connecting a capacitor to a motor fitted with a star/delta starter.
Connection A using six terminal capacitors and connection and B using three terminal capacitors.


5.12 Location of capacitors for individual correction or motors
The capacitor may be connected in one of the three points as shown in Fig.5.12.

Location A: The capacitor is installed on the supply side of the starter and Motor overload relay. a)
The capacitor size is not dependent upon the Motor no-load magnetizing current (b) The current to the
starter remains unchanged. (c) The motor overload trip settings remain unchanged.

Location B: The capacitor is installed on the load side of the starter, but on the line side of the overload
relay, (a) The capacitor size is dependent on the motor magnetizing current (b) The current to the
starter is reduced (c) The motor overload trip setting is the same as without capacitor

Location C: The capacitor is installed on the load side of both the starter and motor overload relay.
(a) The capacitor size is dependent upon the motor magnetizing current. (b) The current to the starter is
reduced (c) The motor overload trip setting (OLTA) must be reduced as follows:
OLTA
new
= OLTA
old
x
capacitors with f p
capacitors without pf
. .

66

Fig 5.12. Diagram showing the alternative points of connection for capacitors used to correct the power
factor of induction motors

5.13 Location of reactive compensation devices in Transmission and Distribution:
A hypothetical power system illustrating possible locations of reactive power compensation devices
is shown in fig 5.13
67


68
69
Ref: 1) Power capacitor hand book
-T Longland, T W Hunt, W A Brecknell : Butterworths 1984

2) Reactive Power Compensation
- Tore Peterson, ABB Power systems, SWEDEN 1993

3) Proceedings of Seminar on CAPACITORS during 18 19 J anuary 2001.
- A CBIP and MPEB publication 2001.

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