Type of Keyboard Layout

83-Key PC/XT Keyboard Layout The very first PC keyboard was the old 83-key keyboard used by IBM for the very first IBM PCs and PC/XTs in the early 1980s. This design was copied nearly verbatim by most of the early "clone" makers, and was the standard for PCs of this era. In looking at this keyboard one must bear in mind that we are going back almost 20 years, an eternity in the computer industry (which is arguably only about 50 years old period). There are many valid criticisms of the first keyboards, but in fact, IBM made several good decisions for which one must give them credit. For starters, they made a good decision in making the keyboard detachable from the PC at all; we take that for granted, but many small computers of that era, such as the Apple ][, had the keyboard integrated into the system box. A detachable keyboard was a distinct improvement. Of course, with the first keyboards IBM also engineered the keyboard interface, cabling and signaling standards that are mostly still in use today. In terms of construction these keyboards were very much appreciated by many typists because they were rock solid, with high-quality keyswitches and heavy, metal cases. (Pick up an original IBM keyboard and you'll understand why people say they were "built like a tank".) They are also fairly small and compact dimensionally, taking up relatively little desk space. From a layout standpoint, however, there are many serious problems with the original 83-key layout, which caused many typists a great deal of frustration. Many of these complaints were based on comparisons between the PC's keyboard and IBM's own electric typewriter layouts--typists converting to PC use were irritated that IBM had made the PC keyboard "worse" than their own typewriter keyboards, which certainly seems like a reasonable complaint to me!

Closeup photo of an original IBM PC/XT keyboard, showing its layout. Here are some of the main issues with this layout, when it is contrasted to more modern configurations (note that while you may not care all that much about this very old design--and I don't blame you--reading this list will help you understand the changes made in later designs): Cramped Physical Grouping: Just looking at it, you can see that it is a very "cramped" layout. All of the keys except the function keys are physically contiguous, giving the layout a very "busy" appearance. This is made worse by the fact that so many keys are of odd sizes, and there is no clear vertical "dividing line" for the eye between the main typing area and the numeric keypad. Even the function keys are not separated very much from the rest of the layout. Overall, it looks like a "jumble of keys". This may seem a trivial matter but has an impact on those learning to use the PC. Poor <Shift> Key Size and Location: IBM made the <Shift> keys rather small, and even worse, placed an extra key (backslash and vertical bar) between "Z" and the left <Shift> key, causing touch typists fits when attempting to use the keyboard. Lots of extra backslashes being backspaced over all the time. :^) Poor <Enter> Key Size and Location: Same story for the <Enter> key; rather small, and too far to the right, with an extra, rarely needed key (back-quote and tilde) between the main typing area and the <Enter> key. Notice how the <Enter> key doesn't line up with the right <Shift> key. Another problem with the <Enter> key is simply the fact that it doesn't even say "Enter" on it! There were a lot of newcomers to PCs in the early 1980s who had no idea what an "Enter" key even was. Strange <Ctrl> Key Size and Position: Many users found the <Ctrl> key to be too large and in the place where they expected to find the <Caps Lock> key. In turn, the <Caps Lock> key is in an odd location. (I personally prefer this design, because the <Ctrl> key is used a lot more than the <Caps Lock> key, but I believe I am in the minority in this opinion.) No Dedicated Cursor and Navigation Keys: The only cursor and navigation keys are the ones on the numeric keypad. Since the cursor and navigation keys are needed almost all the time, this greatly reduced the utility of the numeric function of that keypad. (Remember that the most popular application in the early days of the PC was Lotus 1-2-3, a spreadsheet program used by financial people who needed both cursor movement keys and the numeric keypad...) No Indicator LEDs: These early keyboards communicated unidirectionally with the system and could not accept the commands now used to control the indicator LEDs, so they included none. This caused much confusion, particularly given the frequency with which the <Num Lock> key needed to be pressed! Some PC clone keyboards came out with indicator LEDs on them that were controlled by the keyboard itself. These mostly worked OK, but had the potential for becoming "out of sync" with what the system thought the state of the toggle modifier keys was. Left-Side Function Keys: Many people hated having the function keys on the left hand side of the keyboard. Part of the reason for this is that early software would often provide visual cues on the bottom of the screen indicating what roles the different function keys would play in that application, and many users wanted to see the function keys "line up" with these cues. As mentioned in the section on signaling, these older keyboards are electrically incompatible with modern PCs. They are almost never seen any more except on any early PCs that are still running (and they are indeed still out there...) For a while in the mid-1980s many keyboards were manufactured with a switch to enable emulation of an 83-key keyboard for the sake of older PCs. 84-Key AT Keyboard Layout Looking at the number of issues regarding the original 83-key XT keyboard, you can see that it's a pretty long list. Of course, in the early 1980s you didn't really have a lot of options. :^) Still, over time, IBM received a lot of complaints about the first keyboard design and eventually made improvements to it. The first evolution of the keyboard was the 84-key keyboard layout introduced with the first IBM PC/AT. Unsurprisingly, this is sometimes called the AT Keyboard.

Closeup photo of an IBM PC/AT clone keyboard, showing the 84-key (The LED indicators are above the numeric keypad and not shown in this photo.)

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There are several definite improvements with this layout, compared to the 83-key keyboard: Better Physical Grouping: The keyboard has three distinct key physical groups, with the numeric keypad placed distinctly to the right. The three groupings have clean vertical lines. The numeric keypad has been reorganized. Overall, the keyboard has a much more organized and understandable appearance. Improved <Shift> and <Enter> Keys: The left <Shift> key and the <Enter> key have been enlarged, and the annoying "intervening" keys relocated. LED Indicators: With the new internals of this keyboard (see below), LED indicators for the "lock" functions were added. Extra "System Request" Key: This is the "84th key". It was mostly used for special control operations. However, many of the layout issues with the original design remained. The biggest concern that remained unaddressed was the continued sharing between the numeric keypad, and the cursor and navigation keys. The function keys are still on the left-hand side, and the <Ctrl> and <Caps Lock> keys are still different from what a typist would expect. Some PC users also believe that this keyboard layout took one step backwards, in relocating the <Esc> key. This key is used rather frequently, and moving it from a position where it could be easily hit with the left pinky or ring finger, to the numeric keypad, was an annoyance. I was among those to feel this way; others likely didn't care much. :^) This keyboard was changed internally from the PC/XT model as well. The interface was made bidirectional, allowing the system to send commands to the keyboard, and enabling the control of the new LED indicators. The signaling and interface protocols created with this first PC/AT keyboard are still used today, even though the 84-key layout is no longer used, having been replaced by the "Enhanced" 101-key keyboard. 101-Key "Enhanced" Keyboard Layout In 1986, IBM introduced the IBM PC/AT Model 339. Included in this last AT-family system was the new Enhanced 101-key keyboard. Little did IBM realize at the time, perhaps, but this 101-key keyboard would become the de-facto standard for keyboards for the next decade and beyond. Even today's Windows keyboards and fancy variants with extra buttons and keys are based on this layout.

Closeup photo of a 101-key "Enhanced" keyboard, showing the key groups. Contrast this layout to that of the 104-key "Windows" keyboard.

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The "Enhanced" keyboard was electrically the same as the 84-key AT keyboard, but featured a radically redesigned key layout. The major changes included these: Dedicated Cursor and Navigation Keys: Finally, separate keys were provided for cursor control and navigation. This enabled the numeric keyboard to be used along with the cursor and navigation keys. The cursor keys were also made into an "inverted-T" configuration for easier switching between "Up" and "Down" with a single finger. Relocated Function Keys: The function keys were moved from the left-hand side of the keyboard to a row along the top, and divided into groups of four for convenience. While many users had been asking for this, they found that sometimes the grass really isn't greener on the other side of the fence, as I discuss below... Relocated <Esc> and <Caps Lock> Keys: The <Esc> key was moved back to the left-hand side of the keyboard, though it was placed up above the main typing area. The <Caps Lock> key was moved above the left <Shift> key. Extra Function Keys: Two additional function keys, <F11> and <F12> were added to the keyboard. Extra <Ctrl> and <Alt> Keys: Additional <Ctrl> and <Alt> keys were added on the right side of the <Space Bar>. Extra Numeric Keypad Keys: The numeric keypad was fitted with an additional <Enter> key, as well as the "/" (divide operator) that had been missing up to that point. Compared the 84-key keyboard the Enhanced keyboard layout was perceived by most users to be far superior. It was an immediate hit despite its one obvious inferiority to the AT keyboard: the smaller main <Enter> key. (The <Space Bar> is also a bit smaller.) Obviously, some of the changes made with the Enhanced keyboard are undeniable. However, others are in this author's opinion good examples of the old warning: "be careful what you ask for"... Many PC users, after having complained for years about changes they wanted made to the PC keyboard layout, found they weren't all that happy with them once their wish was granted! Having never complained about the issues that were changed with the Enhanced keyboard myself, I found some of the changes quite frustrating--and I later discovered that I was not alone. My personal beefs with this layout involve the locations of the following: Left <Ctrl> Key: With the older layout, the left-hand <Ctrl> key is readily accessible, and it is used by computer enthusiasts dozens, if not hundreds of times a day. (For example, cut, copy and paste are universal functions with standard Windows

short-cuts of <Ctrl>+X, <Ctrl>+C and <Ctrl>+V respectively.) The new design puts the <Ctrl> key below the main keyboard, requiring a move of the entire left hand to reach it. And while having the <Caps Lock> key above the left <Shift> may be of use to some, I use the <Caps Lock> key maybe once or twice a month, how about you? :^) Overall, a really bad swap in my opinion. Function Keys: Having the function keys on the left-side of the keyboard makes them easy to reach, particularly in combination with the <Shift>, <Ctrl> and <Alt> keys. Again, these are frequently used keys which are hard to reach when above the keyboard; most combinations that used to be simple with one hand now require two. For example, a command I use frequently when writing is <Ctrl>+<F6>, the Microsoft Word (and FrontPage) function to switch between documents. Compare the motion required to type this combination on an Enhanced keyboard to what was required with the function keys on the left side and the <Ctrl> key above the <Shift> key. Also consider <Alt>+<F4>, the standard combination to close a Windows application... and so it goes. The real irony, of course, is that the "on-screen labels corresponding to function keys", which is what caused people to want the function keys along the top of the keyboard, disappeared from software applications many years ago! <Esc> Key: This key is still a reach with the Enhanced design. Compare how often you use the <Esc> key in a day to the number of times you type a backwards quote or tilde! Again, a poorly-considered decision. Despite these limitations, the 101-key keyboard remains the standard (actually, the 104-key Windows keyboard is the standard now, but the two layouts are nearly identical). Of course, countless variations of the basic design exist. A common modification is to enlarge the <Enter> key back to its "84-key layout size", and squeeze the backslash / vertical-pipe key between the "=/+" key and the <Backspace>. An improvement in my estimation! As for me, rather than curse the darkness, I lit a candle: I use a 124-key Gateway Anykey programmable keyboard with function keys both above and to the left of the main typing area, and a large main <Enter> key. I relocate the left <Ctrl> to where it belongs and the <Caps Lock> key somewhere out of the way where it belongs. :^) I swap the <Esc> key and the backquote/tilde key as well. Ah, freedom. :^)

102-Key "Enhanced" Keyboard Layouts Several slightly modified versions of the regular American English 101-key Enhanced keyboard were created by IBM for by non-English PC users. These keyboards are virtually identical to the regular 101-key Enhanced keyboards, incorporating just slight differences from the regular U.S. keyboard. Considering the United Kingdom layout as an example, the following changes have been made: The regular number "3" key now yields "" instead of "#" when shifted. The back-quote key yields the "" (horizontal bar) symbol when shifted instead of a tilde ("~"). The main <Enter> key has been enlarged; it is now L-shaped again (though upside-down; yikes!) An extra key containing the supplanted "#" and "~" symbols has been added to the left of the main <Enter> key. This seems a major step backwards given the complaints about an extra key in this location in the 83-key layout. Another step backwards: the backslash / vertical bar key has been relocated back to its former place--to the right of the left <Shift> key. Bizarre. 104-Key "Windows" Keyboard Layout Despite being a software company, Microsoft has always manufactured and sold input device hardware (for reasons that I don't fully comprehend). Regardless of the rationale, Microsoft has been in these markets for some time. As Windows became the predominant operating system in the PC market, Microsoft realized that many common Windows functions had no simple keyboard short-cuts to activating them. Seizing their leadership position, they created a specification for a new variant of the 101-key keyboard that includes special keys to activate common Windows functions.

Closeup photo of a black 104-key Windows keyboard. Though not as common, some very much prefer the aesthetics of the black case. This layout is identical to the 101-key Enhanced layout with the exception of the additional three keys: one Windows key on either side of the <Space Bar>, and a "right-click" (context menu) key to the right of the <Space Bar>. (Thanks to Staples for letting me take the original of this photo, in one of their stores.) These so-called "Windows keyboards" are in fact almost identical to the regular 101-key Enhanced design. They simply add three additional "Windows" keys, making room for them by stealing real estate

from the <Alt>, <Ctrl> and <Space Bar> keys along the bottom of the keyboard. The operation of these keys is described in detail on a separate page. Since the Windows keyboard offers some flexibility that the regular Enhanced layout does not, and its cost of production is virtually unchanged, it quickly replaced the Enhanced layout as the de-facto standard on most PCs. Most keyboards today, whether they are included with new PCs or sold separately, are some variation of the 104-key Windows keyboard layout.

Ergonomic ("Natural") Keyboards Assuming you are currently in front of your computer as you read this, and you are using a regular keyboard, conduct this quick demonstration. Sit comfortably in your chair, and rest your hands flat on your keyboard in the position where they would normally be during typing. Now look at the angle between your index fingers and the <Space Bar>. You'll probably find that it is somewhere between 30 and 60 degrees. This shows that in fact, the hands do not properly align themselves to the rows of keys in a regular keyboard. Most typists twist their hands slightly as they type to align their fingers to the keys, without even realizing it. You may even be able notice this shifting or twisting motion change as your hands move during typing. With keyboard use being implicated in the rise of repetitive stress injuries associated with the hand, such as carpal tunnel syndrome, some designers sought to possibly alleviate the problems--and make typing more comfortable at the same time--by adjusting the keyboard to the shape of the hands. The result is the family of keyboards that are usually called either ergonomic, or thanks to Microsoft's name for its version, natural keyboards. The fundamental layout change of these keyboards addresses the angle issue I just illustrated with my demonstration. The main typing area is in fact split into two parts, angled outward from the center of the keyboard. This allows the left and right hands to rest more naturally, with the fingers properly aligned to the keyboard rows. These keyboards are usually contoured, and many include integral wrist rests and other ergonomic features.

A Microsoft "natural" ergonomic keyboard. Note the distinctive "split" design. The angling of the keys is hard to see in this particular photo. The LEDs are placed between the halves of the keyboard, which seems strange to me; I'd find that quite distracting. (Thanks to Staples for letting me take the original of this photo, in one of their stores.) For some people, these keyboards are an amazing improvement in comfort over conventional keyboard designs. While any change in layout is met with some hesitation, for many touch typists the adjustment period for these keyboards is relatively brief. Some better ones actually can have the angle between the two halves of the keyboard adjusted, which is a great idea since the natural angle of the hands varies from one user to another. That's not to say that there aren't drawbacks and issues with these designs. The first is that unless you are a good touch typist with proper technique, you may find these keyboards hard to use. (I personally never learned proper typing technique; as a result, I can type quickly but I use the wrong fingers for certain keys, and I find a split keyboard almost impossible to use.) These keyboards are also usually more expensive than conventional designs, and they are typically quite large, taking up a considerable amount of desktop real estate. Ergonomic keyboards are sold widely under a variety of names and are made by most keyboard manufacturers. They are fairly popular, but don't seem likely to replace regular keyboards any time soon.

Keycaps
Keycaps are the actual physical keys that you strike with your fingers when typing. The term "keycap" arises from the fact that these pieces "cap" the actual keyswitches that move during a keystroke, and tell the keyboard circuitry which keys were hit. Keycaps are also sometimes called "key tops" or even just "keys" (I avoid the latter term to reduce ambiguity.) The oldest keyboards did not in fact have keycaps: the keycap and keyswitch were designed and manufactured as a single integrated unit. Removable keycaps are a superior design for a number of reasons: A damaged or worn-out keycap can be replaced much more easily than replacing an entire keyswitch. (Keycaps typically "pop loose", while replacing a keyswitch is either impossible or at the very least requires disassembly of the keyboard.) Keycaps can be rearranged or changed if needed, allowing reprogramming of the keyboard or the use of alternative layouts such as Dvorak or different languages. The keyboard can more easily be cleaned.

Top and bottom views of an "Esc" keycap from a typical keyboard. The keycaps play an important role in the comfort issues involved in using the keyboard, because they are what you actually are using with your fingers. In this section I discuss various issues related to the keycaps, including their size and positioning, shape, texture and travel. I also discuss special keycaps, used for larger keys such as the <Enter> key and <Space Bar>. Keycap Size, Spacing and Alignment Almost all regular PC keyboards use keycaps of the approximate same size. In this context, I am referring to "size" as the width and depth of each keycap (the height of the keycaps we'll examine when we talk about travel.) The size of a regular keycap is approximately 0.5 inches square on the top of the keycap. The keycap then tapers down to a larger size at its base; a little under 0.75 inches square (about 11/16ths of an inch). Spacing of keycaps is also very standardized, at about 0.75 inches from the center of one key to the center of its neighbor on either side. Each row of keys in the main alphanumeric area of the keyboard is also separated by about 0.75 inches of space in a typical keyboard. The next issue is the alignment of the rows of keys in the main part of the keyboard. By this I mean how the keys in one row are offset, left to right, relative to the keys in the row above and below it. Here too there is a standard configuration which is rarely violated. Let's call the bottom row of alphanumeric keys (containing "Z" and "X") row #1. Then the "home row" containing "A" and "S" would be row #2, the row with "Q" and "W" row #3, and the row with the numeric symbols row #4. Alignment is as follows: Row #1 is offset from row #2 by about one-half of a key-spacing. That's 3/8ths (0.375) inches. Row #2 is offset from row #3 by about one-quarter of a key-spacing, or 3/16ths (0.188) inches. This one's the oddball; I don't know why it isn't 3/8ths like the others, but it isn't. :^) Row #3 is offset from row #4 by 3/8ths inches like the offset of row #1 and row #2. Again, we are discussing the regular alphanumeric keys here; the size, spacing and location of the keys other than the main alphanumerics varies greatly from one keyboard to another. These are discussed in the description of keyboard layouts. Also, special keys such as the <Enter> key and <Space Bar> are often of different sizes and spacing can be very different between models.

Illustration of a typical keyboard showing the spacing between keys and rows of keys, as well as the offsets between adjacent rows of keys in the main typing area of the keyboard. The reason for standardized keycap size, spacing and alignment is a simple one: not having a standard would make everyone who has to use more than one keyboard utterly miserable. Touch typists and data entry people learn the "feel" of a keyboard and become used to its spacing and the size of its keys. Moving between two keyboards with different-sized keys or keys with different spacings would slow people down. It would also cause major retraining problems for new employees, or if you bought a new PC, and so on. There is one place where non-standard keycap size and spacing may sometimes be seen: in very small notebook PCs or PC-like devices. This would be due to the need to conserve space. Fortunately, most notebooks do come with keycaps of standard size and spacing, especially now that if anything, notebooks are getting wider due to the desire for larger screens. However, there is also a growing market for very small "sub-notebooks", and here, "shrunken" keycaps are sometimes found. The exact layout of keys is sometimes a bit strange with notebooks but at least usually the regular keys are where they should be--without that, anyone working on both a desktop and notebook machine would find life a bit difficult in this regard. Keycap Shape and Texturing If you asked someone to recall from memory what the keycaps on a keyboard look like, they would probably say that are somewhat cube-shaped. (Actually, they'd probably say you were nuts for caring, and that they'd never really thought about it before you asked your silly question. But I often get that reaction, and that's a different matter entirely. :^) ) If you actually look at your keyboard you'll see that the keys are not really cubic at all; they are more like truncated pyramids, if anything, but of a rather unique shape. Their shape is designed to maximize comfort during extended typing. As mentioned in the section on keycap size, the keycaps are tapered, increasing in size as you go from the top to the bottom. The tapering is usually asymmetrical, with a more shallow taper at the front of each key, and a steep tapering at the back of the keycap. This design helps "catch" the fingers as they strike the keycaps; the asymmetry is likely designed to match the slight forward pressure that is part of the keypress motion. Keycaps also have a distinct curvature, which refers to the shape of the top surface of each key. The keycaps are not flat on top but rather curved; after all, we have rounded fingers, not squared-off ones! Keycap top curvature typically comes in two flavors: Cylindrical Curvature: The surface of the key is concave but only in one dimension, curving around the "north" to "south" axis (viewed from the top of the keyboard). This means the top and bottom edges of each keycap have a curve but the left and right edges are straight. The top of the key looks like a cylinder of the correct size would fit into it. Spherical Curvature: The surface of the key is concave in both dimensions, so all four edges are curved. The top of the key would best fit a sphere of the appropriate size. Which is better? It's largely a matter of personal comfort--and also what happens to be available in your area. While it may seem that spherical designs are obviously better, I usually see cylindrical curvature in my keyboards.

Closeup shot of a keycap. This magnified view shows the cylindrical curvature of the keycap, as well as its texture (and some dirt--sorry, the digital camera sees things my eyes do not when I take the shots! :^) ) Finally, keycaps are usually textured; roughened with minute bumps. This is done to improve traction and help reduce finger slippage. This does help hold the fingers, but over time this texturing will tend to wear out, especially on the more commonly used keys. I have a couple of keyboards that I have definitely "smoothed out" while writing the material on this web site. :^) To be honest, I don't find the lack of texturing on the more frequently-used keys to be an issue, and I certainly wouldn't replace a keyboard just for this reason.