The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

STUDY ON WIND LOADS AND RESPONSES OF TALL BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

Ming Gu Professor, State Key Laboratory of Disaster Reduction in Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China, minggu@tongji.edu.cn
ABSTRACT This paper introduces wind-resistant studies of our research team on tall buildings and structures. Wind tunnel tests were carried out on 27 typical tall building models by using wind pressure scanning and HFFB techniques. The characteristics of wind pressures and forces acting on these buildings were analyzed. Some results have been adopted in a Shanghai code for structural design of steel tall buildings. Interference effects on wind forces and wind pressures among two and three tall buildings were experimentally investigated with about 10,000 testing cases. Regression analyses of the interference factors under different parameter conditions were made and the main regression formulas are presented. Theoretical study on equivalent static wind loads of tall buildings and structures are then introduced. Especially, a new concept of mode coupling factor and a modified SRSS method for wind response and equivalent static wind load of complicated tall buildings and structures with consideration of multi-mode contributions and their coupling effects are presented. Recently, two ultrasonic anemometers, two cup anemometers and accelerometers were mounted on the top of Shanghai World Financial Center with a height of 492m to measure the wind speed and wind characteristics and responses of the buildings, the situation of which is briefly introduced. Finally, practical applications of wind-resistant studies on tall buildings and structures, taking Guangzhou New TV Tower as an example, are presented. KEYWORDS: TALL BUILDING, WIND PRESSURE AND FORCE, INTERFERENCE EFFECT, EQUIVALENT STATIC WIND LOAD, FIELD MEASUREMENT, APPLICATION

Introduction Recent years, many tall buildings and structures have been or are being constructed, and more are being planned in the world. Wind loads and responses are the key factors for their structural design. Davenport (1961a, 1961b, 1963) laid the foundation stone of wind-resistant theory of tall buildings in the 60s of last century. After that, researchers have made great development in this important field. The research team of the author has also made efforts in some issues in the field of wind-resistance of tall buildings and structures. Characteristics of wind pressures and forces in time domain and frequency domain acting on the tall buildings with various cross-section shapes were experimentally investigated by using wind pressure scanning technique, HFFB technique and aeroelastic model test technique (Quan, 2002; Ye, 2005; Tang, 2006; Zhang, 2009; Gu and Quan, 2004). Aerodynamic damping of some typical buildings was studied through aeroelastic model wind tunnel tests (Quan et al., 2005; Quan, 2002). Basic principle and methods of equivalent static wind loads on tall buildings and structures (Zhou, 1999; Ye, 2005; Tang, 2006; Shen, 2007; Zhang, 2009; Zhou et al., 1999a, 1999b, 2000, 2002; Gu and Ye, 2001; Gu and Zhou, 2009) have also been our concerned problems. Especially, great efforts were made on interference effects of wind loads among grouped tall buildings (Huang, 2001; Xie, 2004; Gu and Han, 2009; Xie and Gu, 2004a, 2004b, 2005, 2007, 2009; Gu et al., 2005; Huang and Gu, 2005). Furthermore, field measurements of wind characteristics and

The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

building responses (Gu and Quan2009), local wind pressure characteristics of tall buildings and design methods of claddingLuan, 2003; Gu and Han, 2009), wind-rain loads on tall buildings and towers (Gu and Zhang, 2009), numerical simulation of wind loads and aeroelastic responses of tall buildings (Chen, 1999; Fang, 2007; Yang, 2004; Chen et al., 1999, 2000; Yang et al., 2009; Zhang and Gu, 2008), comparison study on wind effects and earthquake effects on tall buildings with consideration of soil-structure interaction (Hong, 2005; Hong and Gu, 2006), wind-induced fatigue life reliability of complicated steel structures (Wang, 2009) and control methods of wind-induced vibration of tall buildings and structures with consideration of aeroelastic effects (Chang and Gu, 1999; Gu and Peng, 2002; Peng et al. 2003, 2004, 2007; Gu, 2007) were also paid attention to. A database system has been initially constructed, in which some of the above results have been adopted and the others will be added in the near future. Some of the above issues are introduced in this paper. Finally wind-resistant study on Guangzhou New TV Tower with a height of 610 m (Gu et al., 2006) is taken as a representative example from wind-resistant studies on dozens of real tall buildings and structures carried out by the team. Wind Pressures and Forces on Typical Buildings Building Models and Testing Conditions The building models for the test had different cross-section shapes, including square, rectangular, triangle, Y-type, polygon, L-type, ladder shape, corner-modified square crosssection shape and double-tower, which are shown in Fig.1. The heights of all the models were 60 cm, representing 300m high prototype buildings in terms of the scale ratio of 1/500. All of the models were tested by using pressure scanning technique and some were further tested by using HFFB technique. Four categories of exposure conditions, corresponding to terrain categories, A, B, C and D, were simulated in the wind tunnel at a length scale of 1/500 in accordance with the Chinese load code. In addition, the simulated index of coherence function of fluctuating wind speed ranged 7~9 (Zhang, 2004), which matched the suggestion by Simiu and Scanlan (1996). For wind pressure experiments, the testing wind speed at the model top was 10-13m/s. o The testing wind direction increment was set to be very small, which was 1 , in order to make a detailed research on the slopes of wind forces with respect to wind direction and further on the constructions of wind forces. A DSM3000 scan valve system was used to simultaneously measure the wind pressures.

The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

A 40

100

B 60

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600

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60 180

60 90

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si de1

si de2

si de1

si de2

si de1

si de2

Fig.1 Cross sections of models

Characteristics of Wind Pressure Coefficients The wind pressure coefficient is defined as follows. C p (t ) = p (t ) /[0.5 U H 2 ]

(1)

where U H is the wind speed at the top of the building. From the test results, variations of mean and fluctuating wind pressure coefficients with wind direction and the wind pressure coefficient distributions on the measuring layer plan and along the height of all the models have been obtained. The Power spectrum density (PSD, for short) of fluctuating wind pressures, correlation coefficients and coherence functions have also been analyzed. But only some results are presented here due to the limited space of the paper. Figs .2 and 3 show the wind pressure coefficients at typical taps on the measuring layer 2, the height of which is 50.95 cm above the ground level, of the triangular and Y-type o building models, respectively, under the terrain category B with 0 wind direction. The wind pressure coefficients on the measuring layers 2 and 4 (corresponding to the heights on the o model of 50.95 and 35.7, respectively) of the triangular and Y-type building models at 0 wind direction are presented in Figs. 4 and 5, respectively. Figs. 6 and 7 indicate the wind o pressure coefficient distributions along height of triangular and Y-type buildings at 0 wind direction, respectively.

600

20

50

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The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
0.35 0.40

mean Cp

0.0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1.0 -1.2 -1.4 0 10

rms Cp

point 2-13 point 2-3 point 2-8

0.30

point 2-13 point 2-3 point 2-8

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o

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degree( )

degree( )

Fig.2 Mean and RMS Cps at typical points of the triangular model
0.35
1.0 0.8

0.30
0.6 0.4 0.2

0.0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1.0 -1.2 0 10 20 30

point 2-1 point 2-11 point 2-14 point 2-4 point 2-8

0.25

mean Cp

rms Cp

point 2-1 point 2-11 point 2-14 point 2-4 point 2-8

0.20

0.15

0.10

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o

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o

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degree( )

degree( )

Fig.3 Mean and RMS Cps at typical measuring points of the Y-type model
0.22
1.0

0.21
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0.20
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layer-2 layer-4

0.18

mean Cp

rms Cp

0.2 0.0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1.0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

layer-2 layer-4

Fig.4 Mean and RMS Cps on the 2nd and 4th layers of the triangular model
0.35
1.0

point number

point number

0.30
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0.25

rms Cp

mean Cp

0.2 0.0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

0.20

layer-2 layer-4

layer-2 layer-4

0.15

0.10

0.05 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

point number

Fig.5 Mean and RMS Cps on the 2 and 4 layers of the Y-type model
1.0
1.0

nd

th

point number

0.8

relative Height

0.6

relative Height

point 13 point 3 point 8 theory 2=0.32

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point 13 point 3 point 8

0.14 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.18

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Fig.6 Mean and RMS Cps along the height of the triangular model
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mean Cp

rms Cp

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Relative Height

Relative Height

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point 11 point 1 point 4 point 8 theory 2 =0.32

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point 11 point 1 point 4 point 8

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1.0

0.0 0.05

Fig.7 Mean and RMS Cps along the height of Y-type model

mean Cp

rms cp

The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

Wind Forces Wind forces acting on the buildings were then computed based on the wind pressures. The wind force characteristics, including wind force coefficient, PSD, coherence function and so on, were analyzed in detail. Figs. 8 and 9 show the variations of wind force coefficients on different layers 1, 2, 3 and 4, which correspond to the heights of 57.15, 50.95, 43.8 and 35.7 mm on the building models, respectively, of the triangular and Y-type models with wind directions in exposure category B. More results can be found in (Ye, 2005; Tang, 2006; Zhang, 2009).
1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8 layer-1 layer-2 layer-3 layer-4 0.0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1.0 -1.2 -1.4 -1.6 0.40 0.35 0.30 rms CL 0.20 0.15 0.10 0 10 20 30
o

0.20 0.16 mean CM 0 10 20 30 40 o degree( ) 50 60 0.12 0.08 0.04 0.00 0.06 0.05 rms CM 0.04 0.03 0.02 0 10 20 30 40
o

mean CD

0.28 0.24 rms CD 0.20 0.16 0.12

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Fig.8 Wind force coefficients of the triangular model vs. wind direction (Terrain type B)
1.4 1.3 1.2 mean CD 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.24 0.22 0.20 rms CD rms CL 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12 0 10 20 30 40 o degree( ) 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 o degree( ) 50 60 mean CL 0.4 0.2 0.0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 0.35 0.30 0.03 0.25 rms CM 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.05 0 10 20 30 40
o

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layer-1 layer-2 layer-3 layer-4 mean CM

0.02 0.01 0.00 -0.01 -0.02

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60

-0.03 0.04

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0.02 0.01 0.00

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Fig.9 Wind force coefficients of the Y-type model vs. wind direction (Terrain type B) Based on the wind force results of the building models and the wind parameters, i.e., mean wind speed and turbulent characteristics, the along-wind and across-wind and torsional external excitation force parameters, including buffeting force and wake excitation force coefficients and the corresponding shape modification factors, were derived. A new nondimensional PSD formula for wake vortex excitation was then proposed as follows. nS s ( z; n) As Bs (n / ns ) 2+Cs (2) = n2 2 n2 s2 (1 2 ) + Bs 2 ns ns where the parameters As, Bs and Cs were derived from the testing data and some are listed in Table 1, the values of ns( = S tU Z / B( z ) ) of some typical buildings are also given in Table 1. Furthermore, the coherence functions of the wake excitations were derived.

degree( )

30 40 50 o degree( )

60

The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

Table.1 Parameters in reduced PSD formula and St number for typical buildings
Parameters Model Square cross-section Rectangular cross-section Square bevel corner Long-side windward Short-side windward Triangular Y-type cross-section As 1.5 2.1 3.5 1.1 2.3 1.445 Bs 0.28 0.11 0.028 0.48 0.056 0.26 Cs 0 0 1.4 -0.24 0 0 St 0.11 0.13 0.1 0.075 0.1 0.13

Across-Wind Forces on Typical Tall Buildings Adopted in a Code Based on the test results, variation laws of across-wind forces acting on some typical buildings have been recognized. Fig.10 shows the variation laws of across-wind forces acting on buildings of rectangular cross-sections with different side ratios and corner-modifications, where H is the height of building, B and D are the width and depth of building cross section, respectively, and b is the corner-cut size.
0.1

0.1

fSMx(f)/(0.5UH BH )

fSMx(f)/(0.5UH BH )

0.01

0.01

fSMx(f)/(0.5UH BH )

Model 1(H/B=6) Terrain A Terrain B Terrain C Terrain D

Terrain B H/B= 4 5 6 7 8 9

0.1

0.01

1E-3

1E-3

1E-3

Terrain B D/B= 1/3 1/2 2/3 1/1 3/2 2/1 3/1

2 2

2 2

2 2

1E-4

1E-4
0.1

0.1

0.1

fB/UH

fB/UH

fB/UH

(a) Effect of terrain condition

0.1

(b) Effect of aspect ratio

0.1

(c) Effect of side ratio

Terrain B (b/B)= 0.% 5.% 10% 20%

0.01

fSMx(f)/(0.5UH BH )

1E-3

fSMx(f)/(0.5UH BH )
2

TerrainB (b/B)= 0.% 5.% 10% 20%

2 2

0.01
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1E-3

1E-4

1E-4

0.1

0.1

fB/UH

fB/UH

(d) Effect of corner-cut size (bevel corner model)

(e) Effect of corner-cut size (concave corner model)

Fig.10 Effects of parameters on the across-wind forces The non-dimensional power spectrum density of across-wind forces of buildings was assumed to have the following style. S p (n / f p ) fS Mx ( f ) (3) = 2 2 {0.5U H BH 2 } {1 (n / f p ) 2 }2 + (n / f p ) 2 where S Mx ( f ) is the first generalized across-wind force spectrum, f is the frequency, n = fB / U H , and U H is the mean wind speed at the top of the buildings. The parameters f p , S p , and , being functions of aspect ratio, side ratio of the cross section of the buildings and wind field condition, are as follows. 2 f p = 10 5 (191 9.48 w + 1.28 hr + hr w )(68 - 21 db + 3 db ) (4) 2 0 . 4 1 2 S p = (0.1 w 0.0004e )(0.84 hr 2.12 0.05 hr )(0.422 + db 0.08 db ) (5) 1.7 w 1.26 0.63 hr 1.7 3.44 / db = (1 + 0.00473e )(0.065 + e )e (6)
w

The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

Table 2. The RMS coefficients of the base moment and the base shear force are, respectively, as 2 2 2 C M = (0.002 w 0.017 w 1.4) (0.056 db 0.16 db + 0.03)(0.03 ht 0.622 ht + 4.357 ) And 2 2 2 C S = (0.018 w + 0.0006 w 2.4) (0.0375 db 0.11 db + 0.0117)(0.04 ht 0.928 ht + 6.7) where ht = H / T , (T = min( B, D))

(7) (8) hr = H / BD db = D / B (9) (10) w = 1( A); 2( B); 3(C ); 4( D) The above equations are suitable for estimating the across-wind forces of square buildings with aspect ratios between 4 and 9, and rectangular buildings with side ratios between 0.5 and 2.0 under the four categories of terrain. As for the square buildings with corner modifications, the non-dimensional power spectrum density of across-wind force, S Mm ( f ) , was suggested to have the following style. (11) S Mm ( f ) = C m ( f ) S M 0 ( f ) where S M 0 ( f ) is the power spectrum of across-wind force of the square building, i.e., S Mx ( f ) in Eq.(3), and C m ( f ) is a non-dimensional ratio between S Mm ( f ) and S M 0 ( f ) , which is listed in
(12) (13) (14)

1.23 0.34 = (0.8 + 0.06 w + 0.0007e )( hr + 0.00006e )(0.414 db + 1.67 db )

w hr

CrossSection

Wind condition Category B

b/B
5 10 20 5 10 20 5 10 20 5 10 20

Table 2 Value of Cm ( f ) Non-dimensional frequency fB / U H

0.100 0.183 0.070 0.106 0.368 0.256 0.339 0.106 0.033 0.042 0.267 0.091 0.169 0.125 0.905 0.349 0.902 0.749 0.504 0.974 0.595 0.228 0.842 0.586 0.261 0.954 0.150 1.20 0.568 0.953 0.922 0.659 0.977 0.980 0.450 0.563 0.839 0.452 0.659 0.175 1.20 0.653 0.819 0.955 0.706 0.894 1.0 0.565 0.451 0.955 0.567 0.527 0.200 1.20 0.684 0.743 0.943 0.713 0.841 1.0 0.610 0.421 0.987 0.613 0.475 0.225 1.20 0.670 0.667 0.917 0.697 0.805 1.0 0.604 0.400 0.991 0.633 0.447 0.250 1.10 0.653 0.626 0.897 0.686 0.790 1.0 0.594 0.400 0.984 0.628 0.453

Bevel corner Category D

Category B Concave corner Category D

The above formulas have been adopted in a Shanghai code of Specification for Steel Structural Design of Tall Buildings (2008). Also these formulas were also used to compute across-wind dynamic responses of real tall buildings in their initial design stages. The computation results were then compared with the detailed wind tunnel test and computation results. It was found that they generally matched well.

The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

Across-Wind Aerodynamic Damping of Square Buildings

For super-tall buildings and structures, across-wind aerodynamic damping may have great influence on the across-wind dynamic response. Thus an experimental study on this problem was performed. An SDOF tall building aeroelastic model system was specially designed for the test. The frequency, mass distribution and damping could be easily adjusted for parametric study. Time-averaging method of random decrease technique was adopted in the study to identify the aerodynamic damping ratios. Figure 11 presents the variations of the across-wind aerodynamic damping ratios of a square building model for different terrain conditions and for different structural damping. Negative aerodynamic damping at the reduced wind speed of about 10-13 can be seen in the figure. Based on the testing results and the analyses, a simplified formula for aerodynamic damping ratio of the square building with aspect ratio of 6 were derived for practical purpose as follows.
a =
0.0025 1 (U * / 9.8) 2 (U * / 9.8) + 0.000125(U * / 9.8) 2

(1 (U

/ 9.8) 2

+ 0.0291(U * / 9.8) 2

(15)

Fig. 12 shows the comparison between computed responses of a building model with/without considering the aerodynamic damping and those from a wind tunnel test on a building aeroelastic model with the same parameters. It can be seen from the figure that the computed dynamic displacements are much closer to those from the aeroelastic model tests if the aerodynamic damping is taken into account. Eq.(15) has also been adopted in Specification for Steel Structural Design of Tall Buildings (2008).
0.02
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s=0.6%

0.01

Terrain A Terrain B Terrain C Terrain D

a

0.015

0.010

Terrain C s s s s

0.60 1.20 1.88 2.17

0.005

0.000

0.00
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14

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12

14

UH/(f1B)

U/(f1B)

(a) Effect of terrain conditions

0.12

(b) Effect of structural damping

Fig.11 Variations of aerodynamic damping ratio with different parameters

0.10

0.08

Terrain A, s=0.61 With a Without a Testing results

y/B

0.06

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0.00 2 4 6 8 10 12

U/(f1B)

Fig.12 Comparison of computed RMS displacements with those from AE model tests

Interference Effect on Wind Forces and Wind Pressures on Tall Buildings

Description of Experiment and Data Processing The wind tunnel measurements were carried out by using high force balance technique and pressure scanning technique under different wind conditions. In the force balance test, the principal building model, i.e., the interfered model, had a height of 600 mm and a square cross section of breadth of 100 mm. The fundamental frequency of the balance-model system was all higher than 100Hz. Two groups of interfering models of different heights and crosssection breadths were adopted in the test to investigate the interference effects of height and

The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

breadth of the upstream building(s) on the principal building. The first group of the interfering buildings had the same height h as the principal building with square cross-section but different breadths of 0.5b , 0.75b , 1.0b , 1.5b and 2.0b , where b (= 100mm) was the breadth of the principal building model, while the second group of interfering models had the same square cross-section as the principal building model but different heights of 0.5h , 0.75h , 1.0h , 1.25h and 1.5h , where h (= 600mm) was the height of the principal model. The breadth ratio ( Br )/height ratio ( Hr ) were defined to be the ratio of the breadth/height of the interfering building(s) to those of the principal building hereafter. All the building models were orientated with one face normal to the wind, while the center-to-center spacing among them varies in along-wind direction (x) and across-wind direction (y) in a coordinate grid shown in Fig.13(a). The basic two- or three-building configurations mean that the principal building and the interfering building(s) hereafter have the same square cross-section and sizes. In the pressure scanning test, only the interference effects from one interfering building was investigated. There were 496 measuring taps on the principal square building model. The interfering building models had the same cross-section sizes as those of the principal model, but had the heights 0.7, 1.0 and 1.3 times the height of the principal model. The relative positions between the principal model and interfering model are indicated in Fig. 13(b). Totally, for the force and pressure tests, the testing cases were over 10,000.0.
-3.2b -2.4b Wind B x 10.1b 9.1b 8.1b 7.1b 6.1b 5.1b 4.1b 3.1b 2.1b 1.1b 0.8b y 1.6b A 2.4b 3.2b x y -1.6b b -0.8b C

(a) Model arrangements for HFFB test (b) Model arrangements for pressure test Fig.13. X-Y coordinate grid for positions of interfering buildings The interference factor ( IF in short), which quantitatively describes the interference effects, was defined as follows:
Mean wind force (or wind pressure or dynamic response) of the principal building under int erference IF = Mean wind force (or wind pressure or dynamic response) of the isolated principal building

(16)

In fact, the interference effect among three buildings was very complex and was difficult to be expressed in a simple style. In order to simplify the complexity of the problem and further raise some clauses for building structural design codes, an envelope interference factor ( EIF ) was proposed to describe the dynamic interference effects by maximizing the IFs in the reduced velocity ranges of Vr = 2 ~ 9 . Furthermore, regression analysis of the interference factors under different parameter conditions was made and the regression formulas were derived. RIF hereafter represents the regression interference factor. Only some typical results, especially the regression formulas of three-building configurations, are presented in the following text.

Mean Force Interference Factor

Comparison of Mean IFs between Basic Two-building and Three-building Configurations Statistical results for a thorough description of the mean interference factors of twoand three-building configurations in the exposure category B are firstly shown in Fig.14,

The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

where p represents the percentage of the positions of the corresponding mean interference factor over the whole test positions of the configurations. From this figure, one can see that the shielding effects of three-building configurations are more significant than two-building configurations. The channeling effect can also be found in the tests.

Fig.14 Comparison of distributions of MIF between two- and three-building configurations Effect of Breadth Ratio of Three-building Configuration The variations of the mean IF with Br of the interfering buildings can be linearly regressed, which shows that for most of the positions of the interfered buildings the mean IF decreases with the increase of Br . The regression results are very similar to those of the twobuilding configuration (Xie and Gu 2004a, 2005). Correspondingly, the linear formulas of the mean RIF in exposure category B with Br of the interfering buildings are as follows.
0.276 + 0.752 IF 0.123 + 0.876 IF RIF = IF 0.175 + 1.102 IF 0.279 + 1.162 IF ( Br = 0.5) ( Br = 0.75) ( Br = 1.0) ( Br = 1.5) ( Br = 2.0)

(17)

Effect of Height Ratio of Three-building Configuration The results show that two lower interfering buildings of Hr = 0.5 produce insignificant interference effects, with most of the interference factors being within the range between 0.9 and 1.0. The sensitive heights of interfering buildings for the mean interference effects are from 0.75h to 1.25h , whereas the interference effects remain almost the same for the higher interfering buildings. The mean RIF in exposure category B for the different height ratios were simply formulated as follows.
1 0.787 + 0.195IF RIF = 0.366 + 0.637 IF IF 0.103 + 1.110 IF ( Hr < 0.5) ( Hr = 0.5) ( Hr = 0.75) ( Hr = 1.0) ( Hr 1.25)

(18)

Effect of Upstream Terrain The MIF s in the two typical exposure categories have statistically linear relationships, and furthermore, the MIF s for different Br are almost the same. Thus, a simple formula describing the linear relationship were derived as follows (Eq.(19)).
IFD = 0.099 + 0.924 IFB

(19)

Moreover, for the effect of upstream terrain on the MIF of the different height ratio configuration, strong linear correlations exist in the MIF s between the two upwind terrains for all the configurations of height ratio. The MIF of any configurations of Hr in exposure

The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

category D can thus be simply predicted from the corresponding MIF in exposure category B by the following equation (Eq(20)).
IFD = 0.078 + 0.982 IFB

(20)

Dynamic Force Interference Factor IFs of Basic Two-building Configuration and Three-building Configuration Statistical analysis of the dynamic interference effects in along- and across-wind directions was made and the results are shown in Fig.15. The results in Fig.15(a) reveal that two interfering buildings can produce stronger interference effects (amplification) than a single interfering building in the along-wind direction. But the interference effects in the across-wind direction caused by two interfering buildings are generally weaker than those by a single interfering building for most of the interfering building arrangements from Fig. 15 (b). Even so, EIF is greater or equal to 3 for 1% of the whole sets of interfering building arrangements of the three-building configuration.

(b) Across-wind (a) Along-wind Fig.15 Comparison of EIF distribution between two- and three-building configurations Effect of Height Ratio of Three-building Configuration Results revealing the effects of the two interfering buildings with different heights on the dynamic IF s are presented here. There is an indication from the regression analysis that dynamic EIF s between the different height ratios (Hr=0.5, 0.75, 1.0, 1.25 and 1.5) still show linear correlations. Based on a great quantity of computation, the regression relations of EIF for different Hr can expressed by Eq.(21). The values of C1 and C2 in Eq.(21) are listed in Table 1. (21) RIF = C1 + C2 EIF Table 2 Values of C1 and C2 in Eq. (21)
0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5

Hr
Along-wind Across-wind

C1
1.011 1.018

C2
0.031 0.068

C1
0.698 0.627

C2
0.408 0.45

C1
1 1

C2
1 1

C1
-1.317 -0.028

C2
1.988 1.038

C1
-1.524 -0.067

C2
2.256 1.118

Effect of Breadth Ratio of Three-building Configuration It seems more difficult to find the satisfied regression dynamic factors of breadth ratio than those of height ratio from the wind tunnel tests. Effect of Upstream Terrain The results indicated that the relations between EIFB and EIFD in the along-wind direction can be expressed by linear formulas, while the relations between EIFB and EIFD in the across-wind direction for the height ratio of H r 1 can be expressed by a second-order regression polynomial rather than a linear formula. Then, the relation of EIFs between the two upstream terrains for all the height ratio configurations can be expressed by Eq. (22) for the

The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

along-wind and across-wind directions, where C1, C2 and C3, can be found in Xie and Gu (2007). RIFD = C1 + C2 EIFB + C3 ( EIFB ) 2 (22) As for the variations of the dynamic EIF for different Br in exposure categorie D with those in category B, the regression results can be found in Eq.(23), where C1, C2 and C3, can be found in Xie and Gu (2007). EIFD = C1 + C2 EIFB + C3 ( EIFB ) 2 + C4 ( EIFB )3 (23)

Wind Pressure Interference Factor Through the wind tunnel tests, a large amount of data of mean and fluctuating wind pressures on the principal building interfered by an adjacent building with different heights and relative positions and the corresponding wind pressure IFs have been obtained. The results reveal that the increase of space between the two buildings amplifies mean pressure on the windward face and magnitudes of mean suctions on the side walls, especially on its top corner along leading edge. However, it has little effects on mean pressure on the leeward wall of the principal building. In addition, considering the effects of changes in height ratios, for the cases of small space between the two buildings, magnitudes of mean suctions on the windward wall increase with the increase of height ratio but those on the side walls and leeward wall of the principal building decrease. For the cases with large space between the two buildings, mean pressure on the windward wall of the principal building decreases with the increase of height ratio, but the magnitudes of mean suctions on the side walls increase at first then decrease and those on the leeward wall decrease at first then increases. Fig. 16 only shows the mean wind pressure IF on the side walls of the principal building interfered by another adjacent building in a tandem arrangement. Also results and variation laws of fluctuating wind pressures have been found, and accordingly the characteristics of fluctuating pressure IF have also been recognized from the test data.

(a)x/B=2 (b) x/B=3 (c) x/B=4 (d) x/B=5 (e) x/B=6 (f) x/B=8 Fig.16 mean wind pressure IF on side walls of principal building (0wind direction, h = 1.0 )

The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

Equivalent Static Wind Loads of Tall Buildings and Structures

The gust loading factor method (GLF method), which was put forward by Davenport (1967) for computing the wind-induced dynamic responses in alongwind, has been developed and applied in almost all the current standards of the major countries. According to the gust loading factor method, the equivalent static wind load is equal to the mean wind force multiplied by the gust loading factor, thus the distribution of equivalent static wind load along the building height obeys a 2 exponential law ( is the exponent of the mean wind velocity profile), just as the mean wind force does. However, it has been recognized that the resonant equivalent static wind load can be represented by inertial force of the building. The wind load by the GLF method is evidently different from ( is the exposure of the first mode of building) exponent resonant equivalent wind loads. On the other hand, both of the resonant and background equivalent static wind load components provided by the Chinese Loading Code (GBJ9-2001, hereafter referred to as GBJ code method) are equal to the inertial wind force, and thus obeys the exponential law.

Basic Principle The equivalent static wind load was separately evaluated as mean, background and resonant components. The mean component is very simple and will not be discussed here. The background response and the corresponding equivalent static wind load component was computed by the load response correlation method (LRC method) (Kasperski and Niemann,1999), while the resonant equivalent static wind load component was represented by the inertial force. Deviation Factors of Load Effects Except for the mean wind load, the distributions of the background and resonant equivalent wind load components by the different methods may be different from actual ones. Fig.17 shows the typical deviation factors of the resonant and background equivalent static wind load effects. It can be seen from Fig. 17 that the background deviation factors from the GLF and GBJ methods are both sensitive to the parameter 0 (i.e. the type of response) , and the latter will lead to unsafe background responses. It seems that the 2 exponent background equivalent wind load by the GLF method is a fairly good approximation of the actual response of the background wind loads. However, the resonant factor of the GLF method is also sensitive to parameter 0 . Based on the above basic principle, theoretical studies have been made on methods of equivalent static wind loads with high precision and convenience (Ye, 2005; Tang, 2006; Shen, 2007; Zhang, 2009; Gu and Zhou, 2009).
1 .1

1.25 1.20

1.6

1 .0

=1.0

1.5

1.15
0 .9

CR-2

CR-2

1.10 1.05 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.0

CB-

=0.10 =0.15 =0.25 =0.35

1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.0

=0.15 =1.0 =2.0

=0.5 =1.5 =0

0 .8

0 .7

=0.15 =1.0 =2.0

=0.5 =1.5 = 0

0 .6 0.0 0.4 0 .8 1.2 1.6 2.0

0.4

0.8

1.2

1.6

2.0

0.4

0.8

1.2

1.6

2.0

(a) Background load effects (b) Resonant load effects (c) Resonant load effects from GBJ from GLFI from GLFII Fig.17 Deviation factors of load effects

An approximation Method for Resonant Equivalent Static Wind Load of Complex Structures Multi mode contributions and their coupling effects may required to be taken into account in computing the resonant response and resonant equivalent static wind load

The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

component for complex structures, such as complex tall TV towers, especially large-span roof structures. A new concept of mode coupling factor for computation of coupling effects between multi-mode resonant responses of the structures was proposed. On the base of mode coupling factor, a modified SRSS method for computation of the resonant response and resonant equivalent static wind load component contributed by multi-modes and their coupling effects of the structures was raised. The PSD of ith displacement response of the structure can be written as follows:

Sii ( ) = ij H * j (i ) S Fj Fk ( ) H k (i )ik
j =1 k =1

(24)

If the real part and imaginary part in Eq.(24) are notated by Re[ ] and Im[ ] , respectively, Eq.(24) can be re-written as below.

Sii ( ) = ijik Re[ H j (i ) H k (i )]S Fj Fk + ijik Im[ H * j (i ) H k (i )]iS Fj Fk

* j =1 k =1 j =1 k =1

(25)

Based on the decomposition equation of Re[ H * j (i ) H k (i )] proposed by Vanmarcke (1972), a simplified method for computation of resonant dynamic response with modal coupling of structures under the action of turbulent wind was derived as follows.

R ,i =
where

j =1
j k

R , ji

(1 + j )

(26)

jk =

Re( S F F ( j )) Im(S F F ( j )) ik [ N jk + M jk ] ij S F F ( j ) S F F ( j )
j k j j j j

(27)

2 R , ji is the variance of the jth mode resonant displacement without mode coupling effects; jk is the modal coupling factor considering the kth modal coupling effect on the jth resonant
response; similarly, j jk is the jth modal coupling factor considering all the modal
k =1 k j n

coupling effect on the jth resonant response; N jk and M jk are both relative to the structural frequency and damping ratio. Eq.(26) is simple and convenient for computation of resonant dynamic responses of the structures with mode coupling effects under actions of turbulent wind. The present method, developed based on SRSS method, was called the modified SRSS method (MSRSS). Accordingly, a formula for resonant equivalent static wind load distributions with multi-mode contributions and their coupling effects was proposed.
Field measurements of wind speed and responses of a 492 m tall building

Two ultrasonic anemometers, two cup anemometers and accelerometers have just been mounted on the top of Shanghai World Financial Center with a height of 492m (Fig.18) to measure the wind characteristics and responses of the super-tall building. Several sectional records of monsoon have been obtained and analyzed. It is hoped to record typhoon data and the building responses recently.

The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

Fig.18 Photos of Shanghai World Financial Center and an ultrasonic anemometer

Practical applications

Our research team has finished wind-resistant studies on dozens of tall buildings and structures. In this paper the study on Guangzhou New TV Tower is introduced.

Tower model and test situation Guangzhou New TV Tower with a height of 610m is presently the tallest TV tower in the world. Its exterior geometry configuration is unique and very complicated, which can be seen in Fig. 19. The main tower body is a spatial steel structure system. Twenty-four vertical steel pipes together with horizontal annular components and spiral oblique rods compose the external frame. The cross-section of the tower body is ellipse, being large at both ends and small in the middle. The major axis and minor axis at tower bottom are respectively 80 and 60 m, and these quantities at the tower body top are 54 m and 40.5 m. Five closed functional areas are unequally distributed on the tower body along height. Because of the special exterior geometry, it was impossible to measure the wind pressures on the entire tower through the wind tunnel test of the full rigid tower model. Moreover, it was also very difficult to measure the wind forces on the tower by using highfrequency balance technique to the whole tower model since the tower structure was too slender and the contribution of the high-order modes must be taken into account for the computation of dynamic responses. Thus a special experimental procedure was adopted for the wind tunnel test. According to the architectural characteristics, the main tower and antenna were divided into 19 sections for experiments as shown in Fig. 19. The sectional models were built as light but rigid as possible. The natural frequencies of balance with most of the sectional models are greater than 70 Hz. Through analysis of site situation of the TV Tower, the terrain category was classified as C according to the Building Structure Design Code of China (GB 50009-2001). Since the entire tower was divided into 19 sections and each section (especially the upper tower which influences the overall wind force greatly) was not very high, the mean wind speed and turbulence intensity vary little on each of the section. Therefore it was reasonable to take the experiment under the spatial homogeneous turbulence wind field produced by passive grid turbulence generator. That is, the mean wind speed and turbulence intensity did not vary along height for each of the sectional model in the test, while the mean wind profile would be considered when calculating the wind forces acting on the real tower. Five kinds of homogeneous turbulence wind fields with different turbulence intensity were simulated corresponding to different heights of the tower sections, which were 10%, 11%, 12%, 14% and 18%, respectively. Furthermore, on account of high turbulent intensities in oncoming wind and the complicated flow situation caused by interference situation among the structural members, the effect of Reynolds number was not specially considered in the test.

The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

For the tower body, not only the tested sectional model was fixed on the balance, but also the other two sectional compensation models with the same shapes as the just neighbouring sectional models were mounted with small gaps between the tested model and the compensation models to simulate the three-dimensional flow of prototype structure as far as possible. The photographs of test model and installation are shown in Fig. 20.

Wind Forces from Test Mean and extreme (maximum and minimum) force coefficient distributions along the tower height as a function of wind direction acting on all the sections were obtained from the test. Fig. 21 shows the mean, maximum and minimum wind forces along the height of tower under wind speed of 100 year return period (the wind speed at gradient height is 52.4 m/s ) at typical wind directions. Wind-induced Responses and Equivalent Static Wind Loads In light of structure features and consulting with the Structural Design Code of China (GB 50009-2001), the parameters used to calculate the wind-induced buffeting are given below. (1) terrain category C, (2) reference wind pressure: 0.55 kPa for 100-year return period and 0.26 kPa for 10-year return period, respectively, (3) structural damping ratio: 1.5% for the main tower and 1.0% for the antenna, respectively, (4) mode number participating in vibration: 50. Fig.22 shows the variation curves of displacements (average, maximum and minimum responses) of the antenna top (elevation of +618.0 m) as a function of wind direction (100 year return period). The displacement of the antenna top is two times of that of the antenna bottom (elevation of +454.0 m), indicating the obvious whipping effects of the antenna. The internal forces of tower are also been computed, which have the similar trends to the displacements. The acceleration of antenna top is 36.4 times of that of the antenna bottom, which indicates that the whipping of the antenna has much more influence on the acceleration than on the displacement. From the power spectrums of acceleration it can be found that highorder modes contribute to the acceleration responses in both X and Y directions. The first and second modes make the major contributions to the acceleration of antenna bottom, while much more modes have contribution to the acceleration of antenna top. Fig. 23 gives the equivalent static wind loads for dynamic displacements of the tower. For the convenience of design application, the equivalent static wind loads were distributed to the external frame and internal core wall of the TV Tower in the proportion of mass distribution. The response distributions were calculated and are shown in Figs. 24 and 25. Furthermore, the RMS responses calculated by CQC method are also presented in Figs. 24 and 25, which were regarded as the exact values. The comparison of the results obtained by the two methods indicates that the equivalent static wind loads presented in this paper have high precision and can be applicable for the structural design of the tower.
Concluding Remarks

This paper introduces wind-resistant studies of our research team on tall buildings and structures, including some issues of basic researches and applied researches. While dealing with high-rise buildings over 1km in height, wind engineering researchers will be faced with more new challenges, even problems currently not aware of. This needs more of our endeavor to resolve engineering design problems, as well as to further the development of wind engineering in the meantime.

The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

Section
t 1111 h

Number
460.800 459.200

section
t

10
10 9 h section
th

8
section 9 7 8th

6 section 57 4 3 th
6 section 2
th

section

1 th
5 section

(a) main tower body Fig.19 Sectional models of the tower

(b) antenna

Fig.20 Photographs of sectional model of the tower in wind tunnel

600 600 600

500

500

500

Height(m)

Height(m)

400

400

400

Height(m)

300

300

300

200

200

200

100

100

100

0 -400 -200 0 200

0 -400 -200 0 200

0 -2000 -1000 0 1000

Fx(KN)

Fy(KN)

Mz(KN.m)

0.00 degree wind direction, 100-year return period

The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

600

600

600

500

500

500

400

400

400

Height(m)

Height(m)

300

300

Height(m)
200

300

200

200

200

100

100

100

0 -800 -600 -400 -200 0

0 -800 -600 -400 -200 0

0 -4000 -2000 0 2000

Fx(KN)

Fy(KN)

Mz(KN.m)

90. 00 degree wind direction, 100-year return period Fig.21 Distributions of mean, maximum and minimum wind forces along the tower
5 5 3.0x10
-3

Rz(rad) 0 90 180 270 o Wind direction ( ) 360

Ux(m)

Uy(m)

0.0

-5 0 90 180 270 o Wind direction ( ) 360

-5

-3.0x10

-3

90 180 270 o Wind direction ( )

360

Fig.22 Displacement of the antenna top (average, maximum and minimum response) as a function of wind direction (100-year return period)

600

External frame + internal core External frame 600 Internal core

External frame + internal core External frame 600 Internal core

External frame + internal External frame Internal core

500

500

500

400

400

400

Height (m)

300

300

300

200

200

200

100

100

100

0 0 100 200 300

0 0 100 200 300

0 0 2000 4000

Fx(KN)

Fy(KN)

Mz(KN.m)

Fig.23 Equivalent static wind loads acting on the center of core tube (corresponding to RMS of displacement, 90 wind direction, 100-year return period)

The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

600

600

600

500

500

500

400

400

400

Height (m)

300

300

300

200

200

200

100

CQC's result ESW L's result

100

CQC's result ESWL's result

100

CQC's result ESW L's result

0 0.0 0.2 0.4

0 0.0 0.2 0.4

0 0.0000 0.0002

Ux (m )

Uy

(m )

Rz

(ra d )

Fig.24 RMS displacement of structure (90 wind direction, 100-year return period)
600
CQC's result ESW L's result

600

CQC's result ESW L's result 600

CQC's result ESW L's result

600

CQC's result ESW L's result

CQC's result ESW L's resu

600

500

500

500

500

500

400

400

400

400

400

Height (m)

300

300

300

300

300

200

200

200

200

200

100

100

100

100

100

0 0 3500 7000

0 0 3500 7000

0 0 60000

0 0 1000000

0 0 200000

Fx ( KN )

Fy ( KN )

Mz ( KN m)

Mx ( KN m )

My ( KN m)

Fig.25 RMS internal force of structure (90 wind direction, 100-year return period)
Acknowledgements

Financial supports for this study from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 50621062 and 90715040) are gratefully appreciated.
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The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan
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The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan
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