SWARM INTELLIGENCE

A Technical Seminar Report submitted to the Faculty of Computer Science and Engineering

Geethanjali College of Engineering & Technology

(Cheeryal (V), Keesara(M), R.R. Dist., Hyderabad-A.P.)

Accredited by NBA (Affiliated to J.N.T.U.H, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi)

In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING Under the esteemed guidance of Mr. P. Srinivas, M.Tech, (Ph.D) Sr. Associate Professor By
G.RAHUL 09R11A0549

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Year: 2012-2013

Geethanjali College of Engineering & Technology

(Affiliated to J.N.T.U.H, Approved by AICTE, NEW DELHI.)

Accredited by NBA
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

Date:

CERTIFICATE

This is to Certify that the Technical Seminar report on Swarm Intelligence is a bonafide work done by G.Rahul (09R11A0549) in partial fulfillment of the requirement of the award for the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Computer Science and Engineering J.N.T.U.H, Hyderabad during the year 2012 - 2013.

Technical Seminar Co-Ordinator HOD-CSE (Mr. P. Srinivas) (Prof. Dr. P.V.S. Srinivas) Sr. Associate Professor

ABSTRACT
Swarm intelligence (SI) is the collective behaviour of decentralized, selforganized systems, natural or artificial. The concept is employed in work on artificial intelligence. The expression was introduced by Gerardo Beni and Jing Wang in 1989, in the context of cellular robotic systems. SI systems are typically rules, made and up of a population there is of no simple agents or

boids interacting locally with one another and with their environment. The agents follow very Simple Structure dictating although centralized control how individual agents should behave, local, and to a agents. Natural

certain degree random, interactions between such agents lead to the emergence of "intelligent" global behavior, unknown to the individual examples of SI include ant colonies, bird flocking, animal herding, bacterial

growth, and fish schooling. The application of swarm principles to robots is called swarm robotics, while Swarm Intelligence refers to the more general set of algorithms. 'Swarm prediction' has been used in the context of forecasting problems. Swarm describes behaviour of an aggregate of animals of similar size and body orientation, often t e r m is moving en masse or migrating in the same direction. Swarming is a general te rm tha t ca n be applied to any animal that swarms. The applied particularly to insects, but can also be applied to birds, fish, various microorganisms such as bacteria, and people. The term flocking is usually used to refer to swarming behaviour in birds, while the terms shoaling or schooling are used to refer to swarming behaviour in fish. The swarm size is a major parameter of a swarm.

Contents
Chapters
1. Introduction

Page No.

5
2. Properties of Swarm Intelligence

6
3. Modelling Swarm behaviour

8
4. Algorithms of Swarm Intelligence 10 5. Applications of Swarm Intelligence 25 6. Advanatages & Disadvantages of Swarm Intelligence

36
7. Conclusion

38
8. Future Scope 39 9. List of Abbreviations 40 10. References 41

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION Swarm Intelligence is the property of a system whereby the collective behaviours of agents interacting locally with their environment cause coherent functional global patterns to emerge. SI provides a basis with which it is possible to explore distributed problem solving without centralized control or the provision of a global model. One of the cores tenets of SI work is that often a decentralized, bottomup approach to controlling a system is much more effective than traditional, centralized approach. Groups performing tasks effectively by using only a small set of rules for individual behaviour is called swarm intelligence. Swarm Intelligence is a property of systems of no intelligent agents exhibiting collectively intelligent behaviour. In Swarm Intelligence, two individuals interact indirectly when one of them modifies the environment and the other responds to the new environment at a later time. For years scientists have been Studying about insects like ants, bees, termites etc. The most amazing thing about social insect colonies is that theres no individual in charge. For example consider the case of ants. But the way social different: they self-organize insects form highways and other amazing very The direct and indirect interactions. Structures such as bridges, chains, nests and can perform complex tasks is through characteristics of social insects are 1. 2. 3. Flexibility Robustness Self-Organization

Chapter 2 PROPERTIES OF SWARM INTELLIGENCE The typical swarm intelligence system has the following properties:

it is composed of many individuals; the individuals are relatively homogeneous (i.e., they are either all identical or

they belong to a few typologies);

the interactions among the individuals are based on simple behavioral rules

that exploit only local information that the individuals exchange directly or via the environment (stigmergy);

the overall behaviour of the system results from the interactions of individuals

with each other and with their environment, that is, the group behavior selforganizes. The characterizing property of a swarm intelligence system is its ability to act in a coordinated way without the presence of a coordinator or of an external controller. Many examples can be observed in nature of swarms that perform some collective behavior without any individual controlling the group, or being aware of the overall group behavior. Notwithstanding the lack of individuals in charge of the group, the swarm as a whole can show an intelligent behavior. This is the result of the interaction of spatially neighboring individuals that act on the basis of simple rules. Most often, the behavior of each individual of the swarm is described in probabilistic terms: Each individual has a stochastic behavior that depends on his local perception of the neighborhood. Because of the above properties, it is possible to design swarm intelligence system that are scalable, parallel, and fault tolerant.

Scalability means that a system can maintain its function while increasing its
6

size without the need to redefine the way its parts interact.

Because in a swarm intelligence system interactions involve only neighboring individuals, the number of interactions tends not to grow with the overall number of individuals in the swarm: each individual's behavior is only loosely influenced by the swarm dimension. In artificial systems, scalability is interesting because a scalable system can increase its performance by simply increasing its size, without the need for any reprogramming.

Parallel action is possible in swarm intelligence systems because individuals

composing the swarm can perform different actions in different places at the same time. In artificial systems, parallel action is desirable because it can help to make the system more flexible, that is, capable to self-organize in teams that take care simultaneously of different aspects of a complex task.

Fault tolerance is an inherent property of swarm intelligence systems due to the

decentralized, self-organized nature of their control structures. Because the system is composed of many interchangeable individuals and none of them is in charge of controlling the overall system behavior, a failing individual can be easily dismissed and substituted by another one that is fully functioning.

Chapter 3 MODELLING SWARM BEHAVIOUR The Si m p le s t ma th e ma ti ca l mode ls o f animal swarms generally represent individual animals as following three rules: 1. 2. 3. Move in the same direction as your neighbour Remain close to your neighbours Avoid collisions with your neighbours

Many current models use variations on these rules, often implementing them by means of concentric "zones" around each animal. In the zone of repulsion, very close to the animal, the focal animal will seek to distance itself from its neighbours to avoid collision. Slightly further away, in the zone of alignment, the focal animal will seek to align its direction of motion with its neighbours. In the outermost zone of attraction, this extends as far away from the focal animal as it is able to sense, the focal animal will seek to move towards a neighbour.

The shape of these zones will necessarily be affected by the sensory capabilities
8

of the given animal. For example the visual field of a bird does not extend behind its body. Fish rely on both vision and on hydrodynamic signals relayed hydrodynamic perceptions and relayed through their lateral line, while Antarctic krill rely both on vision exhibit swarm behaviour are 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Insects Ants, bees, locusts, termites, mosquitoes and insects migration. Bacteria Birds Land animals Aquatic animals fish, krill and other aquatic animals People

through antennae. Some of the animals that

Chapter 4 ALGORITHMS OF SWARM INTELLIGENCE

9

Algorithms of Swarm Intelligence are

Ant colony optimization(ACO) River formation dynamics Particle swarm optimization(PSO) Stochastic diffusion search Gravitational search algorithm(GSA) Intelligent Water Drops Charged System Search Backtracking optimization Search Algorithm(BSA) Bat Algorithm Differential Search Algorithm Firefly Algorithm Glowworm Swarm Optimization Krill Herd Algorithm Magnetic Optimization Algorithm Self-propelled Particles

I.

Ant Colony Optimization

Ant colony optimization (ACO) is a class of optimization algorithms modeled on the actions of an ant colony. ACO methods are useful in problems that need to find paths to goals. Artificial 'ants'Stimulation agentslocate optimal solutions
10

by moving through a parameter space representing all possible solutions. Real ants lay down pheromones directing each other to resources while exploring their environment. The Stimulated 'ants' similarly record their positions and the quality of their solutions, so that in later Stimulation iterations more ants locate better solutions. One variation on this approach is the bees algorithm, which is more analogous to the foraging patterns of the honey bee. In other words we can say that , the ant colony optimization algorithm (ACO) is a probabilistic technique for solving computational problems which can be reduced to finding good paths through graphs. In the real world, ants wander randomly, and upon finding food return to their colony while laying down pheromone trails. If other ants find such a path, they are likely not to keep travelling at random, but to instead follow the trail, returning and reinforcing it if they eventually find food through that way. This algorithm is inspired by forgiving behaviour of the ants. 1. The first ant finds the food source (F), via any way (a), then returns to the (N), leaving behind a trail pheromone (b)

nest 2.

Ants indiscriminately follow four possible ways, but the Strengthening of

the runway makes it more attractive as the shortest route. 3. Ants take the shortest route, long portions of other ways lose

their trail pheromones.

FIG: Ant Colony Optimization

11

In a series of experiments on a colony of ants with a choice between two unequal length paths leading to a source of food, biologists have observed that ants tended to use the shortest route. A model explaining this behaviour is as follows: 1. 2. An ant (called "blitz") runs more or less at random around the colony; If it discovers a food source, it returns more or less directly to the nest, leaving

in its path 3. 4. A trail of pheromone; These pheromones are attractive, nearby ants will be inclined to follow, more

or less 5. 6. 7. Directly, the track; Returning to the colony, these ants will strengthen the route; If there are two routes to reach the same food source then, in a given amount

of time, 8. 9. The shorter one will be travelled by more ants than the long route; The short route will be increasingly enhanced, and therefore become more

10. attractive; 11. The long route will eventually disappear because pheromones are volatile;

12. Eventually, all the ants have determined and therefore "chosen" the shortest route. Pseudo code of ACO 1: 2: 3: 4: repeat if antCount < maxAnts then create a new ant set initial State
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5: 6: 7:

end if for all ants do determine all feasible neighbour States {considering the ant's visited

States} 8: 9: 10: 11: 12: 13: 14: if solution found V no feasible neighbour State then kill ant if we use delayed pheromone update then evaluate solution deposit pheromone on all used edges end if else

15: Stochastically select a feasible neighbour State {directed by the ants memory, The pheromone concentration on the edges and local heuristics} 16: if we use Step-by-Step pheromone update then 17: deposit pheromone on the used edge 18: end if 19: end if 20: end for 21: evaporate pheromone until termination criterion satisfied {e.g., found a Satisfying solution} II. River Formation Dynamics formation dynamics (RFD) is an heuristic by method Similar to ant and

River

colony optimization (ACO). In fact, RFD can be seen as a gradient version of ACO, based on copying how water forms
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rivers

eroding

the

ground

depositing sediments. As wa te r transforms the environment, altitudes of places

are

dynamically

modified,

and

decreasing gradients

are

constructed.

The

gradients are followed by subsequent drops to create new gradients, reinforcing the best ones. By doing so, good solutions are given in the form of decreasing altitudes. This method has been applied to solve different NP-complete problems (for example, the problems of finding a minimum distances tree and finding a minimum spanning tree in a variable-cost graph). The gradient orientation of RFD makes it especially suitable for solving these problems and provides a good tradeoff between finding good results much computational time. consisting in forming a kind of covering tree. III. Particle Swarm Optimization swarm optimization (PSO) bird is a is a population or fish based schooling. Stochastic Particle and not spending In fact, RFD fits particularly well for problems

Particle

optimization technique developed by Dr. Eberhart and Dr. Kennedy in 1995, inspired by social behavior of swarm with optimization (PSO) flocking global optimization algorithm for dealing

problems in which a best solution can be represented as a point or

surface in an n-dimensional space. Hypotheses are plotted in this space and seeded with an initial velocity, as well as a communication channel between the particles. Particles then move through the solution space, and are evaluated according to some fitness criterion after each time Step. Over time, particles are accelerated towards those particles within their communication grouping which have better fitness values. The main advantage of such an approach over other global minimization Strategies such as Stimulated annealing is that the large numbers of members that make up the particle swarm make the technique impressively resilient to the problem of local minima. PSO s h a r e s m a n y S i m i l a r i t i e s with evolutionary computation techniques such as Genetic Algorithms (GA). The system is initialized with a population of random solutions and searches for optima by updating generations. However, unlike GA, PSO has no evolution operators such as crossover and mutation. In PSO, the potential solutions, called particles, fly through the problem space by following the current optimum particles. Ex. Birds flocking
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FIG: PARTICLE SWARM OPTIMIZATION Algorithm of PSO As Stated before, PSO stimulates the behaviors of bird flocking. Suppose the following scenario: a group of birds are randomly searching food in an area. There is only one piece of food in the area being searched. All the birds do not know where the food is. But they know how far the food is in each iteration. So what's the best Strategy to find the food? The effective one is to follow the bird which is nearest to the food. PSO learned from the scenario and used it to solve the optimization problems. In PSO, each Single solution is a "bird" in the search space. We call it "particle". All of particles have fitness values which are evaluated by the fitness function to be optimized, and have velocities which direct the flying of the particles. The particles fly through the problem space by following the current optimum particles.

PSO is initialized with a group of random particles (solutions) and then searches for optima by updating generations. In every iteration, each particle is updated by following two "best" values. The first one is the best solution (fitness) it has achieved so far. (The fitness value is also stored.) This value is called pbest. Another "best" value that is tracked by the particle swarm optimizer is the best value, obtained so far by any particle in the population. This best value is a
15

global best and called best. When a particle takes part of the population as its topological neighbors, the best value is a local best and is called lbest. After finding the two best values, the particle updates its velocity and positions with following equation (a) and (b). v[] = v[] + c1 * rand() * (pbest[] - present[]) + c2 * rand() * (gbest[] present[])----------(a) present [] = present[] + v[] ----------------------------------------------------- (b)

Where:v[] is the particle velocity, present [] is the current particle (solution). pbest [] and gbest[] are defined as Stated before. i.e. personal best and global best respv. rand () is a random number between (0,1). c1, c2 are learning factors. Usually c1 = c2 = 2. The pseudo code of the procedure is as follows For each particle Initialize particle END Do

For each particle Calculate fitness value If the fitness value is better than the best fitness value (pBeST) in history

Set current value as the new pBeST End

16

Choose the particle with the best fitness value of all the particles as the gbest For each particle Calculate particle velocity according equation (a) Update particle position according equation (b) End While maximum iterations or minimum error criteria is not attained Particles' velocities on each dimension are clamped to a maximum velocity Vmax. If the sum of accelerations would cause the velocity on that dimension to exceed Vmax, which is a parameter specified by the user. Then the velocity on that dimension is limited to Vmax. IV. Stochastic Diffusion Search diffusion search (SDS) is an into agent-based suited to multiple probabilistic independent global the partial-

Stochastic search

and optimization Each agent

technique maintains

best

problems

where

objective function can be decomposed functions.

a hypothesis which is iteratively tested by

evaluating a randomly selected partial objective function parameterized by the agent's current hypothesis. In the standard version of SDS such partial function evaluations are binary, resulting in each agent becoming active or inactive. Information on hypotheses is diffused across the population via inter-agent communication. SDS species efficient Unlike the stigmergic hypotheses communication via a procedure used in ACO, in in agents communicate of and ant. A one-to-one communication some

strategy analogous to the tandem positive search

running

observed

feedback mechanism ensures that, over time, a and optimization algorithm, which has been

population of agents Stabilize around the global-best solution. SDS is both an robust extensively mathematically described. Or in simple words we can say that It belongs to a family of swarm intelligence and naturally ant inspired search and optimization algorithms which includes colony optimization, particle swarm optimization and genetic algorithms.

It is an agent-based probabilistic global search and optimization technique best

17

suited to problems where the objective function can be decomposed into multiple independent partial-functions. Each agent maintains a hypothesis which is iteratively tested by evaluating a randomly selected partial objective function parameterized by the agent's current hypothesis. V. Gravitational Search Algorithm

Gravitational search algorithm (GSA) is constructed based on the law of Gravity and the notion of mass interactions. The GSA algorithm uses the theory of Newtonian physics and its searcher agents are the collection of masses. In GSA, we have an isolated system of masses. Using the gravitational force, every mass in the system can see the situation of other masses. The gr a v it a t io na l force is therefore a way of t r a n s f e r r i n g information between different masses. In GSA, agents are considered as objects and their performance is measured by their masses. All these objects attract each other by a gravity force, and this force causes a movement of all objects globally towards the objects with heavier masses. The heavy masses correspond to good solutions of the problem. The position of the agent corresponds to a solution of the problem, and its mass is determined using a fitness function. By lapse of time, masses are attracted by the heaviest mass. We hope that this mass would present an optimum solution in the search space. The GSA could be considered as an isolated system of masses. It is like a small artificial world of masses obeying the Newtonian laws of gravitation and motion. A multiobjective variant of GSA, called Non-dominated Sorting Gravitational Search Algorithm (NSGSA), was proposed by Nobahari and Nikusokhan in 2011.

VI.

Intelligent Water Drops

Intelligent Water Drops algorithm (IWD) is a swarm-based nature-inspired optimization algorithm, which has been inspired from natural rivers and how they find almost optimal paths to their destination. These near optimal or optimal paths follow from actions and reactions occurring among the water drops and the water drops with their riverbeds. In the IWD algorithm, several artificial water
18

drops cooperate to change their environment in such a way that the optimal path is revealed as the one with the lowest soil on incrementally constructed by the IWD its links. The solutions are algorithm. Consequently, the IWD

algorithm is generally a constructive population-based optimization algorithm. VII. Charged System Search

Charged System Search (CSS) is a new optimization algorithm based on some principles from physics and mechanics. CSS utilizes the governing laws of Coulomb and Gauss from electrostatics and the Newtonian laws of mechanics. CSS is a multi-agent approach in which each agent is a Charged Particle (CP). CPs can affect each other based on their fitness values and their separation distances. The quantity of the resultant force is determined by using the electrostatics laws and the quality of the movement is determined using Newtonian mechanics laws. CSS is applicable to all optimization fields; especially it is suitable for non- smooth or non-convex domains. This algorithm provides a good balance between the exploration and the exploitation paradigms of the algorithm which can considerably improve the efficiency of the algorithm and therefore the CSS also can be considered as a good global and local optimizer simultaneously. VIII. Backtracking optimization Search Algorithm

Backtracking Optimization Search Algorithm (BSA), a new evolutionary algorithm (EA) for solving real-valued numerical optimization problems. EAs are popular stochastic search algorithms that are widely used to solve non-linear, nondifferentiable and complex numerical optimization problems. Current research aims at mitigating the effects of problems that are frequently encountered in EAs, such as excessive sensitivity to control parameters, premature convergence and slow computation. In this vein, development of BSA was motivated by studies that attempt to develop simpler and more effective search algorithms. Unlike many search algorithms, BSA has a single control parameter. Moreover, BSAs problemsolving performance is not over sensitive to the initial value of this parameter. BSA has a simple structure that is effective, fast and capable of solving multimodal problems and that enables it to easily adapt to different numerical optimization problems. BSAs strategy for generating a trial population includes two new crossover and mutation operators. BSAs strategies for generating trial populations
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and controlling the amplitude of the search-direction matrix and search-space boundaries give it very powerful exploration and exploitation capabilities. In particular, BSA possesses a memory in which it stores a population from a randomly chosen previous generation for use in generating the search-direction matrix. Thus, BSAs memory allows it to take advantage of experiences gained from previous generations when it generates a trial preparation. This paper uses the Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test to statistically compare BSAs effectiveness in solving numerical optimization problems with the performances of six widely used EA algorithms: PSO, CMAES, ABC, JDE, CLPSO and SADE. The comparison, which uses 75 boundary-constrained benchmark problems and three constrained real-world benchmark problems, shows that in general, BSA can solve the benchmark problems more successfully than the comparison algorithms. IX. Differential search algorithm

Differential search algorithm (DSA) has been inspired by migration of super organisms. DSA is population based, single/multi objective optimization algorithm utilizing the concept of Brownian like motion. The problem solving success of DSA was compared to the successes of ABC, JDE, JADE, SADE, EPSDE, GSA, PSO2011 and CMA-ES algorithms for solution of numerical optimization problems in 2012. X. Firefly algorithm

The Firefly algorithm (FA) is a metaheuristic algorithm, inspired by the flashing behaviour of fireflies. The primary purpose for a firefly's flash is to act as a signal system to attract other fireflies. Xin-She Yang formulated this firefly algorithm by assuming: All fireflies are unisexual, so that one firefly will be attracted to all other fireflies; Attractiveness is proportional to their brightness, and for any two fireflies, the

less brighter one will be attracted by (and thus move to) the brighter one; however, the brightness can decrease as their distance increases; If there are no fireflies brighter than a given firefly, it will move randomly.

The brightness should be associated with the objective function. Firefly algorithm is a nature-inspired metaheuristic optimization algorithm.
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XI.

Glowworm swarm optimization

Glowworm swarm optimization (GSO), introduced by Krishnan and Ghose in 2005 for simultaneous computation of multiple optima of multimodal functions. The algorithm shares a few features with some better known algorithms, such as ant colony optimization and particle swarm optimization, but with several significant differences. The agents in GSO are thought of as glowworms that carry a luminescence quantity called luciferin along with them. The glowworms encode the fitness of their current locations, evaluated using the objective function, into a luciferin value that they broadcast to their neighbors. The glowworm identifies its neighbors and computes its movements by exploiting an adaptive neighborhood, which is bounded above by its sensor range. Each glowworm selects, using a probabilistic mechanism, a neighbor that has a luciferin value higher than its own and moves toward it. These movementsbased only on local information and selective neighbor interactionsenable the swarm of glowworms to partition into disjoint subgroups that converge on multiple optima of a given multimodal function.

XII.

Krill herd algorithm

Krill herd (KH) is a novel biologically inspired algorithm proposed by Gandomi and Alavi in 2012. The KH algorithm is based on simulating the herding behavior of krill individuals. The minimum distances of each individual krill from food and from highest density of the herd are considered as the objective function for the krill movement. The time-dependent position of the krill individuals is formulated by three main factors: movement induced by the presence of other individuals; foraging activity; and random diffusion.

The derivative information is not necessary in the KH algorithm because it uses a stochastic random search instead
21

of

gradient

search.

For

each metaheuristic algorithm, it is important to tune its related parameters. One of

interesting parts of the proposed algorithm is that it carefully simulates the krill behavior and it uses the real world empirical studies to obtain the coefficients. Because of this fact, only time interval should be fine-tuned in the KH algorithm. This can be considered as a remarkable advantage of the proposed algorithm in comparison with other nature-inspired algorithms. The validation phases indicate that the KH method is very encouraging for its future application to optimization tasks.

XIII.

Magnetic optimization algorithm

Magnetic Optimization Algorithm (MOA), proposed by Tayarani in 2008, is an optimization algorithm inspired by the interaction among some magnetic particles with different masses. In this algorithm, the possible solutions are some particles with different masses and different magnetic fields. Based on the fitness of the particles, the mass and the magnetic field of each particle is determined, thus the better particles are more massive objects with stronger magnetic fields. The particles in the population apply attractive forces to each other and so move in the search space. Since the better solutions have greater mass and magnetic field, the inferior particles tend to move toward the fitter solutions and thus migrate to area around the better local optima, where they wander in search of better solutions.

XIV.

Self-Propelled Particles

Self-propelled particles (SPP), also referred to as the Vicsek model, was introduced in 1995 by Vicsek et al. as a special case of the boids model introduced in 1986 by Reynolds. A swarm is modeled in SPP by a collection of particles that move with a constant speed but respond to a random perturbation by adopting at each time increment the average direction of motion of the other particles in their local neighbourhood. SPP models predict that swarming animals share certain properties
22

at the group level, regardless of the type of animals in the swarm. Swarming systems give rise to emergent behaviours which occur at many different scales, some of which are turning out to be both universal and robust. It has become a challenge in theoretical physics to find minimal statistical models that capture these behaviours. The SPP model is based on a collection of points or particles, each functioning individually as an autonomous agent, and each following the same simple rules which govern their behaviour. The particles move in a plane with constant speed but in different directions. The direction of each particle is updated using a "nearest neighbor rule", a local rule which replaces the direction of each particle with the average of the particle's own direction plus the directions of its immediate neighbours. Simulations demonstrate that a suitable "nearest neighbour rule" eventually results in all the particles swarming together, or moving in the same direction. This emerges, even though there is no centralized coordination, and even though the neighbours for each particle constantly change over time. Although more realistic swarming models have been explored, the SPP model remains important because of its simplicity and the strength and the variety of its emergent phenomena. The SPP model is an agent-based model based on a Lagrangian viewpoint, which follows individual particles rather than working with the density of the swarm. It is a discrete switched linear system which is stable, even though no common quadratic Lyapunov function exists. It is an analogue of the Ising model in ferromagnetism, where temperature corresponds to particle randomness and spin clusters correspond to particle clusters.

SPP models have been applied in areas, such as marching locusts, bird landings , schooling fish, robotic swarms, molecular motors, the development of human stampedes and the evolution of human trails in urban green spaces.

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FIG : Flocks of birds , make an unanimous group decision to land

Chapter 5 APPLICATIONS OF SWARM INTELLIGENCE

Swarm Intelligence-based techniques can be used in a number of applications. The U.S. military i s investigating s w a r m t e c h n i q u e s f o r c o n t r o l l i n g unmanned v e h i c l e s . The European Space Agency is thinking about an

24

orbital swarm for self assembly and interferometer. NASA is investigating the use of swarm intelligence for planetary mapping. A 1992 paper by M. Anthony Lewis and George A. Bekey discusses the possibility of using swarm intelligence to control nanobots within the body for the purpose of killing cancer tumors! Here are some of the applications of Swarm intelligence. a. Crowd Simulation Artists are using swarm intelligence as a means of creating complex interactive systems or simulating crowds. Stanley and Stella in: Breaking the Ice was the first movie to make use of swarm intelligence for rendering, realistically depicting the movements of groups of fish and birds using the Boids system. Tim Burton's Batman Returns also made use of swarm technology for showing the movements of a group of bats. The Lord of the Rings film trilogy made use of similar Massive, during battle scenes. Swarm because it is cheap, robust, and simple. Airlines have used swarm theory to Simulate passengers boarding a plane. Southwest Airlines researcher Douglas A. Lawson used an ant-based computer Simulation employing only six interaction rules to evaluate boarding times using various boarding methods. technology, known as technology is particularly attractive

25

FIG: Crowd Simulation in Maya b. Ant-Based Routing The use of Swarm Intelligence in Telecommunication Networks has also

been researched, in the form of Ant Based Routing. This was pioneered separately by Dorigo et al. and Hewlett Packard in the mid-1990s, with a number of variations since. Basically this uses a probabilistic routing table rewarding/reinforcing the route successfully traversed by each "ant" (a small control packet) which flood the network. Reinforcement of the route in the forwards, reverse direction and both Simultaneously have been researched: backwards reinforcement requires a symmetric network and couples the two directions together; forwards reinforcement rewards a route before the outcome is known (but then you pay for the cinema before you know how good the film is). As the system behaves stochastically and is therefore lacking repeatability, there are large hurdles to commercial deployment. Mobile
26

media

and

new

technologies

have the potential to change the threshold for collective action

due to swarm intelligence. Airlines have also used ant-based routing in assigning aircraft arrivals to airport gates. At Southwest Airlines software program uses swarm theory, or swarm intelligence -- the idea that a colony of ants works better than one alone. Each pilot acts like an ant searching for the best airport gate. "The pilot learns from his experience what the best is for him, and it turns out that that's the best solution for the airline," Dr. Douglas A. Lawson explains. As a result, the "colony" of pilots always go to gates they can arrive and depart quickly. The program can even alert a pilot of plane back-ups before they happen. "We can anticipate that it's going to happen, so we'll have a gate available," Dr. Lawson says.

FIG: Swarm Intelligence used in Airlines

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c. Clustering Behavior Of Ants Ants build cemeteries by collecting dead bodies into a single place in the nest. They also organize the spatial disposition of larvae into clusters with the younger, smaller larvae in the c lu s t e r ce nter and the ol de r one s a t its pe riphe ry . This c lus te ring beha vior has motivated a number of scientific studies.

FIG: Clustering Behaviour of Ants

d. Nest Building Behaviour of Wasps and Termites Wasps build nests with a highly complex internal Structure that is well beyond the cognitive capabilities of a Single wasp. Termites build nests whose dimensions are enormous when compared to a Single individual, which can measure as little
28

as a few millimeters. Scientists have been studying the coordination mechanisms that allow the construction of these Structures and have proposed probabilistic models exploiting insects behavior. Some of these models are implemented in computer programs to produce Simulated Structures that recall the morphology of the real nests.

FIG: Nest building behaviour of Wasps and Termites e. Flocking and Schooling In Birds and Fish have shown that these elegant swarm-level behaviors can be

Scientists

understood as the result of a self-organized process where no leader is in charge and each individual bases i t s m o v e m e n t d e c i s i o n s solely o n l o c a l l y a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n ; t h e d i s t a n c e , perceived speed, and direction of movement of neighbours. These Studies have inspired a number of computer Simulations that are now used in the computer graphics industry for the realistic reproduction of flocking in movies and computer games.

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FIG: Flock of Birds

FIG: Flocking Simulation

f.

Ant Colony Optimization

30

In ant colony optimization (ACO), a set of software agents called "artificial ants" search for good solutions to a given optimization problem transformed into the problem of finding the minimum cost path on a weighted graph. The artificial ants incrementally build solutions by moving on the graph. The solution construction process is Stochastic and is biased by a are modified at runtime by the ants. pheromone model, that is, a set of parameters associated with graph components the values of which

FIG: Ant Colony Optimization

g.

Particle Swarm Optimization

It is inspired by social behaviors in flocks of birds and schools of fish. In practice, in the initialization phase each particle is given a random initial position and an initial velocity. The position of the particle represents a solution of the problem and has therefore a value, given by the objective function. At each iteration of the algorithm, each particle moves with a three velocity that is a weighted sum of components: the old velocity, a velocity component that drives the
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particle towards the location in the search space where it previously found

the best solution so far, and a velocity component that drives the particle towards the location in the search space where the neighbor particles found the best solution so far.

FIG: Graph based on Particle Swarm Optimization

h.

Swarm Based Network Management

Schoonderwoerd et al. proposed Ant-based Control (ABC), an algorithm for routing and load balancing in circuit-switched networks; Di Caro and Dorigo proposed AntNet, an algorithm for routing in packet-switched networks. While ABC was a proof of- concept, AntNet, which is an ACO algorithm, was compared to many State-of-the-art algorithms and its performance was found to be competitive especially in situation of highly dynamic and stochastic data traffic as can be observed in Internet-like networks. An extension of AntNet has been successfully applied to ad-hoc networks.

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FIG: Network Management using Swarm Intelligence

i.

Cooperative Behaviour in Swarms of Robots

There are a number of swarm behaviours observed in natural systems that have inspired innovative ways of solving problems by using swarms of robots. This is what is called swarm robotics. In other words, swarm robotics is the application of swarm intelligence principles to the control of swarms of robots. As with swarm intelligence systems in general, swarm robotics systems can have either a scientific or an engineering flavour. Clustering in a swarm of robots was mentioned above as an example of artificial/scientific system.

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FIG: Swarm Robotics

FIG: Swarm Robot

j. Swarmic art In a series of works al-Rifaie et al[50] have successfully used two swarm intelligence algorithms one mimicking the behaviour of one species of ants
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(Leptothorax acervorum) foraging (Stochastic diffusion search (SDS)) and the other algorithm mimicking the behaviour of birds ocking (Particle swarm optimization PSO) to describe a novel integration strategy exploiting the local search properties of the PSO with global SDS behaviour. The resulting hybrid algorithm is used to sketch novel drawings of an input image, exploiting an artistic tension between the local behaviour of the birds ocking - as they seek to follow the input sketch - and the global behaviour of the ants foraging - as they seek to encourage the ock to explore novel regions of the canvas. The 'creativity of this hybrid swarm system has been analyzed under the philosophical light of the rhizome in the context of Deleuzes well known Orchid and Wasp metaphor.

Chapter 6 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF SWARM INTELLIGENCE

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Advantages of Swarm Intelligence

It

is

easily

adoptable

as

conventional

workgroups

devise

various

Standard operating range of options.

procedures to react to predetermined Stimuli. But swarms

have better ability to adjust to new Situations or to change beyond a narrow

Evolution is the result of adaptation. Conventional bureaucratic systems can shift the locus of adaptation (slowly) from one part of the system to another. In swarm systems, individual variation and imperfection lead to perpetual novelty, which leads to evolution Resilient. A swarm is a collective system made up of multitudes in parallel, which results in enormous redundancy. Because the swarm is highly adaptable and evolves quickly, failures tend to be minimal.

Disadvantages of Swarm Intelligence

It is non-optimal and uncontrollable as it is very difficult to exercise control

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over a swarm. Swarm systems require guidance in the way that a shepherd drives a herd by applying force at crucial leverage points. It is unpredictable as the complexity of a swarm system leads to

unforeseeable results.

Emergent

novelty i s a primary characteristic of self-

organization by adaptive systems.

Non-understandable

Sequential

systems

are

understandable;

complex

adaptive systems, instead, are a jumble of intersecting logic. Instead of A causing B, which in turn causes C, A indirectly causes everything, and everything indirectly causes A.

It is non-immediate as linear systems tend to be very direct. Flip a switch and the light comes on. Simple collective systems tend to operate simply. But complex swarm systems with rich hierarchies take time.

CONCLUSION The idea of swarm behavior may still seem Strange because we are used to relatively linear bureaucratic models. In fact, this kind of behaviour characterizes natural systems ranging from flocks of birds to schools of fish. Humans are more
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complex than ants or fish and have lots more capacity for novel behavior, some unexpected results are likely, and for this reason, leading scientists and organizations will further pursue swarm approaches. Swarm Intelligence provides a distributive approach to the problem solving mimicking the very Simple natural process of cooperation. According to my survey many solutions that had been previously solved using other Artificial Intelligence (AI) approach like genetic algorithm neural network are also solve able by this approach also. Due to its Simple architecture and adaptive nature like Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) has it is more likely to be seen much more in the future.

FUTURE SCOPE

In the future, Swarm Intelligence will be an important tool for researchers and engineers interested in solving certain classes of complex problems. To build the foundations of this discipline and to develop an appropriate methodology, we
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should proceed in parallel both at an abstract level and by tackling a number of challenging problems in selected research domains. The research domains that have chosen are optimization, robotics, networks and data mining, Pipe Inspection, Miniaturization, Telecommunications, Medical, Self assembling Robots, Engine maintenance, cleaning Ship hulls, Satellite maintenance, Pest eradication.

LIST OF ABBREVATIONS

SI ST ACO

Swarm Intelligence Swarm Technology Ant colony optimization

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PSO GSA BSA SPP -

Particle swarm optimization Gravitational search algorithm Backtracking optimization Search Algorithm Self-propelled Particles

REFERENCES

1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarm_intelligence 2. Beni, G., Wang, J. Swarm Intelligence in Cellular Robotic Systems, Proceed. NATO Advanced Workshop on Robots and Biological Systems, Tuscany, Italy, June 2630 (1989).
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3. Altruism helps swarming robots fly bettergenevalunch.com, 4 May 2011. 4. Ant Colony Optimization by Marco Dorigo and Thomas Sttzle, MIT Press, 2004. ISBN 0-262-04219-3 5. Karaboga, Dervis (2010). "Artificial bee colony algorithm".Scholarpedia 5 (3): 6915. 6. Civicioglu, Pinar (2013). "Artificial cooperative search algorithm for numerical optimization problems". Information Sciences 229: 5876. 7. Civicioglu, P. (2013). "Backtracking Search Optimization Algorithm for numerical optimization problems". Applied Mathematics and Computation 219: 81218144. 8. oglich, M.; Maschwitz, U.; Holldobler, B., Tandem Calling: A New Kind of Signal in Ant Communication, Science, Volume 186, Issue 4168, pp. 1046-1047 9. Nasuto, S.J., Bishop, J.M. & Lauria, S., Time complexity analysis of the Stochastic Diffusion Search, Proc. Neural Computation '98, pp. 260-266, Vienna, Austria, (1998). 10. Nasuto, S.J., & Bishop, J.M., (1999), Convergence of the Stochastic Diffusion Search, Parallel Algorithms, 14:2, pp: 89-107. 11. Myatt, D.M., Bishop, J.M., Nasuto, S.J., (2004), Minimum stable convergence criteria for Stochastic Diffusion Search, Electronics Letters, 22:40, pp. 112-113. 12. al-Rifaie, M.M., Bishop, J.M. & Blackwell, T., An investigation into the merger of stochastic diffusion search and particle swarm optimisation,

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