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Topic 1. 2. Introduction to Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Objective Speed Control of Induction Motors 2.1 Pole Changing 2.2 Stator Voltage Control 2.3 Supply Frequency Control Advantages of Frequency Control Advantage and Disadvantage of PWM 4.1 Advantage 4.2 Disadvantage Industrial Applications of PWM Overview of the Project 6.1 Controlling Part 6.2 Power Part 6.3 Loading Part Components Tools and Instruments 8.1 For Testing Purpose 8.2 For Final Project Circuitry Block Diagram of the Whole Project Total Project Circuitry Project Details 11.1 Controlling Part 11.2 Power Part 11.2.1 Supply Part 11.2.2 Inverter Bridge Part 11.3 Loading Part Test Tools Test Procedure Test Results Precautions Inference Page No. 1 2 2 2 4 4 5 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8 9 9 9 10 11 12 12 24 24 24 25 27 27 27 28 28
3. 4. 5. 6.
7. 8. 9. 10. 11.
G1
M1
G3
M3
Vs
Load
G4
M4
G2
M2
(a)
(b)
(c) Fig. 1 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (a) Single Phase bridge inverter (b) Gate signal voltage and (c) Output Voltage
1. Objective :
To vary the speed of a single phase squirrel-cage induction motor by varying supple frequency with the help of Pulse Width Modulator (PWM) based Inverter. (Note: to change the frequency we change the resistance of controlling circuit.)
Fig. 2 Stator phase connection for 6-poles Figure 2(a) above shows a phase winding consisting of six coils divided into two groups a-b consisting of odd number coils (1, 3,5) connected in series and c-d consisting even numbered coils (2,4,6)
3
connected in series. The coils can be made to carry currents in the given directions by connecting coil groups either in series or parallel as shown in figure B and C. With this connection machine has six poles. If the current through the coil group a-b is reversed [Fig. 3(a)], then all coils will produce north poles. Fluxes coming out of the north poles will now find paths through Interpol spaces for going out consequently producing south poles in Interpol spaces. The machine will now have 12 poles. Here again the direction of current through coils can be obtained by connecting two sections a-b and c-d either in series or parallel for both pole numbers 6 and 12.
Fig. 3 Stator phase connection for 12-poles Further three phases of the machine can be connected to form delta or star connection by choosing a suitable combination of series and parallel connection between coil groups of each phase, and star and delta connection in each phase, speed change can be obtained with constant power or variable torque operation. Connections and speed-torque curves for these operations are shown in Figs. 4 to 6.
The motor, therefore, tends to get overheated. The method therefore is not suitable for speed control. It has a limited use for motor driving fan type load whose torque requirement is proportional to the square of speed. It is a commonly used method for ceiling fans driven by singlephase induction motors that have large standstill impedance limiting the current drawn by the stator.
Now, it is evident that varying synchronous speed, which can vary by varying the supply frequency, can vary the motor speed. Voltage induced in stator is proportional to the product of supply frequency f s and air-gap flux m .
E = 4.44k w m f s T ps
If stator drop is neglected, then E is equal to V. Then the supply voltage will become proportional to f s and m .
V = 4.44 k w m f sT ps
Any reduction in the supply frequency f s keeping the supply voltage constant causes the increase of air-gap flux m . Induction motors designed to operate at the knee point of the magnetization characteristic to make a full use of magnetic material. Therefore, the increase in flux will saturate the motor. This will increase the magnetizing current and distort the line current and voltage, increase in core loss and stator I 2 R loss and produce a high-pitch acoustic noise. Also, a decrease in flux is also avoided to retain the torque capability of motor. Therefore, variable frequency control below rated frequency is generally carried out at rated air gap flux by varying supply voltage with frequency so as to maintain
V f
4.2 Disadvantage :
The main disadvantages of PWM circuits are the added complexity and the possibility of generating radio frequency interference (RFI). Locating the controller near the load, using short leads, and in some cases, using additional filtering on the power supply leads, may minimize RFI.
Inverter circuit consists of power transistors or power MOSFETs (depending upon the rating of the machine). These power transistors or power MOSFETs are needed to be triggered and that triggering pulse is sending from the control circuit. The variable frequency helps to vary the timing of trigger of inverter, which varies the frequency of the supply of induction machine.
7. Components :
Sl. No. 1. 2. Name OPAMP (741) GATE (7405, 7408) Components Character in Project It is the heart of the project. By using this we produce controlling pulses (comparing sinusoidal & triangular). It is used to design the comparator circuit. 75LS05N known as Logic inverter is used to invert the square pulse of 50 Hz. Then 75LS08N known as Logic AND Gate is used to ANDing the square pulse with the output of the OPAMP in which sine wave and triangular carrier pulse is compared. To isolate the triggering pulses for buffering and then for sending to the inverter circuit. We use to build inverter bridge by which we invert the DC voltage into AC voltage by using gate pulse. To build controlling circuit we use external resistor of different specification, sometimes for getting desired time constant and sometimes for getting different gain for opamp output. It is variable resistance which is used to change frequency & leveling the pulses over a base line. To generate sinusoidal and triangular pulse using opamp, capacitor charging and discharging phenomena is used from which we get square wave and then by using second order low-pass filter and integrator we get sinusoidal and triangular wave. Industrial Specification Given in data sheet. Given in data sheet.
3. 4. 5.
5. 6.
POT CAPACITOR
2. 3. 4.
10
Integrator
Comparator
Comparator
B L O C K D I A G R A M
Logic AND
Pulse
Pulse
OptoIsolator
OptoIsolator
+ D.C. -
1 2 3 4 Inverter
Motor
11
12
4 2
U1
V3 12V
(a)
(b)
Fig. 7 Square Wave Generator (a) Required Circuitry and (b) Output Waveform
13
Then the square wave is filtered through a second-order low pass filter made by another OP-AMP to generate the required sine wave of 50 Hz. To vary the frequency of sine wave, just vary the frequency of square wave through the POT. The function of the second-order low pass filter with an OP-AMP is describe below The schematic diagram of a second order low-pass filter is shown below -V R Square wave of variable frequency R C R1 C
2 3 7 1 5 4
741
+V
Fig. 8 Second order Low-pass Filter The transfer function will be given by
H ( s) = vo v
in
( RC ) 2
s2 +
1 1 s + RC RC
2 K0
0 2 s2 + Q s + 0
K
2
s 1 s +Q 0 0
+1
where K = 2, 0 =
1 , Q = 1. RC The second-order low pass filter with specified components and its output is given in Fig.
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R2 C2 100nF 200kOhm_5% 49.9kOhm_1% 2 6 3 C1 100nF 7 1 5 741 R3 1kohm 4 U1 R1 1kohm 2 6 3 7 1 5 741 4 U3
R6 200kOhm_5%
R7
R5
sine wave
V2 12V
V1 12V
R4 1kohm
(a)
(b) Fig. 9 Second order Low-pass Filter (a) Circuitry with specified components and (b) Output Waveform Now with the help of another OP-AMP, an inverting amplifier (described below) is made, which inverts the sine wave at a phase shift 180. Here another POT of value 50 k is used to maintain the same level of two sine waves (actual and inverted).
The connection method for producing the inverted gain using OP-AMP is called inverting amplifier. The OP-AMP makes use of single resistor (r 1) and a single feedback resistor (r 2). The inverting amplifier produces a phase shift of 180 in voltage from input to output. Thus the input and output signals of the inverting amplifier are not in phase with each other. We know that OP-AMP gain without any feedback is very high. This means that the voltage at the inverting terminal must be small. As a matter of fact, the input voltage at the inverting terminal will be very nearly at the same potential as the non-inverting terminal. Now since the noninverting input is
15
grounded, the inverting input of an OP-AMP is also at the ground potential and is referred to as virtual ground.
r2 -V
741
7 1 5
+V
Fig. 10 Inverting Amplifier Now recall that voltage gain (Av) of an amplifier is defined as the ratio of output voltage to the input voltage. Mathematically, voltage gain output voltage vo r Av = = = 2 input voltage vin r1
The inverting amplifier circuit with specified components and its output is given in Fig.
R1
1kohm
V2 12V
(a)
16
(b) Fig. 11 Inverting Amplifier (a) Required Circuitry and (b) Output Waveform (inverted sine wave) After adjusting the level of two sine waves by the POT 50 k , the obtained output is as below
Fig. 12 Two variable Sine Waves (actual and inverted) in a same oscilloscope Thereafter another square wave of fixed frequency (about 5 kHz) is generated. The necessary circuit arrangement and its output are given below
17
R3 10kOhm_5% U1
4 2
C1 10nF
V2 12V
(a)
(b) Fig. 13 High Frequency Square Wave Generator (a) Required Circuitry and (b) Output Waveform Integrating this high frequency square wave, the triangular wave (also called carrier signal) is generated. The description of integrator circuit with an OP-AMP is as follows Integrator is a circuit whose output is proportional to the area of its input waveform. The RC circuit itself acts as a simple integrator. But the problem with such a simple circuit is that the output voltage is not a linear triangular output as it should be. The function of the OP-AMP is to linearize the output. It may be noted from the diagram that the inverting input to the OP-AMP is held at virtual ground by the differential amplifier in the OP-AMP input circuit.
18
-V
4
R2 C
2 3
741
7 1 5
+V
Fig. 14 Integrator The second-order low pass filter with specified components and its output is given in Fig.
R1
1kohm
V2 12V
(a)
(b) Fig. 15 Integrator circuit with specified components (a) Required Circuitry and (b) Output Waveform
19
Now two sine waves (actual and inverted) and the triangular wave (carrier signal) are compared using two OP-AMPs. The comparator circuit using OP-AMP is as follows The comparator is a circuit that is used to compare two voltages and provide an output indicating the relationship between two voltages. Generally speaking, comparators are used to compare either, (i) Two changing voltages to each other, as comparing two sine waves. (ii) A changing voltage to a set D.C. reference voltage. Figure shows the circuit of an OP-AMP comparator. It may be noted that there is no feedback path in the circuit. In this circuit the sine wave (actual and inverted) is applied to the inverting input terminal and high frequency triangular carrier signal is applied to the inverting terminal of the OPAMP.
-V
4 2 3 7 1 5
741
+V
Fig. 16 Comparator The simulation circuit and its outputs are given below
R1 4 2 6 3 7 1 5 741 U1
1kohm R3 1kohm
output of comparator I
triangular wave
R2 4 2 6 3 7 1 5 741 U2
1kohm R4 1kohm
output of comparator II
V1 12V
V2 12V
(a)
20
(b)
(c) Fig. 17 Comparator circuit with specified component (a) Required Circuitry, (b) Output Waveform of Comparator I and (c) Output Waveform of Comparator II At last the output of the first comparator is ANDed with the square wave of variable frequency by using chip 7408 and the output of the second comparator is ANDed with the inverted square wave of variable frequency (inverted by using logic inverter 7404) to generate the triggering pulse for triggering the POWER MOSFETs. The simulation circuit of ANDing and its outputs are given in the figure below
21
comparator output I
output pulse
74LS08N
1 2
U2A 74LS04N
comparator output II
U1B 4 5 74LS08N 6
output pulse
(a)
(b) Fig. 18 ANDing the output of Comparator I and II with Variable Square Wave (a) Required Circuitry and (b) Output Pulses The pulses are isolated trough four opto-couplers, so that each POWER MOSFET of the inverter bridge is being triggered separately. The opto-couplers connections and the outputs of four opto couplers, i.e., individual triggering pulses for each MOEFET are shown in Figs. below
22
U4
V1 12V R4 1.0kOhm_5%
To MOSFET M1
U1 V2 12V R3 1.0kOhm_5%
To MOSFET M2
U2
To MOSFET M3
V3 12V R2 1.0kOhm_5%
U3
To MOSFET M4
V4 12V R1 1.0kOhm_5%
(a)
(b)
23
(c)
(d)
(e) Fig. 19 Separation of Pulses with Opto-isolators (a) Opto-isolator connection and (b) (e) Four separate Pulses to trigger the MOSFET 1 MOSFET 4
24
where, Vac = supply voltage for the induction motor. Vsin ma = modulation index = Vtri
Vdc = supply D.C. voltage for inverter
= 537 V 0.612ma 0.612 0.7 But 270 V D.C. source is available in the laboratory, so the maximum voltage can be applied to the motor terminal is Vac = 0.612 0.7 270 = 116 V
Vdc =
Vac
230
lower part of the sinusoidal supply appears across the load. The Inverter circuit and its output is given in the following Figs.
M3
R1 L1
270V
1.0uH 1.0kOhm_5%
C1 2.0nF
C2 2.0nF
M2
(a)
(b) Fig. 20 Circuitry of the total Power Part (a) Inverter Bridge and (b) Output of the Inverter, fed to the motor Now we get the desired A.C. supply for motor. Here every MOSFET is become ON when the amplitude of the gate pulse is 3.8V 4V.
Power =
1 12
hp;
Current = 0.85 A; Voltage = 230 V; Speed = 6500 r.p.m.; Power factor = 0.8 (a) (b) Fig. 21 Loading Part (a) The Single Phase Induction Motor and (b) Rating of the Motor As we know that in single phase the alternating phases are absent due to which the rotating flux is not generated; so rotation of the rotor is not possible. For that reason permanent split capacitor is used to generate two balanced phases, due to which a rotating flux generated. There are several types of single-phase motors in market but permanent capacitor type motors are used because here two balanced phases generate rotating flux for which the backward rotating flux is absent. Due to which motor become more efficient and operated in better power factor. This type of load is used in ceiling fans and table fans now a day. In our project, the two phases coming from Inverter Bridge is fed to the load where any one phase is earthed; so that it acts as neutral in singlephase supply. By this supply starting torque is generated and the motor starts to rotate.
27
should be
constant under base frequency. But here we cant vary voltage and frequency simultaneously so we vary frequency only over base frequency to do the speed variation]
28
15. Precautions :
To do this project various types of problems appear in front of us those are as follows with solve, (i) First of all things, connection should be correct and perfect. (ii) During soldering careful about burning hazards. (iii) Use chip base to prevent the burning of chip due to direct soldering. (iv) Soldering should be done in right process otherwise there may appear short-circuit among pins and connecting wires. ( v) Use Multi-Striped wire to prevent loose connection after soldering. (vi) All the open contacts should be closed to prevent shock hazards. (vii) Take measures to minimize the noise in the signal; like using capacitor to block the noise.
16. Inference :
After finishing the simulation of the circuit by using Multisim software, we get the specific results and wave forms when we design the circuit part by part like square wave generator, then second order filter, then we get sinusoidal pulse. Again square wave generator of high frequency pulse, then integrator and we get carrier signal triangular pulse. But in the case of hardware design, many difficulties will occur such as frequency is not in the proper range, many noises in the required wave form etc. and so we use capacitors and resistors in much more quantity than that used in software. From all the above analysis and waveforms, we conclude that if we vary the POT of Fig. 7(a), the frequency of the Square wave of Fig. 7(b) changed as the time constant RC will be changed. So the frequency of the sine wave will also vary and as well as comparison of Sine wave with the triangular wave will vary and the frequency of the pulses which trigger the MOSFETs will also vary and at last we will get the variable inverter output. But, we know that, frequency control below base speed can carry out by keeping
V f
supply voltage with its frequency, so the frequency as well as the speed of the motor is varied above the base speed.
CONCLUSION
In this technique several pulses are produced in each half cycle but the width of the pulses is not the same as in case of multiple pulse width modulation, however the width of each pulse is varied in accordance with the amplitude of the sine wave reference voltage. The width of the pulse at the center of the half cycle is maximum and decreases on either side. The figure 6(a) shows the generation of the output signal by comparing a sinusoidal reference signal fr with a triangular carrier wave of frequency fc. The carrier and reference waves are mixed in a comparator and when sinusoidal wave of has a higher magnitude than the triangular wave the comparator output is high, otherwise it is low. This output of comparator is used to turn on the MOSFETs in the bridge configuration of Figure 6(b), which generates the output voltage. The reference signal frequency fr determines the output frequency fo of the inverter, and its peak amplitude Ar, controls the modulation index M, and thereby the rms output voltage vo. Thus varying the amplitude of the sine wave within the range of zero to Vp, where Vp is the peak of the triangular wave, controls the output voltage. The number of pulses in each half cycle depends on the carrier frequency .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. 2. Alok Jain Power Electronics and Its Applications, Second Edition, Penram International Publishing (India) Pvt. Ltd. William H. Hayt, Jr., Jack E. Kemmerly, Steven M. Durbin Engineering Circuit Analysis, Sixth Edition, Tata McGrawHill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi. A. Chakrabarti Circuit Theory (Analysis and Synthesis), Dhanpat Rai & Co. (Pvt.) Ltd. Muhammad H. Rashid Power Electronics Circuits, Devices, and Applications, Third Edition, Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited. D. Roy Choudhury, Shalil B. Jain Linear Integrated Circuits, Second Edition, New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers.
3. 4.
5.
6. Nisit K. De, Prasanta K. Sen Electric Drives, Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited. 7. M. Morris Mano Digital Logic and Computer Design, Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited.
8. Dr. P. S. Bimbhra Generalized Theory of Electrical Machines, Khanna Publishers. 9. Gopal K. Dubey Fundamentals of Electrical Drives, Second Edition, Narosa Publishing House. 41 Projects Using 741 I.C., BPB