A report on fatigue in materials

Fatigue
This report covers the basic meaning, factors influencing and other elements concerning fatigue in materials.

L.E. Cierenberg 212040693 Strength of Materials III 4/8/2013

Table of Contents
1. 2. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 4 Definitions .................................................................................................................................................. 4 2.1 Fatigue: ..................................................................................................................................................... 4 2.2 Fatigue Limit: ........................................................................................................................................... 4 2.3 Fatigue Notch Factor:............................................................................................................................... 4 2.4 Fatigue Ratio: ........................................................................................................................................... 4 2.5 Fatigue Strength: ...................................................................................................................................... 4 2.6 S-N Diagram: ........................................................................................................................................... 5 2.7 Stress-Strain Diagram .............................................................................................................................. 5 2.8 Fatigue Test: ............................................................................................................................................. 5 2.9 Persistent Slip Bands (PSBs) ................................................................................................................... 5 3. 4. Fatigue fracture of materials ...................................................................................................................... 6 S-N Diagram .............................................................................................................................................. 7 4.1 Examples of S-N curves ........................................................................................................................... 7 5. 6. Fatigue limits for ferrous metals ................................................................................................................ 8 Factors influencing fatigue ....................................................................................................................... 11 6.1 Cyclic stress state: .................................................................................................................................. 11 6.2 Geometry: ............................................................................................................................................... 11 6.3 Surface quality: ...................................................................................................................................... 11 6.4 Material Type: ........................................................................................................................................ 12 6.5 Residual stresses: ................................................................................................................................... 12 6.6 Size and distribution of internal defects: ................................................................................................ 12 6.7 Direction of loading: .............................................................................................................................. 12 6.8 Grain size: .............................................................................................................................................. 12 Page 2 of 15

6.9 Environment: .......................................................................................................................................... 12 6.10 Temperature: ........................................................................................................................................ 13 6.11 Surface treatment: ................................................................................................................................ 13 Mechanical Treatments ............................................................................................................................ 13 Thermal Treatments ................................................................................................................................. 13 Plating ...................................................................................................................................................... 14 6.12 Frequency of stress intervals. ............................................................................................................... 14 7. 8. Comparison of stress at fillet radius and bending stress at uniform sections........................................... 14 Bibliography............................................................................................................................................. 15

Page 3 of 15

1. Introduction
Fatigue in materials is a factor which is of utmost importance to take into consideration when designing and manufacturing parts. It is the cause of failure of parts due to continues loads within a number of cycles. Various factors influence fatigue and thus the lifespan of parts. This paper gives an in depth report on the factors that influence fatigue as well as the systems whereby fatigue is tested and represented.

2. Definitions

2.1 Fatigue:
In materials science when a material which is subjected to cycling loading both progressive and localized structural damage occurs and this is referred to as fatigue. The nominal maximum stress values are less than the ultimate tensile stress limit, and may be below the yield stress limit of the material.

2.2 Fatigue Limit:

A number of test specimens fatigue life is represented on an S-N diagram and a asymptote draw at the locus of the corresponding fatigue life. This is also called the endurance limit and denotes the maximum fluctuation stress a material can endure for an infinite number of cycles.

2.3 Fatigue Notch Factor:

A ratio between a specimen with a stress concentration factor, as a notch or other stress raiser, compared to a specimen with no stress raiser. It is also known as the strength reduction ratio and this value is usually lower than the theoretical calculated value as plastic deformation causes some stress relief.

2.4 Fatigue Ratio:

This is the difference between the fatigue limit and tensile strength, given in the form of a ration. When this value is available it can be used to estimate the fatigue properties from tensional test data.

2.5 Fatigue Strength:

A value obtained directly from the S-N diagram that denotes the magnitude of fluctuation stress required to cause failure in a fatigue test specimen after a defined number of cycles under load. Page 4 of 15

2.6 S-N Diagram:

A diagram obtained by plotting the number of cycles required to produce failure in a specimen against the cyclic stress amplitude developed during testing.

2.7 Stress-Strain Diagram

Graph obtained by plotting data, obtained from a mechanical test where continues measurements of stress and strain is recorded in a material where a load is applied to a specimen. The stress is then represented as a function of strain. This graph is constructed using compression, tension and torsion tests.

2.8 Fatigue Test:

The recorded data obtained by subjecting a specimen to a specified mean load (which may be zero) and an alternating load and the number of cycles required to produce failure. The tests are repeated with identical specimens and varying loads. Loads may be applied axially, in torsion, or in flexure. Stress in the specimen may be in one direction through the loading cycle, or may reverse direction. Most fatigue tests are conducted in flexure, rotating beam, or vibratory type machines.

2.9 Persistent Slip Bands (PSBs)

Persistent slip bands are the areas of intensive cyclic plastic strain in the shape of thin lamellae arising in cyclic straining of crystalline materials.

Page 5 of 15

3. Fatigue fracture of materials

When a material is subject to repeated loading and unloading fatigue occurs. Microscopic cracks begin to form when the loads rise above a certain threshold. These cracks form at stress concentrators such as the surface, persistent slip bands and grain interfaces. Sudden fracture occurs when these cracks reach a critical size.

Fracture of an aluminum crank arm. Dark area of striations: slow crack growth. Bright granular area: sudden fracture. When there are no macroscopic or microscopic discontinuities in metals and alloys, fatigue starts with dislocation movements, eventually forming persistent slip bands that create short cracks. The preferred location for starting the fatigue process is macroscopic and microscopic discontinuities as well as component design features which cause stress concentration as keyways & sharp changes of direction etc. Even in controlled environments, fatigue shows considerable scatter and thus it is fatigue is a stochastic process. Life is shortened by an increase in the applied stress range. Fatigue life scatter tends to increase for longer fatigue lives. When the loads are removed, even for a long period, the effects remain as damage is cumulative. Fatigue life is influenced by a variety of factors, such as working temperature, surface finish, microstructure, shape of component, residual stresses, contact (fretting), surface finish etc. Some materials have a theoretical fatigue limit below which continued loading does not lead to structural failure.

Page 6 of 15

4. S-N Diagram
Also known as a Whler curve, the S-N diagram characterizes material performance in high-cycle fatigue situations. This is a graph of the magnitude of a cyclic stress (S) against the logarithmic scale of cycles to failure (N).

4.1 Examples of S-N curves

Samples of materials, often called coupons, are tested and the S-N curves are derived from the data obtained. These tests are done by applying a regular sinusoidal stress, with testing machine which also counts the number of cycles to up until failure. Each coupon test generates a point on the plot. In some cases there is a runout where the time to failure exceeds that available for the test.

Page 7 of 15

5. Fatigue limits for ferrous metals

The following values have been obtained from http://www.matweb.com Material Name Fatigue Strength (MPa) 138 - 772 205 - 485 138 - 772 758 - 772 138 - 614 68.9 - 510 68.9 - 510 207 - 510 450 - 550 68.9 - 207 400 - 621 85.0 -1070 180 - 605 85.0 - 772 758 - 772 758 - 772 758 - 772 758 - 772 205 - 505 180 - 470 350 - 595 138 - 510 338 - 614 138 - 510 338 - 614 315 205 - 485 315 205 - 485 315 205 - 485 69 79 97 110 128

AISI 4000 Series Steel AISI 8000 Series Steel Low Alloy Steel Low Carbon Steel Medium Carbon Steel Cast Iron Alloy Cast Iron Ductile Iron Duplex Gray Cast Iron Martensitic Stainless Steel T 300 Series Stainless Steel T 400 Series Stainless Steel AISI 4118 Steel, direct quenched from pot, carburized, 150C (300F) temper AISI 4118 Steel, direct quenched from pot, carburized, 230C (450F) temper AISI 4118H Steel, direct quench, 150C (300F) temper, 1.6 mm case depth AISI 4118H Steel, direct quench, 230C (450F) temper, 1.6 mm case depth AISI 4340 Steel, oil quenched 830C (1525F), 540C (1000F) temper, not nitrided AISI 4340 Steel, oil quenched 830C (1525F), 540C (1000F) temper, pseudonitrided AISI 4340 Steel, oil quenched 830C (1525F), 540C (1000F) temper, nitrided AISI E4340 Steel, oil quenched 845C, 650C (1200F) temper AISI E4340 Steel, oil quenched 845C, 425C (800F) temper AISI E4340 H Steel, oil quenched 845C, 650C (1200F) temper AISI E4340 H Steel, oil quenched 845C, 425C (800F) temper AISI 8630 Steel, normalized AISI 8630 Steel, oil quenched 845C (1550F), 455C (850F) temper AISI 8630H Steel, normalized AISI 8630H Steel, oil quenched 845C (1550F), 455C (850F) temper AISI 86B30H Steel, normalized AISI 86B30H Steel, oil quenched 845C (1550F), 455C (850F) temper 20 Standard gray iron test bars, as cast 25 Standard gray iron test bars, as cast 30 Standard gray iron test bars, as cast 35 Standard gray iron test bars, as cast 40 Standard gray iron test bars, as cast Page 8 of 15

Material Name

50 Standard gray iron test bars, as cast 60 Standard gray iron test bars, as cast ASTM 897/A897M-06 Grade 110-70-11 Austempered Ductile Iron Austempered Ductile Iron (Obsolete with ASTM A897/A897M-06) ASTM 897/A897M-06 Grade 130-90-09 Austempered Ductile Iron ASTM 897 Grade 2 (150-100-07) Austempered Ductile Iron ASTM 897 Grade 3 (175-125-04) Austempered Ductile Iron 302 Stainless Steel, 25% hardened strip 302 Stainless Steel, after cold work 303 Stainless Steel, annealed 303 Stainless Steel, annealed bar 303 Stainless Steel, cold drawn bar 347 Stainless Steel, cold drawn wire, 75% hard, 0.05-0.51 mm diameter 347 Stainless Steel, cold drawn wire, 75% hard, 0.53-3.18 mm diameter 347 Stainless Steel, cold drawn wire, 75% hard, 3.20-9.53 mm diameter 348 Stainless Steel, cold drawn wire, 75% hard 403 Stainless Steel, annealed, sheet 403 Stainless Steel, annealed, strip 403 Stainless Steel, soft tempered, wire 6.4 mm diameter 403 Stainless Steel, annealed, bar 403 Stainless Steel, tempered, bar AK Steel 409 Ferritic Stainless steel AK Steel 410 Martensitic Stainless steel Carpenter Gall-Tough PLUS Stainless, Annealed, 0% Cold Work Carpenter Gall-Tough PLUS Stainless, Annealed Carpenter Custom 455 Stainless Steel, Condition H900 (Age Hardened 482C) Carpenter Custom 455 Stainless Steel, Condition H950 (Age Hardened 510C) Carpenter Custom 455 Stainless Steel, Condition H1000 (Age Hardened 538C (1000F)) Carpenter Custom 450 Stainless Steel, 25 mm Bar, Condition H1050 (Age Hardened 566C) Carpenter Custom 450 Stainless Steel, Annealed Carpenter Custom 450 Stainless Steel, Condition H900 (Age Hardened 482C) Carpenter Custom 450 Stainless Steel, Condition H1000 (Age Hardened 538C (1000F)) Carpenter Custom 450 Stainless Steel, Condition H1150 (Age Hardened 621C) Carpenter 20Cb-3 Stainless Steel, Bar, Annealed at 1750F (955C) then Water Quenched Carpenter 20Cb-3 Stainless Steel, Strip, Annealed at 1750F (955C) then Water Quenched Carpenter AerMet 100 Aged at 900F Carpenter AerMet 100 Aged at 875F Carpenter AerMet 310 Carpenter AerMet 340 Crucible Steel 430F Stainless Steel Crucible Steel 17Cr-4Ni Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steel Crucible Steel 17Cr-4Ni Super-X Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steel Dura-Bar 65-45-12 Continuously Cast Ductile Iron Bar Stock ASTM A536 Dura-Bar 80-55-06 Continuously Cast Ductile Iron Bar Stock ASTM A536 Page 9 of 15

Fatigue Strength (MPa) 148 169 450 450 450 385 - 485 380 - 415 485 - 550 485 - 550 240 - 330 240 - 330 240 - 330 605 605 605 605 275 - 380 275 - 380 275 - 380 275 - 380 275 - 380 324 400 293 293 772 680 630 590 517 660 94 85 330 330 945 945 1030 986 207 531 - 621 531 - 621 290 276

Material Name

Dura-Bar 100-70-03 Continuously Cast Ductile Iron Bar Stock ASTM A536 Dura-Bar G2 Continuously Cast Gray Iron Bar Stock ASTM A48 Dura-Bar G1 Continuously Cast Gray Iron Bar Stock ASTM A48 Dura-Bar G1A Continuously Cast Gray Iron Bar Stock ASTM A48 International Mold Steel DC53 General-Purpose Cold Work Die and Mold Steel Allegheny Ludlum 430 Ferritic Stainless Steel Allegheny Ludlum Stainless Steel Type 301, annealed (UNS S30100) Allegheny Ludlum Stainless Steel Type 301, 1/4 Hard (UNS S30100) Allegheny Ludlum Stainless Steel Type 301, 1/2 Hard (UNS S30100) Allegheny Ludlum Stainless Steel Type 301, Full Hard (UNS S30100) Allegheny Ludlum Stainless Steel Free Machining Grade Type 303, Annealed (UNS S30300) Allegheny Ludlum Stainless Steel Type 321 (UNS S32100) Allegheny Ludlum Stainless Steel Type 347 (UNS S34700) Allegheny Ludlum Stainless Steel Type 348 (UNS S34800) Allegheny Ludlum Stainless Steel Free Machining Grade Type 416, Tempered at 482C (UNS S41600) Allegheny Ludlum Stainless Steel Free Machining Grade Type 416, Tempered at 538C Allegheny Ludlum Stainless Steel Free Machining Grade Type 416, Tempered at 593C Allegheny Ludlum Stainless Steel Free Machining Grade Type 416, Tempered at 649C Allegheny Ludlum Stainless Steel Free Machining Grade Type 416, Tempered at 704C Allegheny Ludlum Stainless Steel Free Machining Grade Type 416, Tempered at 760C Meehanite AQ Flake Graphit Cast Iron Meehanite GM-60 Flake Graphit Cast Iron Meehanite GA-50 Flake Graphit Cast Iron Meehanite GC-40 Flake Graphit Cast Iron Meehanite GE-30 Flake Graphit Cast Iron Meehanite GF-20 Flake Graphite Cast Iron Meehanite Ductliron SP-80 Nodular Graphite Ductile Iron Meehanite Ductliron SH-100 Nodular Graphite Ductile Iron Meehanite Ductliron SF-60 Nodular Graphite Ductile Iron Meehanite Ductliron AQS Nodular Graphite Ductile Iron Meehanite K-295 Austempered Ductile Iron Meehanite K-325 Austempered Ductile Iron Meehanite K-405 Austempered Ductile Iron Outokumpu LDX 2101 Duplex Stainless Steel Outokumpu SAF 2304 Duplex Stainless Steel Outokumpu 2205 Duplex Stainless Steel Outokumpu SAF 2507 Duplex Stainless Steel Outokumpu 4404 Cr-Ni-Mo Austenitic Stainless Steel QuesTek Innovations Ferrium C61 Case-hardened Gear Steel with Ultrahigh-strength Core Sandvik 13RM19 Strip Steel American Utility Metals Cromgard Stainless Steel Page 10 of 15

Fatigue Strength (MPa) 255 138 68.9 68.9 833 159 - 243 241 303 379 552 285 180 180 180 590 470 410 370 340 280 207 172 152 121 93.1 75.8 269 296 207 365 269 - 434 324 - 455 352 - 510 500 450 510 550 360 931 - 1340 1000 1070 296 - 441

6. Factors influencing fatigue

6.1 Cyclic stress state: One or more properties of state need to be considered, depending on the
complexity of the geometrical proportions, such as stress amplitude, mean stress, biaxiality, in-phase or outof-phase shear stress, and load sequence.

6.2 Geometry: Fatigue cracks are initiated at stress concentrations caused by notches and variations in
cross section throughout the component. The theory is that failure starts at the weakest link, the most favorably orientated metal crystal for example, and then grows through less favorably orientated grains until final failure. Logically it suggests that the larger the component the higher probability of a weaker part for fatigue to initiate. This theory has been confirmed by actual test data, especially in the case of bending and torsion. More than 95% of the maximum stress is concentrated in a thin layer of surface tension by the stress gradient built up through the section, in bending and to a lesser extent in torsion. So it is safe to assume that if the volume of material available that could contain a critical flaw is greater, it will lead to reduced fatigue strength. The stress gradient is absent in axial tension and thus the effect of size is small. Any bends or changes in shape produce concentrated stress areas that lower the fatigue life as there is a greater chance of flaws within the components material. The shape of the structure will significantly affect the fatigue life. Square holes or sharp corners will lead to elevated local stresses where fatigue cracks can initiate. Round holes and smooth transitions or fillets are therefore important to increase the fatigue strength of the structure.

6.3 Surface quality: Microscopic stress concentrations are produced by surface roughness and lower the
fatigue limit. A very high percentage of all fatigue failures have their origin at the surface of parts. From this we can deduce that surface type is an extremely important factor influencing fatigue strength. Polished laboratory specimen standards are compared to various surface conditions. Additional stress raisers are produced by scratches, pits, machining marks etc and lower fatigue strength. High strength steels are affected more by a rough surface finish than softer steels (see diagram below). The surface finish correction factor used to calculate diameters of shafts is strongly related to tensile strength. Here the surface finish correction factor categorizes by terms such as polished, machined, and forged.

Page 11 of 15

Note that other factors also play a role in above curves as a result of the manufacturing process. For example, the forged and hot rolled curves include the effect of decarburization. Other diagrams present the surface finish correction factor in a more quantitative way by using a quantitative measure of surface roughness such as RA (the root mean square) or AA (the arithmetic average). The following diagram shows the effect of surface roughness on the surface finish correction factor.

6.4 Material Type: Fatigue life, as well as the behavior during cyclic loading, varies widely for different
materials.

6.5 Residual stresses: Fatigue strength is greatly decreased by processes such as welding, cutting, casting,
and other manufacturing processes involving heat or deformation.

6.6 Size and distribution of internal defects: The fatigue limit is lower drastically by casting defects
such as gas porosity, non-metallic inclusions and shrinkage voids.

6.7 Direction of loading: Fatigue strength depends on the direction of the main stress in non-isotropic
materials.

6.8 Grain size: Smaller grains produce longer fatigue lives in most metals but are affected more by surface
defects and scratches than larger grained alloys.

6.9 Environment: Fatigue life can be affected by environmental conditions as it can cause erosion,
corrosion, or gas-phase embrittlement.

Page 12 of 15

6.10 Temperature: Extreme temperatures or large temperature changes can decrease fatigue strength.

6.11 Surface treatment: Fatigue life can be increased by producing compressive residual stresses in the
surface by e.g. shot peening. Low plasticity burnishing, laser peening, and ultrasonic impact treatment can also produce this surface compressive stress. This increase in fatigue life by means of surface treatment is normally observed only for high-cycle fatigue. Surface treatment can have a large influence on fatigue strength, especially the endurance limit. The remaining stress at the free surface is altered by of surface treatment. Residual stress can be replaced by stresses produced by an external force for some calculation purposes. Fatigue failure can be reduced by the presence of residual stresses at the surface. Mechanical, thermal, and plating processes are the categories in which surface treatments are usually divided into. The first two processes provide a compressive layer. Plating provides a tensile residual stress. Mechanical Treatments: Commercially the main methods for producing residual compressive stresses are cold rolling and shot peening. These processes do alter the strength of the material but the fatigue limit increase is due mainly to compressive surface stresses. Crankshafts and high load axles are usually subjected to surface rolling as they are large parts Shot peenin consists of firing fine steel or cast iron shot against the surface of a component. This method is well suited to processing small mass produced parts. Thermal Treatments: These processes rely on either carbon or nitrogen being diffused onto and into the surface of the component. Both types of atoms occupy the space between iron atoms. Carburizing is typically a three-step process: 1. Inserting the steel components within boxes which contain carbonaceous solids 2. Sealing to exclude the atmosphere 3. Heating to about 900 degrees Celsius for a period of time that depends on the depth of the case required An alternative method is heating the components in a furnace in the presence of a carburizing gas and is a faster and more accurate method. The nitriding: This process is very similar to gas carburizing except that ammonia gas is used and the process takes place at lower temperatures. A nitrided case depth of about 0.5 mm can be obtained by a 48 hour soak at about 550 degrees Celsius. Below is an example of the effect of nitriding. Limit (MPa) Geometry Un-notched Semicircular notch V notch Not Nitrided 310 175 175 Nitrided 620 600 550 Page 13 of 15

Plating: The endurance limit is decreased chrome and nickel plating of steel components due to the creation of tensile residual stresses at the surface. Shot peening or nitriding prior to plating will reduce the harmful effect of plating. The stress induced by plating can also be relieved bu means of annealing The Quantitative Effect of Surface Treatments on the Endurance Limit (Steels) Surface finish affects the final effect of surface treatment on fatigue strength as shown below. Increase in Limit Finish Polished Ground Machined Hot Rolled Cast Forged Shot Peened +15% +20% +30% +40% +40% +100% Cold Rolled +50% +0% +70% +0% +0% +0% Nitrided +100% +100% +100% +100% +100% +100%

6.12 Frequency of stress intervals.

At higher frequencies more cycles of stress occur in less time. For higher frequencies a smaller load is needed to produce a fracture in the material for a given time. In low frequency cycles fracture occurs slower than in high frequency cycles. From the S-N diagrams we can see that the higher the frequency of the loads the lower the amount of stress that the component can handle. Thus an increase in frequency is directly proportional to a lower life span.

7. Comparison of stress at fillet radius and bending stress at uniform sections

The fillet radius is the radius of a curve which has been cut on a beam or gear tooth and its purpose is to evenly distribute the forces that would have acted on a sharp point of a rotating structure there by reducing the wear of the component and allowing it to last longer because the force acting on it is not as close to the endurance limit. Therefore a component with a correct fillet radius is able withstand a greater number of cycles of the load than a component without a fillet radius. Bending moment at uniform section refers to a materials resistance to bending when load are applied to beam usually. It uses the second moment of area to determine the yield strength of materials and it allows us to understand how different forces at varying distances affect the stresses in a beam and how the beam will handle cycles of different forces.

Page 14 of 15

8. Bibliography
http://www.instron.us/wa/glossary/Fatigue-Limit.aspx http://www.instron.us/wa/glossary/Fatigue-Test.aspx http://www.instron.us/wa/glossary/Fatigue-Strength.aspx http://www.instron.us/wa/glossary/Fatigue-Ratio.aspx http://www.instron.us/wa/glossary/Fatigue-Notch-Factor.aspx http://www.instron.us/wa/glossary/Stress-Strain-Diagram.aspx http://academic.uprm.edu/pcaceres/Courses/INME4011/MD-6B.pdf http://www.mw-ind.com/pdfs/GoodmanFatigueLifeEstimates.pdf http://www.ux.uis.no/~hirpa/KdB/ME/S-N%20diagram.pdf http://www.egr.msu.edu/classes/me471/thompson/handout/class13_2005SFatigue.pdf http://www.asminternational.org/content/ASM/StoreFiles/05224G_Chapter14.pdf http://www.egr.msu.edu/classes/me471/thompson/handout/class10_2005SFailureTheory.pdf http://clic-meeting.web.cern.ch/clic-meeting/2003/06_26sh.pdf http://www2.hcmuaf.edu.vn/data/phamducdung/thamkhao/Mark's%20StandardHandbook/Strength%20of%20Material.pdf http://www.eng.auburn.edu/users/marghitu/chapter3.pdf http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1172&context=icec&seiredir=1&referer=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Furl%3Fsa%3Dt%26rct%3Dj%26q%3Dhow%2520 does%2520shape%2520of%2520component%2520influence%2520fatigue%26source%3Dweb%26cd%3D9 %26cad%3Drja%26ved%3D0CE8QFjAI%26url%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Fdocs.lib.purdue.edu%252Fcg i%252Fviewcontent.cgi%253Farticle%253D1172%2526context%253Dicec%26ei%3DX0hbUYjrBiN7AashIHgBg%26usg%3DAFQjCNHvW8KFPqyNibuhcgWfbfM6LiSYw%26sig2%3DhT5b3yugEUmZBCaDxWjSeg%26bvm%3Dbv.44697112%2Cd.ZGU#search=%2 2how%20does%20shape%20component%20influence%20fatigue%22 http://www.springerreference.com/docs/html/chapterdbid/350267.html http://www.scielo.br/img/fbpe/mr/v5n2/11039f2.gif http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/cad/proewild3/usascii/proe/promec/online/fatigue.htm

Page 15 of 15