Ch5 Distribution Problems

Raffles Institution
H3 Mathematics 9810 (Combinatorics)

Year 6 2012
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Chapter 5 Distribution Problems
Page 1 of 14

Chapter 5: Distribution Problems

PRE-REQUISITES

The Addition Principle and the Multiplication Principle
The Bijection Principle
The Principle of Inclusion and Exclusion

CONTENT

1 Introduction
2 Identical objects into distinct boxes
3 Distinct objects into distinct boxes
4 Distinct objects into identical boxes
4.1 Stirling number of the second kind
5 Identical objects into identical boxes
5.1 Partitions of a Positive Integer
6 Exercise

1 INTRODUCTION

Consider the following sandwich problems:

1 There are 4 types of sandwiches. A boy with no particular preference for any type wishes
to place an order of 6 sandwiches. How many such orders can he place?
2 There are 4 egg sandwiches. How many ways are there to distribute them among 6 boys?
3 There are 4 types of sandwiches. How many ways are there for 6 boys to order 1
sandwich each?
4 There are 4 egg sandwiches. How many ways are there to divide the sandwiches into
containers?
5 There are 4 sandwiches, each of a different type. How many ways are there to divide the
sandwiches into containers?

These are examples of distribution problems, which deal with the counting of ways of
distributing objects into boxes. In such problems, objects can be identical or distinct, and boxes
too can be identical or distinct. The distribution problem is a basic model for many counting
problems.

There are, in general, four cases to be considered, namely

Objects Boxes
1 Identical Distinct
2 Distinct Distinct
3 Distinct Identical
4 Identical Identical
Raffles Institution H3 Mathematics 9810 Year 6 2012
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2 IDENTICAL OBJECTS INTO DISTINCT BOXES

How many different ways can we distribute 7 identical balls into 3 distinct boxes?

(1) (2) (3)

Three different ways of distribution are shown in the figure below. (Note that two vertical bars
at the two ends are removed)

(a)

(b)

(c)

This is an example of the type of problems that we shall discuss in this section. We shall see
how problems of this type can be solved by applying the Bijection Principle (BP).

If we treat each vertical bar separating adjacent boxes as a 1 and each ball as a 0, then each
way of distribution becomes a 9-digit binary sequence with two 1s. For instance,

(a) 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
(b) 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
(c) 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

Clearly, this correspondence establishes a bijection between the set of ways of distributing the
balls and the set of 9-digit binary sequence with two 1s. Thus by (BP), the number of ways of
distributing the 7 identical balls into 3 distinct boxes is
9
36.
2
| |
=
|
\

In general, we have:
The number of ways of distributing r identical objects into n distinct boxes, where
, r n
+

is given by
1
1
r n
n
+ | |
|
\
or
|
|
\
| +
r
n r 1
.

In the distribution problem discussed above, some boxes may be empty (eg. see (c) above). If no
box is to be empty, how many ways are there to distribute the 7 identical balls into 3 distinct
boxes?

To meet the requirement that no box is empty, we first put a ball in each box and this can be
done in one way because the balls are identical. We are then left with 4 ( 3 7 = ) balls, but we
are now free to distribute these 4 balls into any box.

(1) (2) (3)
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By the previous result, this can be done in
4 3 1 6
15
3 1 2
+ | | | |
= =
| |
\ \
ways.
Thus, by (MP) and (BP), the number of ways to distribute 7 identical balls into 3 distinct boxes
such that no box is empty is
6
15
2
| |
=
|
\
.

In general, the number of ways of distributing r identical balls into n distinct boxes, where
n r , such that no box is empty can be found by the following steps:

First, we put one ball in each box. As the balls are identical, this can be done in one way. Then
we distribute the remaining n r balls in the n boxes in an arbitrary manner. The number of
ways to perform the second step is
( )
|
|
\
|
=
|
|
\
|
+
1
1
1
1
n
r
n
n n r

Thus, by (MP) and (BP), we arrive at the following result.

The number of ways of distributing r identical objects into n distinct boxes, where , r n
+

and n r , such that no box is empty is given by
|
|
\
|
1
1
n
r

or
|
|
\
|
n r
r 1
.

Example 1
Consider the following linear equation:
7
3 2 1
= + + x x x (I)
Find the number of non-negative integer solutions to (I).
For instance, ( ) 1, 2, 4 , ( ) ( ) 4, 2, 1 , 1, 4, 2 , (0, 0, 7) and (0, 7, 0) are non-negative integer solutions
to (I).

Solution:
Let us create 3 distinct boxes, (1), (2) and (3) to represent
3 2 1
and , x x x respectively. Then each
non-negative integer solution ( ) ( ) c b a x x x , , , ,
3 2 1
= to (I) corresponds to a way of distributing 7
identical balls into 3 distinct boxes so that there are a, b and c balls in boxes (1), (2) and (3)
respectively.

(4, 1, 2) oooo o oo
(1) (2) (3)

(2, 5, 0) oo ooooo
(1) (2) (3)
This correspondence clearly establishes a bijection between the set of non-negative integer
solutions to (I) and the set of ways of distributing 7 identical balls into 3 distinct boxes. Thus, by
(BP), the number of non-negative integer solutions to (I) is
7 3 1 9
36
3 1 2
+ | | | |
= =
| |
\ \
.
By generalizing the above argument, we can establish the following general result:

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Consider the linear equation
r x x x
n
= + + +
2 1
(II)
where r is a non-negative integer and n
+
.
Then, the number of non-negative integer solutions to (II) is given by
|
|
\
| +
r
n r 1
.

Example 2
Show that the number of 3-element subsets of the set
10
N {1, 2, 3, , 10} = which contain no
consecutive integers is given by
|
|
\
|
3
8
.
Solution:
We first establish a bijection between the set A of all 3-element subsets of
10
N which contain no
consecutive integers and the set B of 10-digit binary sequences with seven 0s and three 1s in
which no two 1s are adjacent.

Define a mapping B A : f as follows:
Given a 3-element subset { }
3 2 1
, , k k k S = of
10
N , where
1 2 3
k k k < < ,
let ( )
1 2 10
f S b b b = , where
=
=
otherwise 0
, , if 1
3 2 1
k k k i
b
i

For example,
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
f({1, 3, 8}) = 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
f({3, 6, 10}) = 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
It is easy to check that f is a bijection between A and B. Thus by (BP), B A = .
But how do we count ? B
Observe that a binary sequence in B can be regarded as a way of distributing 7 identical objects
into 4 distinct boxes such that the 2
nd
and 3
rd
boxes are both nonempty, as shown below:

1010000100 0 0000 00
1
st
2
nd
3
rd
4
th

0010010001 00 00 000
1
st
2
nd
3
rd
4
th

To get one such distribution, we first put one object each in the 2
nd
and 3
rd
boxes. The remaining
5 objects are then distributed in an arbitrary way to the 4 boxes. The first step can be done in one

way while the second step can be done in ways.

Hence, A B = =

, in other words, the number of 3-element subsets of the set
10
N {1, 2, 3, , 10} = which contain no consecutive integers is given by

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3 DISTINCT OBJECTS INTO DISTINCT BOXES

Suppose that 5 distinct balls are to be put into 7 distinct boxes.

Case 1: How many ways can this be done if each box can hold at most 1 ball?

Let a, b, c, d and e denote the 5 distinct balls. First we put a (say) into one of the boxes. There
are 7 choices.

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Next, we consider b (say). As each box can hold at most one ball, and one of the boxes is
occupied by a, there are now 6 choices for b. Likewise, there are respectively, 5, 4 and 3 choices
for c, d and e. Thus, by (MP), the number of ways of distribution is given by 3 4 5 6 7 , which
is equivalent to
7
5
P , the number of ways of permuting any 5 distinct objects from 7 distinct
objects.

This is not a mere coincidence, as it is possible to establish a bijection between the set A
(consisting of all the possible ways to distribute 5 distinct balls into 7 distinct boxes) and the set
B (consisting of all possible ways to form a five-digit number from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
where each digit is used at most once). Some examples are shown below.

b c a e d 41275
e d c b a 74321
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Thus, we can define a mapping B A : f as follows:
Given an arrangement s A where a is placed into box k
a,
b is placed in box k
b
, etc, where
{ } , , , , 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
a b c d e
k k k k k , f(s) =
a b c d e
k k k k k .
It is clear that f is a bijection, so by (BP), |A| = |B| =
7
5
P .


The number of ways of distributing r distinct objects into n distinct boxes, where r, n
+
,
such that each box can hold at most one object (and thus n r ) is given by
r
n
P , which is
equivalent to
( )!
!
r n
n
.

Case 2: How many ways can this be done if each box can hold any number of balls?

Before we proceed, we would like to point out that the ordering of the distinct objects in each
box is not taken into consideration.

Now, the 1
st
object, say a, can be put in any of the 7 boxes. As each box can hold any number of
balls, there are also 7 choices for each of the remaining balls b, c, d and e. Thus, by (MP), the
answer is
5
7 .
a, b, c, d, e
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To explain this result by using the Bijection Principle, first we define C to be the set of ways to
distribute 5 distinct objects into 7 distinct boxes with no restriction and D to be the set of ways
to form a 5-digit number from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 without any restriction. Then we define
a mapping g: D C such that
g:
1 2 3 4 5
x x x x x arrangement where a, b, c, d, e are in boxes
5 4 3 2 1
, , , , x x x x x respectively,
{ } 7 , 6 , 5 , 4 , 3 , 2 , 1
i
x .
It can be observed that g is a bijection and thus |C| = |D| = 7
5
.


The number of ways of distributing r distinct objects into n distinct boxes, where
r, n
+
, such that each box can hold any number of objects is given by
r
n .

Example 3
Find the number of ways for a teacher to distribute 6 different books to 9 students if
(i) there is no restriction;
(ii) no student gets more than one book.

Solution:
Here, the books are taken to be distinct objects and students are considered to be the distinct
boxes. Thus, the number of distinct boxes, n = 9 and the number of distinct objects, r = 6.
(i) If no restriction, no. of ways =
6
9 = 531441.
(ii) If no student gets more than one book, no. of ways =
6
9
P = 60 480.

4 DISTINCT OBJECTS INTO IDENTICAL BOXES

How many ways are there to divide 4 boys (a, b, c and d) into 3 groups where each group
contains at least one boy?

Solution:
To distribute the 4 boys into 3 groups, one group must contain 2 boys and the other 2 boys will
naturally form 1 group each.

Example: a, b c d

Thus, to solve the problem, we find the number of ways to select 2 boys out of 4 to form a
group.
Therefore, number of ways =

This problem can be extended by varying the number of boys and the number of groups. One
extension could be: How many ways are there to divide 8 boys into 4 groups?
In this case, the problem is more complicated and there are much more cases to consider. Since
listing has its limitations, we need to devise a plan that can solve the problem.

Incidentally, the above problem can be modelled as a distribution problem for distinct objects
into identical boxes.
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4.1 Stirling number of the second kind

Given non-negative integers r and n, the Stirling number of the second kind, denoted by
S(r, n), is defined as the number of ways of distributing r distinct objects into n identical
boxes such that no box is empty.

Let us revisit the earlier problem which we have solved. In terms of S(r, n), the number of ways
to divide 4 boys (a, b, c and d) into 3 groups can be expressed as S(4, 3).

We have found that S(4, 3) = 6. Now, in each of the 6 ways, a is either alone or not alone in a
box. Using this, we can consider two cases and try to establish a recurrence relation for S(r, n).

Let a be a particular object among the r distinct objects. In any way of distributing the r
distinct objects into n identical boxes such that no box is empty, either
(i) a is alone in one box or
(ii) a is not alone in one box

In case (i), there remains ( ) 1 r distinct objects to be distributed into ( ) 1 n identical boxes
with no empty boxes. The number of ways to do this is ( ) 1, 1 S r n .

In case (ii), the ( ) 1 r distinct objects (excluding a ) are first put into the n identical boxes such
that no box is empty. This can be done in ( ) 1, S r n ways. Object a can then be placed in any
of the boxes in n ways.
By (MP), number of ways in case (ii) is ( ) 1, nS r n .

Thus, by (AP),
S(r, n) = S(r 1, n 1) + n S(r 1, n), where r, n
+

The Stirling numbers are calculated by getting the initial values and then using the recurrence
relation obtained above.

Example 4
By using the definition of ( ) , S r n where
0
, r n
+
,
(a) evaluate the following:
(i) S(r, 1) for r 1;
(ii) S(r, r) for r 1;
(iii) S(r, n) for 1 r < n;
(iv) S(r, 0) for r 1;
(v) S(0, n) for n 1;
(vi) S(0, 0)
(b) Construct the table of values of S(r, n) for 6 , 0 n r .
Solution:
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0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0
1
2
3
4
5
6

Observations:
(i) From column 2, we observe that S(r, 1) = 1 for r 1.
(ii) From the first diagonal, we observe that S(r, r) = 1.
(iii) From column 3, we observe that the values of S(r, 2) increase by powers of 2.
It can be shown that ( )
1
, 2 2 1, 2.
r
S r r
=
(iv) From the second diagonal, we observe the following pattern in the values of ( ) , 1 S r r .

0 1 3 6 10 15 21

+ 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6
It can be shown that ( ) , 1 .
2
r
S r r
| |
=
|
\

Example 5
By using Mathematical Induction or a combinatorial proof, prove the following results:
(i) S(r, 2) = 1 2
1
r
, r 2
(ii) S(r, 3) = ( )
1 1
2 1 3
2
1

+
r r

(iii) S(r, r 1) =
|
|
\
|
2
r

(iv) S(r, r 2) =
|
|
\
|
+
|
|
\
|
4
3
3
r r

Solution
(i) Method 1: Proof by induction
Let P
r
be the statement S(r, 2) =
1
2
r
1, r
+
and r 2.
When r = 2, LHS = S(2, 2) = 1, RHS =
1 2
2

1 = 1 = LHS P
2
is true.
Assume that P
k
is true for some k
+
, k 2, i.e. S(k, 2) =
1
2
k
1.
r
n
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To prove that P
k+1
is true, i.e. S(k+1, 2) =
k
2 1.
LHS = S(k+1, 2)

P
k
is true P
k +1
is true. Hence, by induction, P
r
is true for r
+
and r 2.

Method 2: Combinatorial Proof
By definition, S(r, 2) is the number of ways of distributing r distinct objects into 2
identical boxes such that no box is empty.

Suppose the 2 boxes are distinct. Each of the r objects can be placed in either the first or
the second box. However, we need to take away the 2 cases where all the r objects are
placed in the first or the second box. Therefore, number of ways = 2 2
r
.
Since the 2 boxes are identical, the required number of ways is ( ) 1 2 2 2
2
1
1
=
r r
.
(shown)
* Try to prove the results in (ii), (iii), (iv) on your own. (see Exercise Qn 6)

Example 6
Find, in terms of the Stirling number of the second kind, the number of ways of distributing
(i) r distinct objects into n distinct boxes with no empty boxes;
(ii) r distinct objects into n identical boxes with empty boxes allowed.

Solution:
(i) Suppose the n boxes are identical.
The number of ways of distributing r distinct objects into n identical boxes with no
empty boxes is S(r, n).
Since the boxes are actually distinct, we can arrange the boxes in n! ways.
By (MP), required number of ways = n!S(r, n).
(ii) Since empty boxes are allowed, we may distribute r distinct objects into 1, 2, 3, , or n
boxes.

For 1 k n, no. of ways of distributing r distinct objects into k identical boxes = S(r, k).
By (AP), number of ways = S(r, 1) + S(r, 2) + + S(r, n) =
=
n
k
k r S
1
) , ( .
Example 7
Find the number of ways to express 2730 as a product ab of two integers a and b, where
a b 2.

Solution:
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5 IDENTICAL OBJECTS INTO IDENTICAL BOXES

How many ways are there to distribute 5 identical balls into 4 identical boxes such that no boxes
are empty?

The following is one way of distribution.

In this problem, we are concerned with the numbers of balls distributed in the 4 boxes. The sum
of the numbers is 5.

5.1 Partitions of a Positive Integer

We define a partition of a positive integer r into n parts to be a set of n positive integers whose
sum is r. Note that the ordering of the integers in the collection is immaterial.

Let the number of different partitions of n be denoted by P(r, n).

The table below shows the partitions of the positive integer 5 into n parts.

n Partitions P(5, n)
1 {5} 1
2 {4,1}, {3,2} 2
3 {3, 1, 1}, {2, 2, 1} 2
4 {2, 1, 1, 1} 1
5 {1, 1, 1, 1, 1} 1

For the above problem, the number of ways to distribute 5 identical balls into 4 identical boxes
such that no boxes are empty = P(5, 4) = 1

We can calculate the value of P(r, n) using the recurrence relation:

P(r, n) = P(r 1, n 1) + P(r n, n) where , , 1 and 2 .
+
< r n n r r n .

Proof:
There are 2 cases to consider.
Case 1: At least one box has exactly one object.
We place one object in one box. Then we distribute the remaining (r 1) objects into the
remaining (n 1) boxes such that no boxes are empty.
Number of ways this can be done is P(r 1, n 1).
Case 2: All the boxes have more than one object.
We place one object into each of the n boxes. Then we distribute the remaining (r n) objects
into the n boxes such that each box has at least two objects.
Number of ways this can be done is P(r n, n).

Therefore, by (AP), P(r, n) = P(r 1, n 1) + P(r n, n).

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Note: By definition, (1) P(r, n) = 0 for n r < .
(2) P(r, 1) = 1 for 1 r .
(3) P(r, n) = 1 when r = n or r = n + 1. (Why?)

As for the other values of P(r, n), they can be calculated using the recurrence relation above.

The table of values of P(r, n) for 10 , 1 n r is as follows:

P(r, n)
n
r
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4 1 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 1 2 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
6 1 3 3 2 1 1 0 0 0 0
7 1 3 4 3 2 1 1 0 0 0
8 1 4 5 5 3 2 1 1 0 0
9 1 4 7 6 5 3 2 1 1 0
10 1 5 8 9 7 5 3 2 1 1

Example 8
Find the number of ways of distributing 8 identical objects into 3 identical boxes such that
(i) no box is empty;
(ii) boxes may be empty.

Solution
(i) Partitions of 8 into 3 parts: 611, 521, 431, 422, 332
Number of ways = P(8, 3) = 5

(ii) We consider the following cases:
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References:
1. Chen CC & Koh KM (1992), Principles and Techniques in Combinatorics,
Singapore: World Scientific.
2. Koh KM & Tay EG (2002), Counting, Singapore: World Scientific.

6 EXERCISE

(A) Distributing Identical objects into Distinct boxes

1. Six distinct symbols are transmitted through a communication channel. A total of 18
blanks are to be inserted between the symbols with at least 2 blanks between every pair
of symbols. In how many ways can the symbols and blanks be arranged?

2. Find the number of integer solutions to the equation
50
4 3 2 1
= + + + x x x x
in each of the following cases:
(i) 0
i
x for each i = 1, 2, 3, 4;
(ii) 0 and 5 , 3
2 1

i
x x x for each i = 3, 4;
(iii) 0 and 8 0
1

i
x x for each i = 2, 3, 4;
(iv) 0 and 10
2 1
= +
i
x x x for each i = 1, 2, 3, 4;
(v)
i
x is positive even for each i = 1, 2, 3, 4.
(vi)
i
x is positive odd for each i = 1, 2, 3, 4.

3. The number 6 can be expressed as a product of three factors in 9 ways as follows:
, 6 1 1 , 1 6 1 , 1 1 6 , 3 2 1 , 2 3 1 , 3 1 2 , 1 3 2 , 2 1 3 1 2 3 .
In how many ways can each of the following numbers be similarly expressed as a
product of three factors?
(i) 2592 (ii) 27000

(B) Distributing Distinct objects into Distinct boxes

4. Find the number of ways of distributing 8 distinct objects into 3 distinct boxes if each
box must hold at least 2 objects.

5. Three students are discussing on the number of ways of distributing r distinct objects
into n distinct boxes so that no box is empty, for , r n
+
and r n. Who is correct?

Student X: First we make sure all the boxes are filled with one object each. The
number of ways of doing so is
!
( )!
r
n
r
P
r n
=
. We then distribute the

remaining r n distinct objects into n distinct boxes and there are
n r
n

ways of doing this. Thus, the number of ways =
)! (
!
n r
n r
n r
.
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Student Y: We first consider the r distinct objects as if they are identical. The
number of ways of distributing r identical objects into n distinct boxes so
that no box is empty is given by
|
|
\
|
1
1
n
r
. But the objects are actually
distinct, so the number of ways of permuting them is r!. Thus the number
of ways = !
1
1
r
n
r
|
|
\
|
.
Student Z: I think that it has something to do with the number of onto functions.

(C) Distributing Distinct objects into Identical boxes

6. By using Mathematical Induction or a combinatorial proof, prove the following results,
for r
+
:
(i) S(r, 2) = 1 2
1
r
, r 2 (proven in Eg 6 on pg 9)
(ii) S(r, 3) = ( )
1 1
2 1 3
2
1

+
r r
, where r 3.
(iii) S(r, r 1) =
|
|
\
|
2
r
,
r 2
(iv) S(r, r 2) =
|
|
\
|
+
|
|
\
|
4
3
3
r r
,
r 4

7. Find, in terms of S(r, n), the number of ways to express 39270 as a product abc of
three integers a, b and c, where a b c 2.

8. By using the Principle of inclusion and exclusion, show that the number of ways to
distribute r distinct objects into n distinct boxes, where r n, where no boxes are empty
is given by ( ) ( )
|
|
\
|
n
i
r i
i n
i
n
0
1 .
Hence show that S(r, n) =
!
1
n
( ) ( )
|
|
\
|
n
i
r i
i n
i
n
0
1 and evaluate S(8, 4).

9. Let N
k
= } ..., , 2 , 1 { k and n, m
+
. Express the number of onto mappings from N
n
to N
m

in terms of S(n, m).

10. Given non-negative integers r and n, the Stirling number of the first kind, denoted by
s(r, n), is defined as the number of ways of distributing r distinct objects around n
identical circles such that no circle is empty.
Prove that s(r, n) = s(r 1, n 1) + (r 1) s(r 1, n).

(D) Distributing Identical objects into identical boxes

11. Find the number of ways of dividing
(i) 6 identical balls into 3 groups;
(ii) 6 identical balls into groups;
(iii) 6 identical balls into not more than 3 groups.
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Miscellaneous
[Hint: Identify whether the objects and boxes are distinct or identical.]

12. There are four types of sandwiches. How many ways are there for 12 boys to order one
sandwich each?

13. There are four chicken sandwiches. How many ways are there to divide the sandwiches
into containers?

14. There are four types of sandwiches: egg, ham, tuna and chicken. A boy wishes to order
12 sandwiches. How many such orders can he place if
(i) he does not want to have more than 3 egg sandwiches;
(ii) the total number of tuna and chicken sandwiches is 8?

15. There are four sandwiches, each of a different type.
(i) How many ways are there to distribute them to 12 boys if each boy can have at
most one sandwich?
(ii) How many ways are there to divide the sandwiches into containers?

16. There are 12 ham sandwiches. How many ways are there to distribute them among 4
boys
(i) without any restrictions;
(ii) if none of the boys have exactly 3 sandwiches?

17.

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Raffles Institution

H3 Mathematics 9810 (Combinatorics)

. We then distribute the

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