USE OF SEX IN MUSIC VIDEOS 1 RUNNING HEAD: THE USE OF SEXUAL CONTENT IN MUSIC VIDEOS

Use of Sex in Music Videos Communication Research Literature Review Leah Register Allison Rhodes Devon Seaford Queens University of Charlotte

USE OF SEX IN MUSIC VIDEOS 2 Music videos are popular among young adults based on the content involved. Videos involving sexual content have been the more popular videos but we are trying to find how far sexual videos affect people through social cognitive theory. In doing so, we are going to examine our hypotheses which state that the content in music videos increases viewers liking of the video as well as that the negative displays of women in sexual videos negatively affects the way women view themselves. The research question we are going to be investigating is: does the sexual content in music videos set the standard of normality in romantic relationships. Throughout time, mass media has transformed to meet the interests and demands of the ever-changing American culture. From the creation of the newspaper, to the multiple hundreds of television channels, mass media is always changing to become profitable by entertaining targeted markets of Americans society. Within the past several years, YouTube; a site which allows viewers to post personal videos online, has transformed into one of Americas most popular forms of media entertainment, receiving more than four billion viewers a day(The New Zealand Herald, 2012). Due to its popularity, producers of music videos and films are

producing more videos than ever before (Cummins, 2007). In recent years, an implication
among many producers trying to target young adults and teens is the need to enhance the appeal of a music video through the use of sexual content (Cummins, 2007). For our first hypothesis, we claim that the sexual content in music videos increases the viewers liking of the videos among young adults. This is operationally defined as innuendo through clothing, suggestiveness, and light physical contact rather than more overt behaviors (Cummings, 2007). Conceptually, it is defined as whether or not viewer liking of the video increases.

USE OF SEX IN MUSIC VIDEOS 3 Sexual content in music videos can vary in many different forms; therefore, measurements for sexual content needs to be created in order to apply it to all music videos. In 1985, Richard L Baxter, Cynthia De Riemer, Ann Landini, Larry Leslie, and Michael W. Singletary conducted a study on MTV music videos, in which they created a coding tool in order to measure sexual content within their videos. Baxter et al. (1985) collected 62 MTV music videos during the month of April in 1984 to examine for the presence or absence of these themes (Cummins, 2007). Within their research, Baxter et al. (1985), defined sexual content as

portrayal of sexual feelings or impulses (p. 337), which was found in 60% of the music videos
they had collected. However, the author did make mention that the sexual content was understated within the videos, relying on innuendo through clothing, suggestiveness, and light physical contact rather than more overt behaviors(p. 336).Coders tested intercoder reliability by choosing 21 coders to recode randomly selected videos that had already been previously coded by other coders. The results were analyzed by using a nominal scale coding, which produced an intercoder reliability result of .82 (Baxter et al., 1985). Cummins (2007), also looked at another study based on coding sexual content within music videos, by Sherman and Dominick,(1986); one year after Baxter et al.(1985)s study. Their results showed that they found sexual content within 75% of the videos coded, with an average of 4.78 sexual acts per video(p. 98).Considering this study was conducted in the year 1986,its results cannot be completely classified to what the results for 2012 would be if the study were to be replicated; however, if assuming that the sexual content of music videos has increased since the year

USE OF SEX IN MUSIC VIDEOS 4 1986,and we are assuming as much, then this study gives us an assumption that sexual content will be found in more than 75% of randomly selected music videos. Cummins (2007) also documents a research study, which was conducted by Greeson and Williams (1987), to examine the effects of sex in music videos on viewers purchase intentions. According to their results, after watching MTV music videos, young adults and viewers are more persuaded to buy music videos from the artists shown on MTV. This; however, is said to not be directly related to the sexual content within the videos. Cummins (2007) stated thatviewing music videos in general did increase purchase intention, although those results did not suggest that the increase was a product of the sexual content of the videos(p. 101). Although this research does not necessarily disprove our original hypothesis, it definitely does not support it. Although, Cummins (2007), did state within her research that Greeson and Williamss study is

one of the few, if not the only, published empirical studies within the field of communication
that examined the effects of sex in music videos on viewers purchase intentions (p. 100). Later in her research, Cummins (2007), states that although it is plausible to believe that sex may affect peoples liking of music videos, there has not been much research to illustrate why or how it happens. She then mentions Zillmanns excitation transfer theory, which addresses both the potentially negative outcomes of exposure to sex as well as how it may lead to the increased enjoyment of media content (p. 101-102). The theory states that the sexual content subconsciously arousals viewers and puts them in an excitatory state; the basic premise of the theory is that residual arousal from an initial stimulus may contribute to the arousal

USE OF SEX IN MUSIC VIDEOS 5 elicited by a subsequent stimulus in an additive fashion (p. 102). In other words, the sexual content does increase viewers liking of the video, however it is a negative effect because it has an addictive nature due to its stimulating nature. In order to test this theory, Cummins (2007), researched a study, which was conducted to see whether sexual content in music videos increased viewer enjoyment. For the study, researchers inserted eight sex scenes from an R-rated movie into a rock music video. Research participants were then asked to view the original, unedited rock music video, the edited version with the eight sex scenes included, or the music only version of the video. The participants were then asked to rate each video based on how exciting, arousing, creative, or sensual they found each video to be. Their results from Cummins

(2007), showed that the sexual content significantly increased participants overall appreciation
for the musical dimension of the music video when compared to the other experimental conditions, regardless of participant gender(p. 103). The author did mention that the type of sexual content, which was edited into the rock music videos, is not considered to be the same kind as that which is found in most music videos, which could discredit this study somewhat for the general population. Cummins (2007) also examined another study similar to the one that was just mentioned. Hansen and Hansen conducted this study in the year 1990. They also studied the effects of sexual content on viewer enjoyment, although instead of artificially editing music videos with implants of sex scenes, they chose fifteen music videos with various levels of sexual content already in them. This study had more positive results towards the sexual content, stating, the

USE OF SEX IN MUSIC VIDEOS 6 videos containing the greatest amount of sexual content were rated as significantly more visually appealing than either the moderate- or low-sex videos(p. 104). The proposed reason behind this drastic change of results from previous studies is that the overtly sexual content, which was implemented into other videos for studies, ended up being too overwhelming for many viewers. By displaying various amounts of sexual content, viewers were able to feel less overwhelmed while watching the music videos (Cummins, 2007). According to Social Cognitive, as said by Bandura (1989), Social cognitive theory favors a model of causation involving triadic reciprocal determinism. In this model of reciprocal causation, behavior, cognition and other personal factors, and environmental influences all operate as interacting determinants that influence each other bidirectionally (p.2). This first hypothesis relates to the Social Cognitive theory due to sexual contents effects on the human persuasion. In reviewing these previous studies, which Cummins (2007) examined, they

suggest that the implicit assumption that sexual content can be used to increase the enjoyment
of music videos is at least partially valid (p. 105). As the first study showed, too much sexual content can actually decrease viewers liking of music videos, which is technically the null hypothesis of our initial hypothesis. However, as stated in the second research study, viewers liking of music videos can be increased if a proportional amount of sexual content is portrayed in the videos. Therefore, based on the research and analysis from previous studies, there is enough evidence to state that our hypothesis is not only supported by literature, but it also relates to the Social Cognitive Theory after reviewing the effects which sexual content has on its viewers.

USE OF SEX IN MUSIC VIDEOS 7 It is difficult to point out a rap music video that does not involve a female(s) surrounding the rap star, dressed in provocative clothing and dancing in sexual ways. This type of scene can be found in a majority of popular music videos. Many people, of all ages and both genders, witness these music videos and they all have different reactions. After reviewing the literature, we came to our second hypothesis, which states that the way women are displayed as sexual objects in music videos negatively affects the way female viewers perceive themselves. Operationally, this is defined as exposure to music videos where female artists engage in the sexual objectification of their bodies may prime a schema of women as sexual objects (Aubrey, 2011). This hypothesis is conceptually defined as whether or not women negatively view themselves after viewing sexual music videos. This hypothesis relates to the social cognitive theory because based on the literature, women change their views of themselves based on their surroundings (Bandura, 1989). Although producers stage the sexual content in music videos, female viewers began to make it their reality (Linda Kaloff, 1999). Social cognitive theory states that people learn by watching what others do and if female viewers see women in sexual videos, the viewers may think that they must look and act the same way to be accepted. In certain videos, the women can serve as sex objects or eye-candy designed to satisfy an assumed male video audience (Moor 2008, p. 206). Music videos are popular because of the content that the viewers witness. According to Moor (2008), Rap music videos sell not only hip-hop culture, but also the very image of women (p. 206). Female viewers react differently

USE OF SEX IN MUSIC VIDEOS 8 than male viewers to these types of music videos. In order to find whether these effects are negative or positive required us to look into more thorough literature. According to Linda Kalof (1999), teenagers, particularly teenage girls, made personal connections or bridging experiences with music videos (p. 378). Certain music videos emphasize sexual aspects that have also been found to influence the audiences attitudes (Kalof 1999, p. 378). No matter what video is being viewed, each viewer will have different reactions to it. Gender plays a major part in reactions to videos. Depending on the video they watch, their attitudes towards stereotyping and views of the opposite sex may differ. Sexual innuendo is very frequent in music videos. In 1992, about 63% of MTV music videos contained sexual imagery (Andsager & Roe 2003, p. 82). Sexual imagery can be seen as provocative clothing, sexual dancing, touching others in sexual ways, etc. According to Andsager and Roe (2003), more than 1/3 of females in a study on MTV music videos wore revealing clothing (p. 82). In many music videos, the women that are present in these videos are very likely to be seen as pursuing or being pursued sexually. When female audiences view this, they could see it as either offensive, or believe it has no relation to them; however, according to Andsager & Roe (2003), gender stereotypeshave the potential to shape attitudes about how men and women should behave with regard to sexuality(p. 82). Women are frequently portrayed in sexual, stereotypical roles in music videos such as prostitutes, nightclub performers, goddesses, temptresses, and servants (p. 83). Music videos generally aim to attract young adults. According to Social Cognitive theory, these music videos have the ability to shape

USE OF SEX IN MUSIC VIDEOS 9 young adults, as they grow older, changing their perceptions of these music videos into a reality.

Females are shown once again that their bodies are what men desire, not their mind or ideas (Andsager & Roe 2003, p. 83). Most music videos tend to be shown from a mans point of view
in which female characters are being shown as sexual objects. When female viewers view music videos that contain women being sexually objectified, it could cause the female viewers (and even male viewers) to have negative reactions towards the video and have different beliefs concerning treatment of women. Music videos place a great deal of emphasis on womens sexual appeal and reinforce the stereotype of women as sex objects, existing primarily for the pleasure of male spectators (Aubrey, Hopper & Mbure 2011, p. 360). Having sex or sexual ideas in music videos is one of the top ways to sell music. It is popular with audiences to watch a male fantasy involving a young woman dressing in little clothing and dancing provocatively. Compared to men, women are consistently portrayed in more sexual ways and as sex objects. Being sexually objectified and wearing provocative clothing is basically the single thing that females do in music videos. A study found that 91.6% of a sample of music videos involves close-up shots of individual body parts, self-touching of sexual body parts, ample skin exposure, or sexualized dancing (Aubrey, Hopper & Mbure 2011, p. 362). When most female viewers see other women being objectified for their body parts in music videos, they are most likely going to view themselves as being objectified as well.

Experimental evidence suggests that undergraduate students and teenagers exposed to music
videos featuring sexual content are more likely to endorse casual and stereotypical attitudes

USE OF SEX IN MUSIC VIDEOS 10 about sex (Aubrey, Hopper & Mbure 2011, p. 364). If women are treated as sexual objects in music videos, then it could cause viewers so see that as acceptable. Men may think that it is okay to treat women as such and women may think that they are supposed to look and dress that way in order to be accepted. A female confederate who reciprocated a male confederates sexual advances was liked more than a female confederate who deflected them (Aubrey, Hopper & Mbure 2011, p. 364). This is making some women think that in order to be accepted by men, then they have to act the way the women do in the music videos. If people see that it is acceptable in music videos, then they may think that it is accepted in our society. Throughout many music videos, women are seen as sexual objects with a heavy emphasis on physical appearance and sexual attractiveness (Zhang, Miller & Harrison 2008, p. 369). Tiggemann conducted a study with a sample of 84 female undergraduates. He had them view a set of music videos that featured both thin and attractive females, and a set of videos displaying larger, more average sized females. Tiggemann found that the female viewers experienced a greater social comparison, appearance schema activation, and body dissatisfaction after viewing the music videos that featured the thin and attractive females

(Tiggemann 2003, p. 272). When female viewers see thin and attractive women in music videos,
those viewers will most likely judge their bodies and have a mindset that they need to look exactly like those women in the music video. It was concluded that the content of television programming (in this case music videos) can have an immediate negative impact on womens

USE OF SEX IN MUSIC VIDEOS 11 body image, with social comparison processing as the underlying mechanism (Tiggemann 2003, p. 272). Those viewers are becoming dissatisfied with their own bodies. MTV was introduced in 1981 (Zhang, 369, 2008). MTV, which stands for music television, made music videos popular among young people everywhere. Mainstream artists used music videos to promote their singles and increase sales (369). Even back in 1981, everyone knew that sex sells. Today, not much has changed. Artists, bands, rappers, and media in general still use sex as a marketing scheme to sell their products. The music videos back in the 80s received criticism for their sexual content; however, if we compare the early videos to the current ones, one could argue that there is more frequent use of sexual content in todays videos. Scholars like Zhang feel that todays videos have become bolder than in previous years. A 1998 study showed that 40%-75% of music videos contain sexual imagery and 60% of music videos have sexually suggestive content (Zhang, 369, 2008). Although these percentages are also fairly outdated, Zhang feels that heavy sexual content still remains. It is only reasonable to expect that the amount of sexual imagery in todays videos would stay the same as before if not increase (Zhang, 319, 2008). Although MTV does not show music videos all day long like they did in the past, they can still be found all throughout media. Music videos air regularly on stations like MTV 2, BET, VH1, and all over the Internet, such as YouTube and iTunes. The actual increase of sexual content in music videos since 1981 has been slightly studied. These facts bring us to our research question; is there a correlation between the frequency of viewing music videos with sexual content and expectations of romantic relationships?

USE OF SEX IN MUSIC VIDEOS 12 The independent variable is the frequency of viewing music videos with sexual content, and the dependent variable is expectations of romantic relationships. This research question can be conceptually defined as whether or not sexual music videos affect our romantic relationships. It can be operationally defined as exposure to sexual content of varying levels of explicitness resulted in the endorsement of more liberal sexual beliefs (Cummings, 2007). A convenient sample using a Likert scale could be used as a measurement. The Likert scale could measure the participants intentions and goals in a relationship, as well as their opinions on the different levels of importance of sex, personality, and trust in a relationship. Our hypotheses predict that sexual content in music videos has a negative effect on how women view themselves. However, music videos do not only show women by themselves looking sexy. They also show them simulating sexual actions with other people. The standard of normality in our culture may relate to more than just self-evaluation of body image. Music videos may also set the standard for what is considered an acceptable way to treats ones significant other. Social cognitive theory suggests that an individuals mindset and knowledge can be directly related to their experiences of viewing others in society (Bandura, 1989). The theory is grounded on the model of causation (Bandura, 1989). Bandura pointed out human behavior has often been explained in terms of one-sided determinism. In such models of unidirectional causation, behavior is depicted as being shaped and controlled either by environmental influences or by internal dispositions (Bandura, 2, 1989). It can relate to what we see other people do or what the media/ music videos show us. Watching what others do and dont do

USE OF SEX IN MUSIC VIDEOS 13 affects personality. Peoples mindsets and outlooks on themselves and the world are results of what they have observed and been exposed to (Bandura, 1989). Whether we realize it or not, everything that we see and hear has some kind of effect on us. Many young people feel that it is expected of them to be popular. Their idea of popular is what they see and listen to everyday on TV and on music videos (Hostetler, 1993). However, according to Aubrey and Hopper content analytic studies have concluded that women were portrayed as sex objects in music videos

(Aubrey, 361, 2011).

The visuals in these videos stick in peoples minds and have much more of an effect than it would if they just heard it on the radio. Aubrey elaborated on this thought. Music videos also are arousal producing stimuli, which heighten their ability to activate stored schemata, thus music videos could be expected to be especially potent schematic primes for concepts related to gender and sexuality (Aubrey, 361, 2011). The human brains natural ability to store visuals could be another reason why music videos have the ability to impact society. Also, there has been research indicating that the more music videos people watch; the more likely they are to have high frequency estimates of sexual behavior in the real world (Zhang, 369, 2008). The research also showed that women who view music videos are more likely to see themselves as sexual objects, and men are more likely to view dating as a way to have sex rather than a relationship. A married man at a strip club may justify his actions as normal and acceptable because of what he has been exposed to thru media and music videos. According to Aubrey and Hopper music videos are often constructed around the pornographic imagination, in which

USE OF SEX IN MUSIC VIDEOS 14 women are seen as sex symbols that simply must have sex and will submit to any fantasy a man may have (Aubrey, 361, 2011). Zhang actually dismisses the idea of music videos being a socializing agent. Instead he insists that The bulk of sexual themes and portrayals in this medium are inaccurate, stereotypical, and unrealistic. Because of this slanted view of sexuality, concern has been raised that heavy exposure to these images may have harmful effects on young peoples sexual socialization. He goes on to say that one genre that has received strong public criticism, but remains empirically under examined is music videos (Zhang, 369, 2008). The fact that the bodies shown in music videos are unrealistic and unattainable does not register with many young people (Zhang, 2008). Many argue that pressure to compete with body image in media contribute to anorexia with women, as well as depression. One thing to consider is whether or not people realize that the people they see in music videos are not normal. Perhaps the sexual actions they depict have become the norm but the perfect bodies seen through the media are not. But do they set the standard and expectations of body image? If the answer is yes then who would be satisfied with their partners appearance? One could possibly go as far to say that music videos have contributed to divorces and adultery. If the sexual content in music videos does set some kind of a standard for people to aim for then people will never be satisfied, and will always want more from their significant other

(Aubrey, 2011). The reality is that directors are paid to make music videos like a fantasy world.
Every visual in a high quality video serves a purpose with intent to make everything in the video

USE OF SEX IN MUSIC VIDEOS 15 desirable to the viewers (Zhang, 2008). The difficult aspect is that people want what they cant have. If we see something then we assume it is possible to get it. The idea of having complete dominance over ones mate surely causes problems in romantic relationships. Aubrey suggests

recent content analyses of hip-hop rap music videos documented the presence of misogyny,
defined as sexualizing women and the dominance of men over women (Aubrey, 362, 2011). Relationship expectations have surely changed over the years and will more than likely continue to do so. People are getting married later in life, kids are having sex at younger ages, and the divorce rates are higher than ever. People are more excepting of gay relationships and marriages as well as interracial. Music, TV, and movies are more explicit and violent than in years past. Most kids have easy access to the Internet. Young people are extremely technological and the Internet allows them view just about anything they choose. In addition and correlation with our research questions, we feel that it is important to ask if music videos have contributed to these changes which appear to be detrimental to the morality of our society. The pilot study consisted of four randomly selected females from around campus. Each of the respondents were familiar with most of the music videos we listed in the surveys, but there were only one or two of the music videos that they did not recognize. The pilot study also brought to our attention that there were a few minor mistakes involving the wording of questions. Each of the four respondents were confused by the same questions so we made adjustments to help the respondents better understand what we were asking them. After the adjustments were made and the four surveys were completed, we decided to go ahead with the

USE OF SEX IN MUSIC VIDEOS 16 study because we found that each of the surveys had correlating responses. We then passed out surveys to a variety of female students around campus, totaling to seventy-five participants. Some were passed out to the females in Greek life, the womens lacrosse team, and to random females in the library, as well as the coffee house and the cafeteria. After surveying a total of seventy-six respondents by using the available convenience sample, we found interesting results that ended up being surprising. To measure our first hypothesis, which states that the content of sex in music videos increases viewers liking of the video, we had respondents fill out two different charts. Each chart was measured using the Likert scale with a list of 10 different music videos. We selected each of the videos based off of how the literature described sexual content. The variety of videos contained very high sexual content, high sexual content, moderate content, low sexual content, and no sexual content at all. For the first chart we asked the respondents to rate how much sexual content (on a scale of one to five) they believed to be in the music videos from personal viewings. In the second chart we asked the respondents to rate their liking of these videos (also on a scale of one to five). After reviewing each of the charts, we found that Brittany Spears video had the highest sexual content ratings among the survey sample with a score of 37%. The video that had the second highest sexual content rating was Lady Gagas with a score of 17%. When we compared this to the second chart, which measured each videos liking of participants, we found that the videos with the higher sexual content ratings actually received the lowest scores for viewer liking. Brittany Spears only received a score of 9% viewer liking, as well as Lady Gaga. Participants actually

USE OF SEX IN MUSIC VIDEOS 17 voted Michael Jacksons video to be the second highest liked video, when he had the lowest score for sexual content. Our second hypothesis stated that the way women are displayed as sexual objects in music videos negatively affects the way female viewers perceive themselves. We measured this by finding the statistics of participants who felt pressured to change their outward appearances based on how women are sexually portrayed in sexual music videos. Our results showed that 86% of participants believed that women are displayed as sexual objects in music videos, and 43% of the participants believed that the way women are perceived in sexual music videos has no bearing towards the way they perceive their own bodies. When we asked if viewing music videos has made them change their everyday diets in order to change their outward appearance, 43% of the participants disagreed, while 29% strongly disagreed. Our research question asked if there is a correlation between the frequency of viewing music videos with sexual content and expectations of romantic relationships. We measured this by asking the participants questions about their feelings about certain topics in a relationship and what they expect from a relationship. One question we asked the respondents is how much they agree with the statement my main goal in a relationship is to eventually get married. Our results showed that 34% agreed with the statement and 18% strongly agreed where as 16% disagreed and 8% strongly disagreed. 34% of participants also agreed that the first thing they look for in a potential partner is sexual attraction. However 28% disagreed with this statement so we found that it was closely divided. It was no surprise when we found that 49% of participants

USE OF SEX IN MUSIC VIDEOS 18 agreed that trust is the most important aspect in a relationship and 46% strongly agreed with the statement. We found that participants were less inclined towards marriage. 33% agreed that sexual attraction is most important and 100% agreed that trust is the most important aspect in a relationship. After collecting the 76 surveys and analyzing the data, we found that our first hypothesis was not supported. We were surprised to find that the majority of videos that were ranked high in sexual content by the participants were given low rankings on the amount of liking. Our findings for the first hypothesis, actually proves the null hypothesis. If it was not for Beyonces video which had a moderate rating for sexual content and viewer liking, we would conclude that these findings prove the null hypothesis; however, considering the small sample size we chose, we decided that our hypothesis based on our findings was simply disproved. After analyzing the data from the questionnaire that pertained to hypothesis two, we found that our second hypotheses, the way women are portrayed as sexual objects in music videos negatively affects the way women view themselves, was inconclusive. 86% of participants believed that women are displayed as sexual objects in music videos, and 43% of the participants believed that the way women are perceived in sexual music videos has no bearing towards the way they perceive their own bodies. Our findings would seem to support our hypothesis; however, when we asked if their exposure to music videos has changed their everyday diets in order to change their outward appearance, the majority either disagreed or strongly disagreed. The questions did not support that the effects of music videos were negative;

USE OF SEX IN MUSIC VIDEOS 19 therefore, further study would be needed. Our research question asked if there is a correlation between the frequency of viewing music videos with sexual content and expectations of romantic relationships. Based on our literature, which states that music videos are more likely to enhance more liberal beliefs towards relationships (Cummins, 2007), we concluded that viewing sexual content in music videos does take effect on how viewers perceive relationships. Considering the large percentage of participants in our study who do not wish to get married, it is highly possible that music videos have caused these more liberal behaviors. After analyzing the data, we found that the participants were less inclined toward marriage. The majority did not look at marriage as a goal or an important aspect in a relationship. 33% agreed that sexual attraction was the most important aspect in a relationship. The main point that we gained from the research question is that our participants beliefs and feelings toward marriage are more liberal today than they were in the past when everyone was expected to get married. We feel that traditionally dating to get married was something that women looked for when entering a relationship, especially at the college age. We found it interesting that according to our study, women today view things like trust and sexual attraction as most important as opposed to finding a potential marriage partner. As a conclusion to this study, we found that music videos have very much to do with Social Cognitive theory. Although our first hypothesis was not supported by our study, it is liable to claim that the sexual content in music videos does affect our liking of these videos. For

USE OF SEX IN MUSIC VIDEOS 20 our second hypothesis, we found that the sexual content does affect female viewers. As the majority of our participants in the study believed that the sexual content in music videos affects their bearing on how the view their bodies, it is proven that Social Cognitive theory does provide explanations for how the media creates a reality for its viewers. Our research question also proved to influence more liberal beliefs among the expectations of romantic relationships. By the large number of participants who were against perusing relationships for eventual marriage, it shows that the media also affects their beliefs as well.

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USE OF SEX IN MUSIC VIDEOS 22 Kalof, L. (1999). The Effects of Gender and Music Video Imagery on Sexual Attitudes.JournalOf Social Psychology, 139(3), 378-385. Moor, A. (2008). Still. Meridians: Feminism, Race, Transnationalism, 8(1), 205-210. Tiggemann, M. M. (2003). Appearance and social comparison processing in response to music videos. Australian Journal Of Psychology, 5565. Zhang, Y., Miller, L. E.,& Harrison, K. (2008). The Relationship Between Exposure to Sexual Music Videos and Young Adults' Sexual Attitudes. Journal Of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 52(3), 368-386. doi:10.1080/0883815080220546

(n.d).60 hours of video per minute uploaded to YouTube.New Zealand Herald, The. .