CHAPTER 1.

Foundation of Individual Behavior

INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR
Meaning of Individual Behavior
Individual behavior means some concrete action by a person. For instance, how a teacher behaves in the class reflects his behavior. The behavior of an individual is influenced by various factors. Some of the factors lie within himself, e.g., his instincts, personality traits, internal feelings, etc., while some lie outside him comprising the external environment of which he is a part, e.g., weather conditions, events conveying some information, and other peoples behavior that directly influence his behavior. The environment acts as a 'stimulus' and the person responds to it. The process of human behavior may thus be regarded as a 'stimulus-response' process. The teacher is affected by students' behavior and in turn affects their behavior. This takes place through interaction between them, and is subject to the environment in which they interact. Thus, individual behavior is not a self-induced phenomenon, but is affected by a larger system, for example, group, family, and the society within which one functions. Individuals behave differently to different stimuli because of a multitude of factors. These include an individual's age, sex, education, intelligence, personality, physical characteristics, experience, values, and family and cultural background. For instance, a young railway ticket collector would behave differently from one who is more experienced and mature, Situational variables affecting individual behavior include organizational and social variables, for example, type of organization, nature of supervision, and physical and job variables like method of work, design of work, and physical work environment.

Factors Influencing Individual Behavior

The important factors which influence the behavior of individuals are explained below: 1) Personality: Personality refers to personal traits such as dominance, aggressiveness, persistence and other qualities reflected through a persons behavior. An individuals personality determines the type of activities that he or she is suited for, and the likelihood that the person would be able to perform the task effectively. Thus, personality factors must be taken into account in determining the suitability of an individual for a position/task in an organization. 2) Ability: Ability refers to the actual skills and capabilities that a person possesses and is required for the effective performance of activities. Railways need to ensure that its employees possess the necessary abilities to engage in the behavior required for effective performance. This is accomplished either by careful selection of people or by a combination of selection and training. 3) Perception: Perception is the viewpoint by which one interprets a situation. For instance, a railway booking clerk facing a well-dressed person perceives him to be of a high status and talks to him nicely, whereas he may tend to ignore an ill-dressed person, or make him wait, though both the passengers want 'first class' tickets. In an organizational setting, messages that the organization sends to its members regarding the kind of behavior and activities expected of them are significant. The messages are communicated in a variety of ways (job descriptions, policies, procedures and discussion with supervisors, etc.). A key factor is that an individuals behavior is influenced not by the organizations actual expectation of him, but by how these are perceived by the person. 4) Motivation: Motivation refers to all the forces operating within a person to cause him or her to engage in certain kinds of behavior rather than others. Even if all the factors are present to facilitate effective individual behavior on a particular job, these factors would amount to nothing unless the person is motivated to perform well. Motivation may be internal, e.g., a person's skill, ability, and intelligence; or external, e.g., incentives, training, etc. Further, a person's motivation is influenced by his or her attitudes, beliefs, values and goals. 5) Organizational Factors: Individual behavior is influenced by a wide variety of organizational systems and resources. Systems such as the organizational structure and hierarchy strongly influence and constrain both what individuals do and how they do. In addition, individual behavior is influenced by various types of resources provided by the organization such as advice and directions from leaders, physical support in terms of facilities and technology.

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6) Socio-Cultural Factors: The social environment of an individual includes relationship with family members, friends, co-workers, supervisors and subordinates. The behavior of others (as distinct from the individual's relationship with them) is also a part of an individuals social environment. Similarly, every individual has a cultural background which shapes his values and beliefs. The socio-cultural factors moderate the effect of other factors to determine the behavior of an individual.

FOUNDATION OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR

Individual behavior is caused by certain reasons. Behavior is the result of interaction between individual characteristics and the characteristics of the environment in which the behavior occurs. As we all know each person with a unique combination of characteristics is different from all others. Some of these characteristics are inherited from birth and others are learned over time. Personal characteristics remain inside the person whereas environmental ones outside the person. Following are the factor which lays down the foundation of individual behavior.
Personal Factors Age Sex Education Abilities Marital status No. of dependants Creativity Organizational Systems and Resources Physical facilities Organization structure and design Leadership Reward system Work related behavior Psychological Personality Perception Attitudes Values Learning Individual Behavior Environmental Factors Economic Social norms and cultural values Political

Figure: Foundations of Individual Behavior

1) Personal Factors/ Biographical Factors

Personal factors include age, sex, education, abilities, marital status, and number of dependents 1) Age: The issue of age is multifaceted and individualistic. It has impact on performance, turnover, absenteeism, productivity, and satisfaction. Performance is dependent on age. As age advances, performance is likely to decline. Similarly, aging also has an impact on turnover. The older one grows, the less likely one is to quit the job. Age-absence relationship depends on whether absenteeism is avoidable or unavoidable. Generally, older employees have lower rates of avoidable absence than do younger employees. However, they do have high rates of unavoidable absence. This is probably because of poor health associated with old age. With regard to productivity, old age results in reduced productivity. This is because of the decline in an individuals skill as he or she grows older in age. There is a positive association between age and satisfaction. 2) Sex: The issue of male and female employees has received considerable attention from academics, sociologists, and researchers. Research has proved that problem solving ability, analytical skill, competitive drive, motivation, leadership, sociability, or learning ability are not gender-dependent. However, in our maledominated society, the presence of women employees in organization is not appreciated or encouraged. Sex also has an impact on turnover and absenteeism. It has been proved that the tendency to change jobs and to abstain from work is likely to be higher among female than among male employees. The most logical explanation for this phenomenon is that our society has historically placed home and family responsibilities on the female. 3) Education: This has its effect upon individual behavior, largely through the level and type of education received. Increased levels of education serve to increase an individual's expectations about positive outcomes. These outcomes are generally perceived to be a more satisfying job, higher income level, and greater alternative sources for occupational choice, i.e., the 'good life'. Disillusionment occurs when outcomes do not match expectations. 4) Abilities: It refers to an individual's capacity to perform various tasks in a job. The ability of an individual is made up of two sets of skills-intellectual and physical.

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Intellectual abilities are needed to perform mental activities. IQ tests, for example, are designed to ascertain one's intellectual abilities. So, too, are popular college admission tests like GRE, GMAT, and CAT. Physical abilities manifest in one's stamina, manual dexterity, leg strength and the like. Management must identify an employee's physical abilities if these are the major inputs required to perform a task. 5) Marital Status: This has an influence on absenteeism, turnover, and satisfaction. Married employees have fewer absences, undergo less turnover, and are more satisfied with their jobs than the unmarried ones. Marriage imposes additional responsibility, hence the need for a steady job and steady income. 6) Number of Dependents: There is correlation between the number of dependents an employee has and his or her absences and satisfaction. The number of children an employee has is positively related to absence, especially among females. Similarly, there is positive correlation between number of dependents and satisfaction. 7) Creativity: This is yet another personal factor that influences individual behavior. Creativity refers to the cognitive activity that results in a new or novel way of viewing or solving a problem. Creativity is highly desirable, as it is from creativity that major inventions, scientific breakthroughs, and great works of music, literature, and art emanate.

2) Environmental Factors
Environmental factors include such variables as economics, social, political and the like. The factors are mainly external and will influence (and are not generally influenced by) individual behavior considerably: 1) Economic Factors: The economic environment is an important determinant of individual behavior. All work is performed within economic framework that, both directly and indirectly, impinges on an organizational environment. Economic environment is a synthesis of several factors, prominent among them being the employment level, wage rates, economic outlook, and technological change. i) Employment opportunities will have a strong influence on individual behavior. Fewer job opportunities (create fear of losing the present job) increase the emphasis on job security and can change the basic motivation pattern of the individual. ii) Wages satisfy various individual needs. They provide food and shelter, are measures of achievement, and can serve as a status symbol. Money is a complex variable and its effect on behavior varies tremendously. iii) The general economic outlook also influences individual expectations, especially of those employed in industries severely affected by economic cycles. In fact, some employees experience layoffs and re-calls in the course of their working life, while others (e.g., public sector employees) are insulated from the economy. iv) Technological change is considered as an economic factor because of its potential effects upon individual job opportunities. Technological change has the strongest impact on lower level jobs, although increased automation, robotics, computerization, and more sophisticated production technologies can affect individuals at all level. 2) Cultural Environment: Cultural environment is made up of institutions and other forces that affect society's basic values, perceptions, work ethics, preferences, and behaviors. People grow up in a particular society that shapes their basic beliefs, values, and behaviors. Culture varies from country to country (even within a country) and these variations result in different behaviors across countries. Work ethics, achievement needs, and effort-reward expectations and values are important cultural factors, having behavioral implications. 3) Political Factors: The political climate in which an individual lives can affect individual behavior in several ways. The stability of the government can affect employment opportunities, both in quantity and quality. A politically unstable environment has difficulty in attracting industry and therefore experiences problems in maintaining a steady level of employment. The political ideology of a country affects individual behavior primarily through the relative freedom available to its citizens.

3) Organizational Factors
Individual behavior is also influenced by physical facilities, organization structure and design, leadership, and reward systems. 1) Physical Facilities: Physical facilities such as lighting, ventilation, air-conditioning, decor, space provided for each employee, equipment, and the like, have an influence on employee performance. In addition, adequate provision of secretarial support and other staff can allow a senior manager to focus his or her attention on issues more critical to the organizations effectiveness.

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2) Organization Structure and Design: These have departments in an organization are set up and the communication are established among different performance of an individual is influenced by where the organization.

to do with the way in which the different groups and way in which, the reporting relationships and lines of positions in the organization. The behavior and that person fits into the overall structure and design of

3) Leadership: An organization establishes a system of leadership and supervision to provide direction, assistance, advice, and coaching to individual members. The leader's behavior is, therefore, a potential source of influence on an individual. 4) Reward Systems: Organizations establish reward systems to compensate their employees for good work done. The behavior and performance of an individual is influenced by the reward system his or her organization has established. 5) Work Related Behavior: An individual's behavior is influenced by what stage he or she occupies in an organization. The five stages of the individual's stay in the organization may be distinguished-joining the organization, remaining with the organization, maintaining work attendance, performing required tasks, and exhibiting organizational citizenship. i) Joining the Organization: An individual joins an organization of his or her choice. He or she needs the job just as the organization needs the services of the individual. In the induction stage, the new employee experiences excitement because of the new assignment and expectations from it, and anxiety because of the fear that the expectations might not be realized. ii) Remaining with the Organization: The most challenging task before organizations today is to attract talent and retain it for the benefit of the firm. The organization may succeed in attracting competent employees by offering lucrative remuneration packages and arousing high expectations. Retaining such competent employees is much more difficult. Knowledge workers constitute intellectual capital and the longer they stay, more knowledge they have about work processes, corporate values, and customer needs. Thus, knowledge management involves ensuring that valuable employees stay with the organization. Towards this end, managers adopt different interventions.

iii) Maintaining Work Attendance: Those who stay with the organization are expected to report to work as scheduled. But some of the employees fail to show up for work and their absences are caused by problems relating to health (of selves or of families), family responsibilities, vehicles breakdown, job dissatisfaction, and lack of motivation in the workplace. These account for absenteeism among the employees. iv) Performing Required Tasks: People are hired to perform tasks, generally, above minimum standards. Task performance refers to goal-directed activities that are under the individual's control. These include physical behaviors as well as mental processing leading to behaviors. These abilities need to be harnessed and put to use for organizational effectiveness. v) Exhibiting Organizational Citizenship: Organizational effectiveness depends on more than just satisfactory job performance. It also relies on organizational citizenship. Organizational citizenship behaviors extend beyond job-related tasks. They include tolerating ambiguities, accepting occasional impositions, sharing resources, and cooperating with fellow employees.

4) Psychological Factors
Psychological factors are an individual's mental characteristics and attributes that can affect behavior. Though not always observable, their role in affecting individual behavior is considerable. There are several psychological factors, but the more prominent among them are personality, perception, attitudes, values and learning. 1) Personality: Personality refers to personal traits such as dominance, aggressiveness, persistence and other qualities reflected through a persons behavior. An individuals personality determines the type of activities that he or she is suited for, and the likelihood that the person would be able to perform the task effectively. Thus, personality factors must be taken into account in determining the suitability of an individual for a position/task in an organization. 2) Perception: Perception is the viewpoint by which one interprets a situation. For instance, a railway booking clerk facing a well-dressed person perceives him to be of a high status and talks to him nicely, whereas he may tend to ignore an ill-dressed person, or make him wait, though both the passengers want 'first class' tickets. In an organizational setting, messages that the organization sends to its members regarding the kind of behavior and activities expected of them are significant. The messages are communicated in a variety of ways (job descriptions, policies, procedures and discussion with supervisors, etc.). A key factor is that an individual's behavior is influenced not by the organizations actual expectation of him, but by how these are perceived by the person.

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3) Motivation: Motivation refers to all the forces operating within a person to cause him or her to engage in certain kinds of behavior rather than others. Even if all the factors are present to facilitate effective individual behavior on a particular job, these factors would amount to nothing unless the person is motivated to perform well. Motivation may be internal, e.g., a person's skill, ability, and intelligence; or external, e.g., incentives, training, etc. Further, a person's motivation is influenced by his or her attitudes, beliefs, values and goals. 4) Attitude: Attitude is a relatively permanent organizing or cognitive, perceptual, emotional, and motivational process with respect to some aspect of our environment. It is primarily a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to a given object. Thus, an attitude is the way we think, feel, and act toward some aspect of our environment. 5) Value: Milton Rokeach, a noted psychologist, has defined values as global beliefs that guide actions and judgments across a variety of situations. He further said, "Values represent basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct (or end-state of existence) is personally or socially preferable to an opposite mode of conduct (or end-state of existence)". They contain a judgmental element, i.e., they carry an individual's ideas as to what is right, good, or desirable. Values have both content and intensity attributes. The content attribute emphasizes that a mode of conduct or end-state of existence is important. The intensity attribute specifies how important it is. When we rank an individual's values in terms of their intensity, we obtain the value system of that person. All of us have a hierarchy of values that forms our value system. This system is identified by the relative importance we assign to such values as freedom, self-respect, honesty, obedience, equality, and so on. 6) Learning: Learning may be described as the process of acquiring the ability to respond adequately to a situation which may or may not have been previously encountered, the favorable modification of response tendencies consequent upon previous experience, particularly the building of a new series of complex coordinated motor response; the fixation of times in memory so that they can be recalled or organized; the process of acquiring insight into situation. Thus, learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of prior experiences.

Models of Individual Behavior

OB experts have constructed certain models which are useful in understanding individual behavior. The models are: Theory X and Theory Y model, Economic and Self-actualizing model, Behavioristics and Humanistic model, and Rational and Emotional model. 1) Theory X and Theory Y Model: Theory X assumes the individual to be lazy, non-creative, and in need of constant prodding. Theory Y views the individual as having tremendous potential, which effective management can channelize towards organizational goals. Obviously, depending on the individual managers philosophy of human behavior, there may be a divergence of managerial practices in the same organization. 2) Economic and Self-Actualizing Model: The economic model of the human being conceptualizes the individual as totally economic in orientation. The concept has been derived from the scientific management philosophy of the late 1880s. At the heart of scientific management was the concern for standardizing jobs, specializing work functions, and providing economic incentives to those whose performance was near or in excess of standard performance. In contrast to the economic model is the self-actualizing model, which postulates that an individual is motivated by the opportunity to grow, mature, and become all he or she is capable of becoming. The model underlines that the individual cannot be adequately described by economic or physiological consideration alone. People strive for loftier goals, like self-fulfillment and self-actualization. Adherents of this model see the individual as craving for personal growth, job competence, and self-fulfillment. Although individuals may be temporarily side-tracked in this quest, they will eventually return to it. The challenge of an organization, therefore, is to provide proper conditions for self-actualization. 3) Behavioristics and Humanistic Model: Some scholars believe that individuals can be described solely in terms of behavior. These theorists are interested only in observable behavior as contrasted with thoughts or feelings. In its most radical form, the behavioristics model holds that all behavior is environmentally determined. In the humanistic model, scholars believe that an individual is more philosophical than scientific. Humanists see the individual as capable of surmounting irrational impulses through conscious reasoning. In their view, people control their own destiny to a great degree and their potential cannot be under-estimated. 4) Rational and Emotional Model: In the rational model, an individual is perceived to be a highly rational entity, having computer-like characteristics. Whenever faced with a problem, the individual is supposed to collect all relevant information, analyze the data, and then arrive at a solution. Human beings are, thus, deliberative, serious, and computational.

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In the emotional model, human beings are understood to be guided by emotions, many of which are unconscious responses. Scholars of the Freudian persuasion rely on this model. Freudians perceive human beings as irrational because of the constant conflicts among the Id, Ego and the Super-ego. These inner conflicts, according to Freudians, cause individuals to be subject to their emotions.

ABILITY
Ability refers to an individuals capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. It is a current assessment of what one can do. Contrary to what we were taught in grade school, we werent all created equal. Most of us are to the left or to the right of the median on some normally distributed ability curve. For example, regardless of how motivated you are, its unlikely that you can act as well as Rani Mukherjee, play cricket as well as Sachin Tendulkar, write as well as J. K. Rowling, or play the guitar as well as Jimmy Hendrix. Of course, just because we arent all equal in abilities does not imply that some individuals are inherently inferior to others. What we are acknowledging is that everyone has strengths and weaknesses in terms of ability that make him or her relatively superior or inferior to others in performing certain tasks or activities. From managements standpoint, the issue is not whether people differ in terms of their abilities. They clearly do. The issue is to know how people differ in abilities and using that knowledge to increase the likelihood that an employee will perform his or her job well.

Types of Ability
An individuals overall abilities are essentially made up of two sets of factors: intellectual and physical.
6) 7) 8) Flexibility factor Extent Dynamic

Ability 1)

Intellectual Abilities Number aptitude (Mathematics), Verbal comprehension (English), Perceptual speed, Reasoning Deductive reasoning, Spatial visualization, Memory.

1) 2) 3) 4)

Other factor Body co-ordination Balance Stamina

Physical abilities

Nature and Types

2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

Strength factor Dynamic Trunk Static Explosive

Ability and Job fit

Figure: Different Types of Abilities

Intellectual Abilities
Intellectual abilities are those needed to perform mental activities for thinking, reasoning, and problem solving. People in most societies place a high value on intelligence, and for good reason. Smart people generally earn more money and attain higher levels of education. Smart people are also more likely to emerge as leaders of groups. Intelligence Quotient (IQ) tests, e.g., are designed to ascertain ones general intellectual abilities. It is believed that there are a few different dimensions of mental abilities. Some of the most frequently cited dimensions of intellectual capacities are:
Sr. No. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Dimension of Intellectual Abilities Number aptitude Verbal communication Perceptual speed Inductive reasoning Deductive reasoning Spatial visualization Memory Description Ability to do speedy and accurate arithmetic. Read write speaking ability. Identify similarities and differences quickly and accurately. Logical sequence drawing Ability to use logic and assess the implications of the argument. Ability to imagine how an object would look if its position in space were changed. Ability to retain and recall past experience. Job Example Accountant. Senior managers. Investigators. Market researcher. Supervisors. Interior decorator. Sales person remembering customers name.

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Jobs differ in the demands they place on incumbents to use their intellectual abilities. The more complex a job is in terms of information-processing demands, the more general intelligence and verbal abilities will be necessary to perform the job successfully. Of course, a high IQ is not a requirement for all jobs. For jobs in which employee behavior is highly routine and there are little or no opportunities to exercise discretion, a high IQ is not as important to performing well. However, that does not mean that people with high IQs cannot have an impact on jobs that are traditionally less complex. Interestingly, while intelligence is a big help in performing a job well, it doesnt make people happier or more satisfied with their jobs. The correlation between intelligence and job satisfaction is about zero. Why? Research suggests that although intelligent people perform better and tend to have more interesting jobs, they also are more critical in evaluating their job conditions. Thus, smart people have it better, but they also expect more. In the past decade and a half, researchers have begun to expand the meaning of intelligence beyond mental abilities. Some researchers believe that intelligence can be better understood by breaking it down into four subparts: cognitive, social, emotional, and cultural. 1) Cognitive intelligence encompasses the aptitudes that have long been tapped by traditional intelligence tests. 2) Social intelligence is a persons ability to relate effectively to others. 3) Emotional intelligence is the ability to identify, understand, and manage emotions. 4) Cultural intelligence is awareness of cross-cultural differences and the ability to function successfully in cross-cultural situations.

Physical Abilities
To the same degree that intellectual abilities play a larger role in complex jobs with demanding informationprocessing requirements, specific physical abilities gain importance for successfully doing less-skilled and more-standardized jobs. For example, jobs in which success demands stamina, manual dexterity, leg strength, or similar talents require management to identify an employees physical capabilities. Research on the requirements needed in hundreds of jobs has identified nine basic abilities involved in the performance of physical tasks. These are described in table below . Individuals differ in the extent to which they have each of these abilities. Not surprisingly, there is also little relationship among them; a high score on one is no assurance of a high score on others. High employee performance is likely to be achieved when management has ascertained the extent to which a job requires each of the nine abilities and then ensures that employees in that job have those abilities.
Table : Nine Basic Physical Abilities Strength Factors 1) Dynamic strength 2) Trunk strength 3) Static strength 4) Explosive strength Flexibility Factors 5) Extent flexibility 6) Dynamic flexibility Other Factors 7) Body co-ordination 8) Balance 9) Stamina Ability to exert muscular force repeatedly or continuously over time. Ability to exert muscular strength using the trunk (particularly abdominal) muscles. Ability to exert force against external objects. Ability to expend a maximum of energy in one or a series of explosive acts. Ability to move the trunk and back muscles as far as possible. Ability to make rapid, repeated flexing movements. Ability to co-ordinate the simultaneous actions of different parts of the body. Ability to maintain equilibrium despite forces pulling off balance. Ability to continue maximum effort requiring prolonged effort over time.

Ability-Job Fit
On studying the behavior of people at work, jobs make differing demands on people and people differ in their abilities. Therefore, employee performance is enhanced when there is a high ability-job fit. The specific intellectual or physical abilities required for adequate job performance depend on the ability requirements of the job. So, for example, airline pilots need strong spatial-visualization abilities, beach lifeguards need both strong spatial-visualization abilities and body co-ordination, senior executives need verbal abilities, highrise construction workers need balance, and journalists with weak reasoning abilities would likely have difficulty meeting minimum job-performance standards. Directing attention at only the employees abilities or only the ability requirements of the job ignores the fact that employee performance depends on the interaction of the two.

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What predictions can we make when the fit is poor? As considered previously, if employees lack the required abilities, they are likely to fail. If youre hired as a word processor and you cant meet the jobs basic keyboard typing requirements, your performance is going to be poor irrespective of your positive attitude or your high level of motivation. When the ability-job fit is out of sync because the employee has abilities that far exceed the requirements of the job, our predictions would be very different. Job performance is likely to be adequate, but there will be organizational inefficiencies and possible declines in employee satisfaction. Given that pay tends to reflect the highest skill level that employees possess, if an employees abilities far exceed those necessary to do the job, management will be paying more than it needs to. Abilities significantly above those required can also reduce the employees job satisfaction when the employees desire to use his or her abilities is particularly strong and is frustrated by the limitations of the job.

LEARNING
Meaning and Definition of Learning
Learning may be described as the process of acquiring the ability to respond adequately to a situation which may or may not have been previously encountered, the favorable modification of response tendencies consequent upon previous experience, particularly the building of a new series of complex coordinated motor response; the fixation of times in memory so that they can be recalled or organized; the process of acquiring insight into situation. Thus, learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of prior experiences. According to E. R. Hilgard, Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of prior experience. Ironically, it can be said that change in behavior indicates that learning has taken place and that learning is a change in behavior. According to W. McGehee, Learning has taken place if an individual behaves, reacts, respond as a result of experience in a manner different from the way he formerly behaved.

Nature of Learning
Learning involves a change, though not necessarily improvement, in behavior. Learning may be good or bad from organizations point of view. For example, bad habits, prejudice, stereotypes and work restrictions may be learnt by an individual. ii) Change in behavior must be relatively permanent. Temporary changes may be only reflexive and fail to represent any learning. Changes caused by fatigue or temporary adaptations are not covered in learning. iii) Change in behavior should occur as a result of experience, practice, or training. The change may not be evident until a situation arises in which the new behavior can occur. iv) Practice or experience must be reinforced in order for learning to occur. If reinforcement does not company the practice or experience, the behavior will eventually disappear. v) Learning is reflected in behavior. A change in an individual's thought process or attitudes, not accompanied by behavior, is no learning. i)

Conditions for Learning

1) Whatever knowledge is being acquired, it should be reflected in the behavior, i.e., knowledge should be implemented. 2) Change should last for a considerable period of time, i.e., it should not be temporary, rather it should be permanent.

Significance of Learning
Learning is all pervasive and without it civilized life cannot exist. Most people devote a significant part of their lives to formal learning situations. In organizational settings, management attempts to design a learning element in jobs to sustain desired levels of skills among employees. An understanding of the learning concept and process is necessary for managers for varied reasons: 1) It offers significant insights into controlling employee behavior. 2) It helps managers determine the extent to which an employees behavior can be attributed to learning. 3) It also helps them differentiate between learning a skill and acquiring it naturally, and in understanding whether a skill (i.e., operating a lathe) is an acquired one or something that an employee is born with. 4) Learning has a marked effect on training in organizational settings. It assists managers in optimally developing the talents and skills of an employee for effective performance.

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5) They can work as teachers to instruct the employees to engage in behavior which will enable the organization to accomplish its goals. Thus, they can check the growth of dysfunctional behaviors, such as absenteeism, tardiness and indiscipline, and foster the development of functional behaviors by giving feedback and rewards.

Types of Learned Behavior

1) Physical Behavior: Generally, we learn many physical behavior patterns useful in responding to a variety of situations faced in everyday life. For example, all healthy humans learn to walk, talk, and interact with others. As consumers, we also learn methods of responding to various purchase situations. These may take the forms of learning to act dissatisfied when hearing the first price quote on a car, or learning to read closely the fine print in purchase contracts. 2) Symbolic Learning and Problems Solving: People learn symbolic meanings that enable highly efficient communication through the development of languages. Symbols also allow marketers to communicate with consumers through such vehicles as brand names (Kodak and Sony), slogans (You got the right one, Baby for Diet Pepsi), and signs (Mc Donalds Golden Arches). 3) Affective Learning: Humans learn to value certain elements of their environment and dislike others. This means that consumers learn many of their wants, goals, and motives as well as what products satisfy these needs. Learning also influences consumers development of favorable attitudes toward a company and its products. These attitudes will affect the tendency to purchase various brands.

Principal Elements of Learning

Consumers learn in several ways. Primarily, there are four elements of learning: motive, cue, response, and reinforcement. 1) Motive: Motives arouse individuals, thereby increasing their readiness to respond. This arousal function is essential, since it activates the energy needed to engage in learning activity. In addition, any success at achieving the motivating goal, or avoiding some unpleasant situation, tends to reduce arousal. Because this is reinforcing, such activity will have a greater tendency to occur again in similar situations. Thus, marketers strive to have their brand or its name available when relevant consumer motives are aroused because it is expected that consumers will learn a connection between the product and motive. 2) Cues: A cue may be viewed as a weak stimulus not strong enough to arouse consumers, but capable of providing direction to motivated activity. That is, it influences the manner in which consumers respond to a motive. The shopping environment is packed with cues, such as promotions and product colors, which consumers can use to choose between various response options in a learning situation. For example, when we are hungry we are guided by certain cues, such as restaurant signs and the aroma of food cooking, because we have learned that these stimuli are associated with food preparation and consumption. 3) Response: A response may be viewed as a mental or physical activity the consumer makes in reaction to a stimulus situation. Responses appropriate to a particular situation are learned over time through experience in facing that situation. The occurrence of a response is not always observable. Therefore, it must again be emphasized that our inability to observe responses does not necessarily mean that learning is not taking place. 4) Reinforcement: Perhaps the most widely acceptable view of reinforcement is anything that follows a response and increases the tendency for the response to reoccur in a similar situation. Because reinforced behavior tends to be repeated. Consumers can learn to develop successful means of responding to their needs of changing conditions.

Learning Process
The learning process is a mental and habit formation process. Attention is paid to certain stimuli used for learning which are recognized and translated into reinforcement and behavior.
Stimuli Attention Recognition Translation

Reinforcement

Behavior

Efforts

Motives

Habit

Reward

Learning Process

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Steps in Learning Process

1) Stimuli: Stimuli are any objects and language which draw the attention of people. Employees get stimuli from the actions of their superiors. 2) Attention: The degree of attention depends upon the nature of stimuli. All stimuli are not paid attention to. Technical and interesting stimuli are highly attended. Career oriented stimuli are generally accepted by employee. 3) Recognition: Attention-paid stimuli are recognized as acceptable factors of improvement and new life styles. Employees paying attention to stimuli are recognizing the stimuli for learning purposes. 4) Translation: Recognized stimuli are evaluated at the mental level to eliminate the irrelevant points for accepting a part of the stimulus for changing behavior. 5) Reinforcement: Reinforced perception is learning. The perception process includes stimuli, attention, recognition, translation and behavior. Perception leads to learning, but perception itself is not learning unless it is reinforced. 6) Behavior: Learning changes behavior through re-inforcement of perceived knowledge. It makes permanent changes in behavior. A temporary change in behavior is not learning. Positive behavior gives rewards to employees. 7) Reward: Employees expect rewards for learning. If the translated behavior provides a reward, it is accepted, otherwise it is not accepted. 8) Habits: A permanent change in behavior becomes a habit which helps continuous improvement in behavior and performance. Employees develop the habit of self-appraisal and development. 9) Motives: Motives depend on the level of satisfaction. Employees getting more satisfaction through learning develop high motives. Less satisfied learners have low motives. Learning is complete only when motives are fully realized and translated into efforts. 10) Efforts: Habits help achieve good efforts and performance. This is a continuous process. Efforts are the automatic outcome of good habits which are acquired through the learning process. If the learner gets a reward for his improved behavior, he forms it into behavior. Proper habits motivate the employee who makes efforts in the right direction. The efforts result in satisfaction and become a stimulus for further learning. The employee pays further attention, recognizes and translates stimuli to strengthen habits. This process continues and the employee learns and effects permanent changes in his behavior which become a part of his habits. The habit helps in recognition of good behavior. A habit motivates an employee to perform better. It helps him pay proper attention. He learns constantly and effects a permanent change in behavior. Learning improves behavior. This process continues and the employee learns in the process.

Theories of Learning
Various theories have been developed to explain different aspects of learning. These theories, however, can be grouped into several major categories for the focus of our present discussion. As figure below depicts, the first major division is among the connectionist, cognitive and socialistic schools of thought. While cognitive interpretations place emphasis on the discovery of patterns and insight, connectionists argue that what humans learn are connections or associations between stimuli and responses and according to social learning theory people learn through different means like observation of others, direct experiences and indirect experiences.
Learning Theories

Connectionist

Cognitive

Social Learning

Classical conditioning (S - R)

Operant conditioning (R - S)

S - Stimulus R - Response

Classification of Learning Theories

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1) Learning Connections Some learning theorists maintain that learning involves the development of connections between a stimulus and some response to it. That is, the association of a response and a stimulus is the connection that is learned. A portion of this group minimizes the importance of reinforcement to learning, while others stress its crucial role. Reinforcement is employed in conjunction with two fundamentally different methods of learning connections: classical and operant conditioning. i) Classical Conditioning: A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response. Iran Pavlov, a Russian physiologist conducted experiments to teach dogs to salivate in response to the ringing of a bell. A simple surgical procedure allowed Pavlov to measure accurately the amount of saliva secreted by a dog. When Pavlov presented the dog with a piece of meat, they exhibited a noticeable increase in salivation. When Pavlov withheld the presentation of meat and merely rang a bell, the dog did not salivate. Then Pavlov proceeded to link the meat and the ringing of the bell. After repeatedly hearing the bell before getting the food, the dog began to salivate as soon as the bell rang. After a while, the dog would salivate merely at the sound of the bell, even if no food was offered. In effect, the dog had learned to respondi.e., to salivateto the bell. Unconditioned Stimulus: The meat was an unconditioned stimulus; the reaction that took place whenever the unconditioned stimulus occurred was called the unconditioned response. The bell was an artificial stimulus, or what we call the conditioned stimulus. The last key concept is the conditioned response. This describes the behavior of the dog; it salivated in reaction to the bell alone.
(US) Meat paste Conditioned Stimulus: (CS) Bell Unconditioned Response: (UR) Salivation

Conditioned Stimulus: (CS) Bell

Conditioned Response: (CR) Salivation

Pavlovian Model of Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning has some important implications for understanding human behavior. Since higher-order conditioning for learning by human beings is important, its implication must be recognized. For example, higher-order conditioning can explain how learning can be transferred to stimuli other than those used in the original conditioning. Another implication of higher-order conditioning is that reinforcement can be acquired. A conditioned stimulus conditioning is that reinforcement can be acquired. A conditioned stimulus becomes reinforcing under higher-order conditioning. Classical conditioning is passive. Something happens and we react in a specific way. It is voluntary rather than reflexive. For example, employees choose to arrive at work on time, ask their boss for help with problems, or goof off when no one is watching. The learning of those behaviors is better understood by looking at operant conditioning. ii) Operant Conditioning: A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment. People learn to behave to get something they want or to avoid something they dont want. Operant behavior means voluntary or learned behavior in contrast to reflexive or unlearned behavior. The tendency to repeat such behavior is influenced by the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement brought about by the consequences of the behavior. Reinforcement, therefore, strengthens a behavior and increases the likelihood that it will be repeated. The Harvard psychologist B.F. Skinner did research for operant conditioning, Skinner argued that creating pleasing consequences to follow specific forms of behavior would increase the frequency of that behavior. People will most likely engage in desired behaviors if they are positively reinforced for doing so. Rewards are most effective if they immediately follow the desired response. In addition, behavior that is not rewarded, or is punished, is less likely to be repeated.

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Operant Behavior and their Consequences

Behaviors Works Talks to others Enters a restaurant Enters a library Increases productivity Completes a difficult assignments Consequences Is paid Meets more people Obtains food Finds a book Receives merit pay Receives praise and promotion

The individual

One can see illustrations of operating conditioning everywhere. A simple example of the operant behavior is the application of brake by a vehicle driver to avoid accident. Here, the possibility of accident without application of brake is stimulus situation, application of brake is the behavior and avoidance of accident is the consequence of behavior. Through this process, human beings learn what behaviors will be rewarding and they engage in those behaviors. The major differences between classical and operant conditioning can be summarized as follows:
Classical Conditioning Responses are elicited from a person (reactive) Responses are fixed to stimulus (no choice) CS is stimulus such as sound, an object, a person Conditioning is implemented before response First we produce a stimulus and then we expect the desired behavior. Operant Conditioning Responses are emitted by a person. (proactive) Responses are variable in types and degrees (choice) CS is a situation such as office, a social setting, a specific set of circumstances Conditioning is implemented after response First we get a behavior pattern and then either by reward or by avoidance of punishment we reinforce that behavior.

2) Cognitive Learning: Instead of viewing learning as the development of connections between stimuli and responses, cognitive theorists stress the importance of perception, problem solving, and insight. This viewpoint contends that much learning occurs not as a result of trial and error or practice but through discovering meaningful patterns which enable us to solve problems. Cognitive learning involves learning ideas, concepts, attitudes, and facts that contribute to our ability to reason, solve problems, and learn relationships without direct experience or reinforcement. Cognitive learning can range from very simple information acquisition to complex, creative problem solving. Figure below illustrates some underpinnings of the cognitive view of learning.
Feedback

Prior Learning

Behavioral Choice Cognitive Theory of Learning

Perceived consequences

Steps 1: In the cognitive view. People draw on their experiences and uses past learning as a basis for present behavior. These experiences represent presumed knowledge or cognitions. For example, an employee faced with a choice of job assignment will use previous experiences in deciding which one to accept. Steps 2: People make choices about their behavior. The employee recognizes his or her two alternatives and chooses one. Steps 3: People recognize the consequences of their choices. Thus, when the employee finds the job assignments rewarding and fulfilling, he or she will recognize that the choice was a good one and will understand why. Steps 4: People evaluate those consequences and add them to prior learning, which affects future choices. Faced with the same job choices next year, the employee very likely will choose the same one. Various forms of cognitive learning could be: i) Iconic Rote Learning: Involves learning the association between two or more concepts in the absence of conditioning.

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ii) Vicarious Learning/Modeling: Is another important way in which consumer learning takes place. It is not necessary for consumers to directly experience a reward to learn. Instead, the consumer can observe the behavior of other and adjust that of his accordingly. Likewise, he may also use image to anticipate the outcome of various courses of action. iii) Reasoning: Represents the most complex form of cognitive learning. In reasoning, individuals engage in creative thinking to restructure and recombine existing information as well as new information to form new associations and concepts. 3) Social Learning Theory: People can learn through observation and direct experience. Much of what we have learned comes from watching modelspresents, teachers, peers, motion picture and television performers, bosses, and so forth. Social learning theory is an extension of operant conditioning, i.e., it assumes that behavior is a function of consequences it also acknowledges the existence of observational learning and the importance of perception in learning. Social learning involves several processes as shown in figure below: i) Attention Processes: People learn from a model Observer only when they recognize and pay attention to its Model critical features. We tend to be most influenced by models that are attractive, repeatedly available, Pay attention to model important to us, or similar to us in our estimation. remember Behavior what model did ii) Retention Processes: A models influence will depend on how well the individual remembers the models action after the model is no longer Practice modes readily available. behavior iii) Motor Reproduction Processes: After a person has seen a new behavior by observing Motivated to imitate model? the model, the watching must be converted to Imitate doing. This process then demonstrates that the models individual can perform the modeled activities. behavior iv) Reinforcement Processes: Individuals will be motivated to exhibit the modeled behavior if Observation Learning: An Overview positive incentives or rewards are provided. Behaviors that are positively reinforced will be given more attention, learned better, and performed more often.

Learning Problems
The possible learning problems are: 1) Lack of knowledge, skill, aptitude and favorable attitude. 2) Knowledge and skill not being applied. 3) Existence of anti-learning factors: Most operational situations contain a number of elements which will restrict the development of learning regardless the methods employed. 4) Psychological problems like fear and shy. 5) Inability to transfer of learning to operational situation. 6) Heavy dependence on repetition, demonstration and practice. 7) Unwilling to change. 8) Lack of interest about the knowledge of results. 9) Absence of self-motivation. 10) Negative about involvement and participation.

Conditions for Effective Learning

Conducive climate is highly essential for serious participation, attentiveness, creation of interest, and sincerity of learners. The conditions for effective learning are: 1) There should be suitable location with space. 2) There should be adequate accommodation. 3) Proper audio-visual aids must be available. 4) There should be arrangement of air-conditioner. 5) Proper arrangement of lighting and other facilities like canteen, facilities for relaxation, etc. should be done. These all factors come under ideal physical environment.

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6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11)

Good business atmosphere. Friendly environment. Frequent communication. Follow-up regarding performance and progress. Enthusiastic, helpful and broad-minded trainer, etc. should be provided. Provision for measuring learners progress through tests should also be made in order to regulate, correct and follow-up the training programmes.

Managerial Implications of Learning

1) Motivation: Motivation is related in several ways to learning. The extent to which valued rewards follow high performance, for example, will affect an employees willingness to work hard in the future, and the cause-and-effect linkage needs to be clear. That is, employees should recognize that certain behaviors (such as hard work) cause certain outcomes (desired rewards). Similarly, if rewards do not follow performance, the employee may be less inclined to work hard in the future.
Motivation Behavior Performance Evaluation and Rewards

Learning

Training Figure: Managerial Implications of Learning

2) Performance Evaluation and Rewards: Learning also links up with organizational practices in the performance evaluation and reward system. Performance evaluation is how managers assess the work behavior of individuals and groups; rewards are the positive reinforcements (salary, promotion, public recognition) that companies give for desirable behavior. 3) Training: Learning is the major goal of employee training. Many organizations devote vast resources to training and development to expand the skills and abilities of their employees.

Other Managerial Implications

Besides motivation, performance evaluation and rewards, and training, there are still other implications that can be drawn from learning theory: 1) Learning theory can explain certain forms of managerial behavior toward subordinates. Suppose a manager always delivers bad news to subordinates in a certain way. If the subordinates receive the news graciously and constructively, they are giving the manager positive reinforcement, so he will probably use the same mode of delivery in the future. 2) Many aspects of the learning process underscore the managers role as a teacher and the subordinates role as a learner. 3) Learning processes clearly influence the day-to-day interactions, both official and casual, between people in organizations. Almost everything we do in responding to others, for example, has reinforcing consequences for them.