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This document discusses linguistic categories and functions. It begins by outlining the levels of linguistic analysis including phonology, phonetics, morphology, and semantics. It then discusses categories like nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. It notes that categories are inherent to words and convention assigns parts of speech. The document also discusses noun phrases and how their structure can include determiners, adjectives, nouns, adverbs, and prepositional phrases. Finally, it briefly discusses the history of adjective inflection in Old English, Middle English, and Present Day English.
This document discusses linguistic categories and functions. It begins by outlining the levels of linguistic analysis including phonology, phonetics, morphology, and semantics. It then discusses categories like nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. It notes that categories are inherent to words and convention assigns parts of speech. The document also discusses noun phrases and how their structure can include determiners, adjectives, nouns, adverbs, and prepositional phrases. Finally, it briefly discusses the history of adjective inflection in Old English, Middle English, and Present Day English.
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This document discusses linguistic categories and functions. It begins by outlining the levels of linguistic analysis including phonology, phonetics, morphology, and semantics. It then discusses categories like nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. It notes that categories are inherent to words and convention assigns parts of speech. The document also discusses noun phrases and how their structure can include determiners, adjectives, nouns, adverbs, and prepositional phrases. Finally, it briefly discusses the history of adjective inflection in Old English, Middle English, and Present Day English.
Drepturi de autor:
Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
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Descărcați ca DOC, PDF, TXT sau citiți online pe Scribd
These are the levels of linguistic analysis: + Phonology. + Phonetics. + Morphology studies categories (the form of the word), also known as part of the speech. + Categories are inherent to the word and convention has given the category to the word: have (v), happy (adj)... Lexical categories (one word considering the head)... Ex. N, V,Adj, Adv, P... Phrasal categories (set of words surrounding the head). The head gives the name of the category to the phrase. Ex. NP, VP, AdjP, AdvP, PP... *Por qu es father un NP si se trata de un solo elemento? Porque el resto del NP est, aunque se encuentre en ausencia: father + Syntax studies functions and depends on the syntactic context so the word does not have a predetermined function already attached to it. Examples: The table is red John smashed the table NP-Subject NP-Direct Object Functions: - Subject - Direct Object - Indirect Object Adjunct (gives extra information about the action: place, time...) - Adverbial Conjunct (and, but...) Disjunct (it modifies the whole sentence: perhaps, hopefully...) 17 + Semantics The Noun Phrase NP (det) (adj) N (adv) (pp) (AdjP) (AdvP) John The king Great Expectations The angry King People next door The King of Denmark The man [who came from the cold] The man [who came yesterday] - common noun (house). The position of the head (N) can be occupied by - proper noun (John). - pronoun (they). - articles (the, a, an...). - possessives (my, Johns). - demonstratives (this, these, that, those). - quantifiers (one, two, some, several...). - Wh-items [according to some linguists]. In Contemporary English (PDE), we have different inflections concerning: Number : nouns, have singular and plural: [s] cats - <-s> [z] dogs [Iz] horses - Apophony, ie, change in the stem vowel. Eg. man-men, tooth-teeth. - Irregular. Eg. child-children. - Zero plural. Eg. sheep-sheep. - Greek and Latin plurals. Eg. corpus-corpora, datum-data 18 Non-sentential Complementation Sentential Complementation Within the determiner position (Det) we can have Gender (only in some cases): lion-lioness, poet-poetess. Case inflection the genitive: Early Old English STRONG WEAK Sing. Plural Sing. Plural Nom. Cyning Cyningas Hunta Huntan Accus. Cyning Cyningas Hunta Huntan Gen. Cyninge s Cyninga Huntan Huntena Dat. Cyninge Cyningu m Huntan Huntum Late Old English (LOE) followed the strong paradigm, so we have declensions like this: Singular Plural Nom. Tun Tunes Gen. Tunes Tunes In Modern English (ModE) and PDE: Singular Plural Nom. Town Towns Gen. Towns Towns A Possessive Phrase or Genitive Phrase consists of a NP with: - A determiner: the mans dog. - A possessive: my friends dog. - An adjective: my little girls father. - An AdvP: people next rooms class. - PP: the King of Denmarks son. 19 NP Peters dog possessor possessee semantics modifier head syntax <Peters> = Possessive Phrase or Genitive Phrase - A whole relative phrase (not accepted by everyone): the lady who came yesterdays house. Concerning the example above (Peters dog), we cannot use a determiner except for quantifiers, as the second NP (the head) is a [+definite] noun: - *The Peters dog. - *Peters the dog. - The Kings three daughters. Exceptions where the determiner <a/an> is modifying the second NP as it doesnt agree with the possessor/modifier but, moreover, it isnt a possession but a description: - A womens collegue. - An old peoples home. - A nuns convent. But, what happens when having ambiguity in the possessive phrase? (context always helps). - All the kings servants = no ambiguity as <all> pre-modifies <servants> due to agreement. - All the kings servants = ambiguity the servants helping all the kings. all the servants helping the kings. - Half Peters fortune = no ambiguity. - Half the groups fortune = ambiguity half the fortune possessed by the groups. the fortune possessed by half the groups. Elliptic(al) genitive, ie, omitting the head/the possessee. Why? To avoid repetition (3 cases): Anaphoric relationship: I hate Johns book but I love Susans [book]. Cataphoric relationship: I hate Johns [book] but I love Susans book. Reference to places: familiar places (my sisters), a business (the butchers, the doctors), public monuments (St. Pauls). Having to do with inflected genitive, we will deal with double genitive. A property shared by adjectives and genitives is recursion (repetition), ie, both adjectives and possessive phrases are recursive. In theory, we have an infinitive number of adjectives/possessive items in front of the head of the phrase. Ex. Innovative Contemporary British drama (adj1 + adj2 + adj3 + N). Peters brothers friends dog (poss1 + poss2 + poss3 + N). 20 Referents to the Genitive phrase Referents of the possessor 1. Personal names : Roses (=proper nouns) [+human] 2. Personal nouns : my sisters, our friends (=common noun) [+human] although not a proper noun. 3. Collective nouns : committees members. 4. Animals : the cats tail, the ducks neck [+animate]. 5. Place/Location : Londons museum [-human]. 6. Time : a two hours walk. 7. Fixed expressions : at a stones throw, to my hearts delight. 8. Nouns of special interest for human beings : a) Parts of the body: the minds development. b) Cultural activities: the novels last chapter, the plays last act, the expositions leaflet. c) Means of transport: the cars seat, the buss wheel. Periphrastic genitive (= of genitive) It consists of a phrase (prepositional phrase: of + NP). Similarities : Semantically speaking, it is the same as the inflected genitive. The main meaning is the same as the one described by the inflected meaning. Values of: - Possession (most important meaning). - Partition. - Description (giving a property). Syntactically speaking, the head is the possessee and the modifier is the possessor (as we can see in the inflected genitive construction). - Johns daughter = The daughter of John. Differences : 1. Morphology . In the inflected genitive, the possessor is a genitive phrase (NP + inflection) whereas in the periphrastic genitive, the possessor is a PP (Prep of + NP). 2. Position of the possessee in relation to the possessor . In the inflected genitive construction, the possessee goes after the possessor and, in the periphrastic construction, the possessee goes in pre-modifying position. 3. Restriction of the determiner . In the inflected genitive construction, we cant have a determiner (except for quantifiers) in front of the possessee. In contrast, we can find the use of determiners. 21 Ex. *The committees members (inflected genitive). The members of the committee (periphrastic genitive). When can we use the periphrastic genitive? 1. We can use this genitive with collective nouns, animals, place/location, time, nouns of special interest for human beings (parts of the body, cultural activities, means of transport). Ex. The members of the committee. The tail of the cat. The museums of London. A walk of two hours. The development of the mind/The last chapter of the novel/The wheel of the bus. 2. We can have the periphrastic genitive when the possessee is a relational noun (member of the family, the doctor...). Ex. The son of Mary. 3. When the possessee is an abstract noun. Ex. The kindness of her father. 4. When the possessor is a heavy constituent (relative clause, for example). Ex. The house of the lady who came yesterday. Double Genitive In this construction, we can find both genitives at the same time (inflected genitive + periphrastic genitive). Ex. A friend of mine (mine is considered an inflected genitive in disguise). A friend of Celias ( the inflected genitive conveys meaning of possession) of Celias = partitive meaning (Uno de los amigos de Celia). In theory, the deep structure would be A friend of Celias [friend]. But we also find A friend of Celias friends [friend]. Adjectives and Adjective Phrase PDE Adjectives. An AdjP is a set of words in which the head is an adjective. In PDE, adjectives are uninflected (that is, they do no change for number, gender or case). This situation is not what we found at the beginnings of English language. Considering the history of English, we have to say that adjectives were inflected. OE Adjectives = inflected (changed for number, gender and case). We can also find two different paradigms of adjectives: the weak and the strong paradigm. The use of one or another paradigm depends on the syntactic context of the word. 22 + The adjective follows the weak paradigm in these contexts : a) 1 st context After the article or the demonstrative (se, seo, t / es, eos, is). Ex. Se wisa cyning. b) After the possessives. Ex. Min leofa sunu. c) Vocative expressions. Ex. Leofe cwen. d) Fixed expressions in poetry (poetic epithet). e) In comparatives and superlatives and numbers. Ex. Se ilca (the same). In other contexts, adjectives will follow the strong declensions. ME Adjectives. There was a simplification of adjectives which began in the North. Due to this, adjectives lost their inflections of gender, number and case, and began to adopt a fixed position within the NP. We will find them in front of the noun (pre- modifying position). + Contexts in which adjectives appear after the noun in ME : - When the adjective has a French origin. - Metrical reasons (alliteration, rhyme...). PDE Adjectives: + Semantically quality or attribute. + Syntactically 2 main functions/positions in the sentence. - Attributive function : the adjective appears within the NP. Example: NP [A delicious cake] (Det) (Adj) (N) The adjective must be placed in front of the noun (pre-modifying position). = The cake is delicious. Because it is outside the NP. - Predicative function : the adjective appears outside the NP. = Object complement: I found the cake delicious. <Cake> is the object complement of <found> Contexts for the adjective in attributive function Appearing in post-modifying/post-positive position. a) Idiomatic expressions (religious or legal). Secretary General. Attorney General. Vicar General. Bishop Designate. Lord Spiritual. 23 b) When the adjective is modified by something else. NP [A man [happy [about the decision] ] ] NP [Tourists [ready [to come] ] ] c) When the adjective is in the comparative. NP [A car [faster than yours] ] NP [He prefers [a chair [more comfortable than this] ] ] Exceptions: d) When the adjective modifies as indefinite pronoun (<-body>, <-one>, <- thing>, <-where>). Ex. I need [something useful] She phoned [someone kind] e) When the adjective ends with the suffixes <ible> and <able>. Here we have two possibilities: Ex. The best possible solution (pre-modifying). The best solution possible (post-positive). Chains of adjectives Connected with the property of recursion (in theory, you can place an infinite number of adjectives in front of a noun). Ex. Innovative contemporary British drama. Long curly yellow hair. The property of recursion is shared by adjectives and Genitive Phrases. Ex. Johns mothers neighbours garden. In the case of adjectives, the position of the adjective has to do with the opposition between: - Scalar properties these that can be graded (interesting, nice...). - Non-scalar properties there is no gradation (Spanish, wooden...). * The adverb <very> tells us to be used with scalar adjectives. 24 Post-positive position Order: from scalar to non-scalar. 1. Subjective opinion: innovative, original... 2. Physical description: a) Size. b) Shape. c) Age. d) Colour. 3. Origin or nationality. 4. Material. Ex. An original Swedish wooden chair. Nominalisation of adjectives Conversion of adjectives into nouns and adjective phrases into noun phrases respectively. In this process, the category of the word doesnt change but the function of it. Ex. She preferred [the absurd option] absurd: Adj N It stays morphologically as an adjective but functioning as the head of the NP. 2 cases in which adjectives can be nominalised : 1. When the referent of the adjective is abstract (absurd, useful, funny, grotesque, picturesque...) Ex. The painter likes the picturesque. The grotesque always appeals to him. 2. When the referent of the adjective is concrete [+human]. Ex. The catholic people. The aged population. 2 situations: a) When we refer to religious or ethical groups: Catholic, Protestant, white, Indian... Full conversion takes place: - Both indefinite and definite articles can be used: The protestant, an Indian... - Both singular and plural agreement: Catholic, Indians... b) When we refer to socially-motivated groups: the rich, poor employed, aged, single... - Only the definite article <the> is used: the poor, the single... 25 - Only plural agreement: the rich are happy... Adjectives referring to nationalities, converted into nouns: a) When the adjective ends in a non-sibilant sound [sibilant: z, z (and t)]. It works as adjective fully converted into: Nouns any determiner: the Russian, an Italian. Both agreements (singular and plural): the Russian/s is/are coming tomorrow. b) When the adjective ends in a sibilant sound (English, French, Spanish, Chinese, Scottish, Irish, Australian, Austrian). It works as the socially-motivated group: the Spanish, the French, a Spaniard... One agreement: plural the Spanish like paella and dance flamenco. Nominalisation of adjectives Conversion (syntactic) on nouns into adjectives. It is very productive in English, however it does not exist in Spanish. Example: Orange juice (NP: orange = modifier; juice = head). Also: chocolate bar; syntax class; grammar lesson. From the perspective of distribution, they behave like adjectives (pre-modifying position). There is no recursion in compounds. There are two kinds of compounds: Morphological : one word. Eg. lapdog (perrito faldero) and tearoom/tea-room. Syntactic : two words. Eg. orange juice, strawberry picnic, cheese burger, salmon sandwich. Ambiguity: An American literature student NP Head: student Determiner: an Modifier: American and literature A Chinese painting museum 2 possibilities: The museum can be placed in China The Chinese museum does not need to have Chinese works Also: the museum can be Chinese but placed in another country An old French history professor 3 possibilities: Old, history and French modifies professor Old and French modifies history 26 Old modifies professor and French modifies history The verb the Verb phrase / Inflection phrase In origin, English was an inflected language, that is, the morphological features and syntactic functions are indicated by means of inflections/affixes. Ex. Se cyning (nominative-subject/attribute). As a result of simplification, English became an uninflected/isolating language (morphological features of the syntactic functions are indicated by means of word order and prepositions) and thats why in PDE, we always have to create the sentence using an SVO order. Despite this, there are still some traces of OE in PDE: In nouns: number (plural), genitive case (s) and, in some cases, gender. In adjectives: no inflections for number/gender/case BUT we have inflections for comparatives (-er) and superlatives (-est). In verbs: agreement inflection (person, number...) and tense (present, past) inflection. + Verbal inflection is a very important category in Generative Grammar. We have the lexical category (Inflection and Inflectional Phrase). + In X-bar syntax, it is the origin of the tree: S IP NP VP NP I I + Inflection is an independent category but a very special one, as inflection cant exist alone but attached to the verb. Ie, it is an affix. + We can prove the existence of the inflection by using emphatic constructions. Ex. He works hard He DOES work hard. + Verbal inflection is the criterion to classify clauses depending on them being finite or non-finite clauses. Ex. She let [FINITE VERB] me go [NON-FINITE VERB] // We saw [FINITE VERB] him painting [NON-FINITE VERB] + The affix-hoping rule can be found in this type of constructions: in a tree, the inflectional affix (suffix) hops/jumps to the first verbal form we encounter to the right. 27 IP NP I N I VP -pres N V Peter V DP buy D D NP the N N house IP DP I D I ModP +pres D NP Mod my N Mod VP can, N V friend V DP play D D NP the N 28 PF Peter bought the house PF My friend can play the piano N piano IP NP I N I PerfP +pres N Perf John Perf VP have V V DP won D D NP the N N prize IP NP I The question I PassP -pres Pass Pass VP be V V 29 PF John has won the prize has -en PF The question was answered -en answered # Chains of auxiliaries: combinations of 2 or more auxiliaries. We must keep the auxiliary order: Modal + have,-en + be,-ing + be,-en + V 2 auxiliaries: Modal + Perfective Have. IP NP I Mary I ModP +pres Mod Mod PerfP may Perf Perf VP have V V NP written the essay 30 PF Mary may have written the essay. 3 auxiliaries: Modal + Perfective Have + Progressive Be. IP NP I The dog I ModP -pres Mod Mod PerfP could Perf Perf ProgP have Prog Prog VP been walking 31 PF The dog could have been walking. IP DP I The car I ModP +pres Mod Mod PerfP may Perf Perf ProgP have Prog Prog AuxP been Aux Aux VP being V V PP V P sold P for months 32 PF The car may have been being sold for months bear infinitive -en -ing -en Declarative affirmative sentences: impersonal constructions Impersonal sentence with no syntactic subject. Spanish impersonality: 1. Impersonal con se: Se vende piso. 2. Impersonal propia (atmospheric phenomena) 3. Impersonal gramatical: Hay leche en la nevera (mainly with haber). - Impersonality in English: It existed in OE 2 main types of impersonal constructions: a) With the impersonal particle <man> (uninflected). We translate it as se or alguien. b) Impersonal verb (the same than in Spanish). Verbs referring to atmospheric phenomena. Ex. Regnan (rain), snawan (snow) // (ge)limpan (happen). (*) + Special class of verbs taking an experiencer in the accusative/dative: lician (like), listan (feel like), incan (seem), hungrian (to be hungry), yrstan (to be thirsty) = like in contemporary English. Ex. Me [INDIRECT OBJECT] gusta [VERB] el abrigo [SUBJECT]. Me [INDIRECT OBJECT] thinks [VERB] I scent the morning air [DIRECT OBJECT]. I like the book. In PDE, we cannot have the subject position empty. There are no impersonal constructions. Ex. Llueve It [DUMMY/EXPLETIVE IT] rains (semantically empty). Haba leche en la nevera There [DUMMY/EXPLETIVE THERE] was milk in the fridge. Existential there: Semantically empty. Morphology: pronoun Grammatically Syntax: subject. 1. SVO order: There is milk 2. Inversion in interrogatives: Is there milk? 33 Two important characteristics: 1. Derivation : the change that takes place from the deep structure to the surface structure. In the deep structure, we only have the elements that give meaning to the sentence. 2 main analysis for the derivation of existential there: 1) S-st: There is a book on the table D-st: A book [SEMANTIC SUBJECT AND SYNTACTIC SUBJECT] is on the table D-st: [e] is a book [SEMANTIC SUBJECT] on the table (the subject has been postponed). Some linguists say that the sentence A book on the table is not the DS of There is a book on the table. a) 2 meanings : - Visual impact in A book is on the table (hay un libro y est en la mesa). - A book is on the table presupposes the existence of the book (el libro suponiendo que ya sabemos que hay un libro est en la mesa). b) Equivalents in different languages : some people say that both sentences are different because they are translated in a different way in some languages: - There is a book on the table (Hay un libro en la mesa). - A book is on the table (El libro est en la mesa). 2) S-st: There is a book on the table D-st: [e] is a book [COMPLEMENT] on the table (no semantic subject = existential be). The bomb didnt explode [ERGATIVE VERB] / La baera se vaci. 2. Restriction : Definiteness constraint/Restriction effect. The NP after the existential there constructions cannot be definite. We cant have proper nouns, definite articles, possessives and demonstratives. Ex: (*) There is John in the street [ADJUNCT OF PLACE] (with existential there/not with the adverb of place All est John ). (*) There is the postman/my brother/this friend. (*) Haba los nios en el saln (podramos decir Haba nios en la biblioteca). (*) Hay tu madre en la biblioteca (podramos decir Hay una madre en la biblioteca). 34 The NP after be in existential there constructions has to be indefinite. Ex. There is a man in the library / There are four cats in the garden. There are a series of exceptions in which we can have a definite NP after existential there: 1) With a to-infinitive relative clause : There is Mary/her mother/the situation to consider (Hay que tener en cuenta a Mary/a su madre/a la situacin). 2) With appositive or noun complement clauses : There is the problem/idea that... There is the problem that the museum was closed. What was the problem? That the museum is closed. There is the idea that John could solve the problem. What was the idea? That John could solve the problem. 3) When we provide a list of items : There was Peter, his supervisor, and some other students in the lecture. Declarative Negatives in English - Negation in the history of English: a) In OE, negative was expressed by means of 3 main procedures : 1. Negative particle en in front of the verb. Hie en common (They didnt come). En con ic singan (I cant sing). 2. The use of enclitic forms (negative particle attached to the verb). Se cyning naes wis (The king wasnt wise). Ne + is = nis Ne + waes = naes Ne + haefde = naefde Ne + wolde = nolde Ne + woldon = noldon Hie noldon cuman (They didnt want to come). 3. Double negation. Hie en druncon nan waeter (They didnt drink water). b) Middle English : 2 periods: - Early Middle English : 1. en, na, no + verb. 2. Enclitic forms. 3. Double negation. 35 - Late Middle English : one main strategy (negative particle not after the verb). We still had double negation although it was seen as colloquial and then considered ungrammatical by grammarians. Dummy do was introduced in Early Modern English (16 th c). Standardisation in the 17 th c. c) PDE : 2 main types of negative sentences. 1. Semantically negative sentences : negative in meaning but declarative affirmative in syntax = the verb is not negated. I found nothing. 2. Semantically and syntactically negative : negative in meaning + declarative negative in syntax. I didnt/did not find anything (use of dummy do to negate the verb). The negative adverb NOT 2 forms - Strong NOT. - Weak NT (attached to the verb). Examples in which the addition of nt produces phonetic change in the form of the verb. - Must - mustnt /mst/ - /mstnt/ - Do - dont /du:/ - /dunt/,/dDnt/ Verbs with several possibilities for the weak form of negation (nt ) Can not I can not go (the not affects the VP, not the AuxP). - Can Cant/Cannot I cant/cannot go (the nt affects the AuxP and negates the whole sentence). Subject + verb contracted: Im not, Youre not, Hes not... - Be Verb + not contracted: *I amnt, You arent, He isnt... Aint colloquial form 36 The structure of negation Rule: To transform a declarative affirmative into a declarative negative, we place the negative not after the first auxiliary. Ex. He could NOT sing // Mary has NOT won a prize // Peter could NOT have written the essay // The car may NOT have been being sold for months. In case we have no auxiliary, we make us of dummy do because it is expletive, ie, it has no meaning. Ex. Sarah cooks every Sunday (+) Sarah does cook every Sunday (+++) Sarah does not cook every Sunday (-) ---- They arrived early (+) They did arrive early (+++) They did not arrive early (-) # Exception: Be is syntactically exceptional. Even when it is a main verb, it cannot take dummy do [it can only take dummy do in imperatives]. Attributive: John is NOT Marys friend. Be as a main verb can be Locative: The milk is NOT in the fridge. Exceptions to the general rule of placing not after the first auxiliary a) Short questions and answers : - Why not? - A: Will John come back tomorrow? B: I think/hope/expect not ~ traces of ME. - A: Who accompanied Sarah? B: Not me ~ accusative case. b) Negated constituent preposing : Fronting/Topicalisation of a negated constituent. It triggers inversion. + NOT + Direct Object Not one single book could he buy in the bookshop. + NOT + Indirect Object Not to Mary did Peter write the email. + NOT + Adjunct Not for all the money would John sell his house. + NOT + Clause [the clause has to precede by only or even] Not only did the thief break the window but also stole the jewels // Not even have they tried to be polite. + It also applies in semantically negated sentences Never has my sister been like this // Hardly a soul could we see in the street. 37 Partial inversin because it is auxiliary + subject (full inversin when main verb + subject) + NOT + Subject, there is no inversion. This occurs when the subject fulfils one of the following conditions: 1. The subject is an indefinite pronoun or contains an indefinite quantifier: Not everybody attended the lecture. Not many students attended the lecture. 2. The subject is preceded by only or even: Not only Mary arrived early only the subject (vs. Not only did Mary arrived early but she chose the best place the whole prepose) c) Not in medial position : - In front of an NP, when we are contrasting 2 objects [=semantically, syntactically]: George married an architect not a doctor (affirmative, NOT + NP). George didnt Marry a doctor but an architect (negative, BUT + NP). - NOT in front of an AP. In this case, the case of the AP must be modified by something else. *The not popular man The not unpopular man was welcomed by everybody The not so rich attended the party. - NOT in front of a to-infinitive clause. They wanted [NOT to go] They didnt want [to go] John seemed [NOT to be tired] John didnt seem [to be tired] --------------- - The neighbours obliged Mary [NOT to sell the flat] - The neighbours didnt oblige Mary [to sell the flat] The children promised [NOT to arrive late] The children didnt promise [to arrive late] Double negation In OE, it was possible and very usual. Ex. He ne druncon nn water. In ME, usual until LME. Later, it was seen as colloquial, and then, as ungrammatical. In PDE, it is ungrammatical. Ex. *They didnt drink no water. Contexts in which we can have 2 NOTs in the same sentence: 1) Complex sentences (2 clauses). 2) One clause, but with a modal verb that is special in relation to negation: <must> and <can>. 38 Negative raising verbs: those verbs that do not change the meaning of the sentence when we move NOT from the to-infinitive to the main clause Not negative raising verbs 3) One clause, but with an adverb of volition (intention, wish, desire...): intentionally, willingly, deliberately... ----------- 1) Complex sentences (2 clauses). - Sarah wants [to go] = Sarah wants not to go = = Sarah doesnt want to go. Sarah doesnt want [not to go] = Sarah doesnt want [to stay] = Sarah wants [to go] ~ not usual as speakers prefer to speak in the affirmative. - George seems to be tired = George seems not to be tired. = = George doesnt seem to be tired. George doesnt seem [not to be tired] = George doesnt seem [to be fresh] = George seems [to be tired]. - The librarian promised to lend the book The librarian didnt promise to lend the book The librarian promised not to lend the book The librarian didnt promise [not to lend the book]. * <Promise> like <oblige> are not negative raising verbs, as the meaning changes. Negative raising verbs fulfilling 2 characteristics: a. If we raise the NOT from the subordinate clause to the main clause, there is no change in meaning. Ex. He doesnt seem to be tired = He seems not to be tired. b. When we have double negation, double negation means the same as the affirmative. 2) One clause, but with a modal verb that is special in relation to negation: <must> and <can>. Must is exception because, from the semantic point of view, it is never negated. Charlie must go Charlie mustnt/must not go Charlie must stay (we are not negating <must> but <go>). Must [not go] must not/mustnt [not go] = must go Charlie mustnt [not go] = Charlie mustnt [stay] = Charlie must go. 39 Can Not Jim can not go He has the possibility of not going. Nt Jim cannot/cant go no possibility to go. Jim cant [not go] = Jim cant [stay] = Jim must go. Example Jane Eyre: Jane can not marry. Jane cant/mustnt marry. Jane cant/mustnt not marry = Jane must marry. 3) One clause, but with an adverb of volition (intention, wish, desire...): intentionally, willingly, deliberately... The gardener has killed the plant: - Intentionally, the gardener has killed the plant. - The gardener has killed the plant, intentionally. - The gardener intentionally has killed the plant. - The gardener has intentionally killed the plant. The gardener hasnt killed the plant: - The gardener hasnt killed the plant, intentionally. - The gardener hasnt intentionally killed the plant. # Adverb of volition after negation, we are negating the adverb and not the verb. - The gardener intentionally hasnt killed the plant. - Intentionally, the gardener hasnt killed the plant. # We are negating the action the plant is alive. The gardener hasnt intentionally not killed the plant He has the intention to kill the plant but he wasnt able to. 40 - Can not verb = can reverse verb or not Sarah can not go = Sarah can stay or not. - Cant verb / Mustnt verb = must reverse verb. Rose cant/mustnt leave = Rose must stay. - Mustnt not / Cant not verb = Must verb. Charlie cant/mustnt stay/not go = Charlie must go. No change in meaning.
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