Steps to Reform: Foreign Language Education 1

Steps to Reform: United States Foreign Language Education vs. Foreign Language Education in Other Countries Jacklin Luciano Stony Brook ID # 105037158 CED 595: Section #33 Stony Brook University

Steps to Reform: Foreign Language Education 2 Table of Contents INTRODUCTION...4 EARLY FOREIGN LANGUAGE EDUCATION A Late Start: Less Time for Fluency6 Early Foreign Language Education Abroad6 Attempts at Early Foreign Language in the U.S......8 Considering Time and Money...10 FRAMEWORKS AND LEADERSHIP Seeking a Stronger Framework and More Leadership in the U.S.11 Strong Framework and Leadership Abroad...13 TEACHER PREPARATION Preparing Teachers in the U.S...14 Teacher Preparation in Other Countries16 TEACHING METHODOLOGY Teaching Strategies in the U.S...17 Teaching Approaches Abroad19 ASSESSMENTS Assessment in the U.S22 Assessment Abroad....24 CONFLICTS.24 Foreign Language Appreciation vs. Funding.25 English is Enough?........................................................................................................................26 The Fifth Subject....28

Steps to Reform: Foreign Language Education 3 CONCLUSION..28 REFERENCES..30

Steps to Reform: Foreign Language Education 4 Steps to Reform: United States Foreign Language Education vs. Foreign Language Education in Other Countries INTRODUCTION As part of the initiative to encourage and support the realization of case studies related to pedagogy during Bill Clintons presidency, the US Department of Education formed the Working Group #4. The group found that international comparisons are essential for United States leaders who are concerned with improving schools in their country. During the process, early childhood education and foreign language education were recognized as policy priorities for the U.S. As a result the Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL) was asked to investigate foreign language education around the world through interviews with foreign language educators abroad and comparative studies on this particular topic. The general objective of this study was to find approaches to education or policies that could help to improve foreign language education in the United States. The authors of the report, Foreign Language Teaching: What the United States Can Learn from Other Countries, embarked on a 3-month investigation where they interviewed twenty-two language teachers from 19 countries (Australia, Austria, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Italy, Israel, Kazakhstan, Luxembourg, Morocco, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Peru, Spain, and Thailand.) In addition, the authors reviewed comparative education reports relating to language education in China, England, and Hong Kong. Based on their findings, the investigators concluded that to improve foreign language education the US needed to: 1) start language education earlier, 2) make a greater effort to learn from the other countries successes, 3) carry out long-term studies on foreign language education, 4) provide stronger leadership on the federal level, 5) research the ways technology

Steps to Reform: Foreign Language Education 5 can improve language instruction, 6) offer high quality education for foreign language teachers, 7) create suitable and effective language assessment instruments, 8) treat foreign language as a core subject, and 9) take advantage of the sociolinguistic context in the U.S., encouraging the learning of languages spoken by the many immigrants and refugees that live in the country. Despite the fact that Americans live in a cultural melting pot, there seems to be a decline in foreign language education in the United States that can be connected to a delay in the proficiency levels foreign language educators observe in their students. However, as seen from the 2000 CAL report, as Americans struggle in this area other countries are exhibiting greater success with their approaches to foreign language instruction. Since this study, conducted over ten years ago, the foreign language programs in the United States have undoubtedly experienced some beneficial reforms. However they still lack the support, strength and consistency necessary to achieve the same success and longevity observed in other countries. How is it that over ten years later, the United States educational system as a whole is still falling short in the area of foreign language? What suggestions from the 2000 report have we yet to follow and what has prevented us from heeding this advice? By analyzing the current state of foreign language education in the United States and comparing it to foreign language instruction in other countries such as Australia, Finland and China, we are presented with five main reasons why foreign language education is stronger abroad: 1) early language education, 2) strong education frameworks and leadership, 3) better teacher education, 4) greater and more effective use of teaching strategies and technology, and 5) appropriate language assessments. The objective of this research paper is to explore these reasons in detail and discuss what the United States can do to continue reforming their foreign language programs, while considering some of the obstacles they will have to overcome to do so.

Steps to Reform: Foreign Language Education 6 This research is significant, as it offers school administrators and teachers in the United States an opportunity to analyze their current approaches to foreign language education and may help them in making the changes necessary to strengthen their current programs. Furthermore, as schools face economic hardships, they are forced to make program cuts that may result in fewer and/or weaker foreign language courses. Seeing how other countries value and approach foreign language education can possibly save foreign language programs here in the United States. EARLY FOREIGN LANGUAGE EDUCATION A Late Start: Less Time for Fluency In his book Brave New Digital Classroom: Technology and foreign Language Learning, Robert J. Blake explains, it takes more than 600 hours to acquire even a minimal level of fluency in a Romance languagemore time than students spend in foreign language classrooms in any but the most intensive programs (As cited in Becher, 2009, p. 522). In the average American school, during the 180-day school year, language instruction is limited to 40 minutes to one hour per day. This means that students are only exposed to the target language for about 120 to 180 hours per school year, and this is only if students attend classes every single day and are not taken away from classes for assemblies, music lessons, guidance appointments, state testing, etc. Therefore, the average American student would need 3 to 5 years just to achieve a minimal level of fluency in their language. With that said, how could schools expect their students to have mastered another language by the time they graduate high school if they are only beginning in 7th or 8th grade? Early Foreign Language Education Abroad The 2000 CAL report explains that in many countries, foreign language education begins early in learners lives. Schools introduce language learning in preschool and elementary school

Steps to Reform: Foreign Language Education 7 to encourage higher levels of language proficiency in multiple languages (Pufahl et al., 2000, p. 7). For example, seven of the 19 countries studied have compulsory education in additional languages by the time students reach grade three, and another eight countries begin foreign language instruction during the later part of elementary school (Pufahl et al., 2000, p. 7). Luxembourg is a good example of how some other countries are promoting foreign language instruction earlier and encouraging students to learn more languages. Since many languages are spoken in Luxembourg, it is expected for students to be proficient in at least three languages. For students who are not proficient in Luxembourgish, schools offer one to two years of preschool where the language is taught through immersion techniques. In first grade students are introduced to the German language through literacy. When they move on to second grade they are then introduced to spoken French and later to written French in the third grade. German and French education is continued third grade through sixth grade. During these grades, six to eight hours per week are dedicated to learning German and French, whereas only one hour a week is dedicated to spoken Luxembourgish (Pufahl et al., 2000, p. 8). Canada is another country that begins foreign language education early and that dedicates much time to this area. In Canada, the grade levels where foreign language learning begins depends on the province and the type of programs offered at each school. For instance, in Ontario students who do not speak French begin learning the language in fourth grade. The language is taught as a school subject for several hours each week for at least 600 hours per year. Returning to Robert Blakes argument that it takes more than 600 hours to reach a minimal level of fluency in the target language, it appears that this is a better approach to ensure that students are truly proficient in a language by the time they complete secondary school. In addition to early education, Canadian schools offer French immersion education as another option to their

Steps to Reform: Foreign Language Education 8 elementary students. In this program, young French language learners are exposed to the language for a minimum of 3,800 hours per school year. Extended French, a less intensive immersion program, is another option for elementary and secondary students. In this program, students are immersed in French for a minimum of 1,260 hours per year but English is also used for some instruction (Pufahl et al., 2000, p. 8). Attempts at Early Foreign Language in the U.S. In the last few decades, the United States has seen some increase in early foreign language programs. Programs such as FLES (Foreign Language in Elementary Schools) have helped to jumpstart foreign language learning in some school districts. In the 1960s FLES programs received substantial support from the public and government. However, a decade later, that support declined as the educational priorities of the country changed. As a result many FLES programs were discontinued. In the 1980s, as the United States once again began to place more importance on foreign language proficiency, FLES programs regained popularity. Since this revival, FLES programs have undergone some changes. FLES now emphasizes developing listening and speaking skills and cultural awareness rather than focusing primarily on grammar (Reeves, 1989, p. 2). As Jane Reeves (1989) explains in her article, Elementary School Foreign Language Programs, FLES programs follow the natural sequence of language learning: understanding > speaking > reading > writingThe primary stress is on understanding and speaking (p. 2). FLES teachers do this by utilizing age appropriate teaching techniques that focus on physical activity and concrete experiences (Reeves, 1989, p. 2). The grade level at which students begin participating in the FLES program varies from kindergarten to fourth grade. Classes will typically meet two to five times per week for 20 to 40 minute periods, depending on the school.

Steps to Reform: Foreign Language Education 9 Over the years the FLES program has expanded to a content-based, or content-enriched program. Jane Reeves explains that in Content-Based FLES subject content from the regular school curriculum is taught in the foreign language, thus the focus is not on (explicit) language instruction alone. In this kind of FLES program teachers incorporate content learning with language learning through activities that focus on common content areas such as math, science, and social studies (Reeves, 1989, p. 3). This type of program is a practical approach to foreign language instruction as it increases exposure to the target language while still allotting necessary time for the instruction of other important subjects. In addition, Content-Based FLES helps to facilitate the development of higher cognitive skills while offering students the opportunity for greater proficiency in another language. Despite the benefits of the FLES program, there is still a significant number of schools that are not participating in early language instruction. The Center for Applied Linguistics has assembled The National Directory of Early Foreign Language Programs, which is a national database of public and private elementary, and middle schools that offer language instruction before seventh grade in the United States. Although it is not a comprehensive list of schools that participate in FLES programs, it is the most ample list available to the public. The directory provides the names of approximately 1,500 early language programs in the U.S. and District of Columbia. There are also separate directories for immersion programs. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, in 2009-2010 it was documented that there were 67,140 public elementary schools and approximately 21,425 private elementary schools. That means that the 1,500 schools listed in the CAL directory are offered in less than 1.7% of American schools. Even if we consider that this list is not complete and does not include immersion programs, the

Steps to Reform: Foreign Language Education 10 number of schools participating in early language could not be anywhere near the 50% mark, a goal that would bring the U.S. closer to making foreign language education a national priority. Furthermore, as schools are faced with economic hardships and have to make difficult decisions to meet the requirements of national educations acts, programs like FLES are at risk of being eliminated. In the article Valuing Foreign Language Study, Catherine Whitehead (2010) acknowledges the importance and benefits of multilingualism and notes its connection to those looking to advance in the age of information. She discusses the inclusion of foreign language competency as part of the U.S.s National Education Goals 2000, and says that although the country has seen an increase in foreign language course enrollment at the university level from 2002 to 2006, foreign language study in grades K-12 has decreased for the most part. The Center for Applied Linguistics has attributed this decline to the No Child Left Behind Act. Because of the Act it is common for students in urban schools to have fewer elective options, or no electives at all if they score poorly on exams for core subjects and must take courses that focus on basic skills. However, Whitehead brings up the point that foreign language study could assist students with building on these basic skills and could help them score higher on standardized exams. Considering Time and Money There is no doubt that time and resources are obstacles for beginning and maintaining early foreign language programs in American schools, but taking baby steps towards programs like FLES may be key for schools who cannot submerge themselves completely. Although European foreign language learning begins early in a students life, it is common that the amount of time devoted to instruction in the target language is less intensive during primary school (Luttrell, 2010). This also occurs in China where A student is exposed to nine years of foreign language education (from the fourth grade of primary school to secondary school), but the

Steps to Reform: Foreign Language Education 11 number of hours of instruction per week increases from primary school to secondary school (Li, 2004, p. 87). It is important that American schools understand this, and that they do not take on an all or nothing attitude when it comes to early language education. Regardless of the amount of time spent on language instruction, it is crucial to begin foreign language teaching from a young age in order to facilitate language fluency (Lutrell, 2010). Even though classes that meet everyday would produce greater results in terms of second language proficiency, schools could start with language instruction for a few days per week for shorter periods of time during the school day, or could offer a FLES program for students after school. For instance, South Korea began offering extracurricular English education to 4th-6th graders several years before making it a mandatory subject for third graders, and even after it became mandatory, English continued to be offered to higher grades in an extracurricular setting (Shim & Baik, 2004, p. 183). Using the Content-Based FLES approach would also save time and resources and tap into the content areas that need to be addressed in order to meet the provisions of the No Child Left Behind Act and become/remain contenders for President Obamas Race to the Top challenge. However, schools would need to invest time into rethinking their curriculums, staffing their classrooms with qualified teachers, and training teachers currently in the classroom. FRAMEWORKS AND LEADERSHIP Seeking a Stronger Framework and More Leadership in the U.S. In the last two decades the United States Department of Education has granted money to organizations researching foreign language education. One of these grants was used to help a task force formed by the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) to create a list of what foreign language students should know and be able to do at various stages of

Steps to Reform: Foreign Language Education 12 their language development. This list was published in 1996 and is known as the Standards for Foreign Language Learning: Preparing for the 21st Century. These standards are used as a starting ground to assist curriculum writers, administrators and teachers in building stronger foreign language programs in American schools. The standards focus on the five Cs of foreign language education: Communication, Cultures, Connections, Comparisons and Communities (American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages [ACTFL], 1996). Although these standards offer a helpful foundation, they may be too vague for U.S. schools. What is more, there is currently no way of assessing how each school in the U.S. has interpreted these standards and whether or not they have the resources to fulfill all of them. In many parts of the U.S. there are also standards at the state level for foreign language education. It is common to see much of what appears in the national standards repeated in state standards. However, standards do vary depending on the state and school. In both the national and state standards for foreign language education, there are no uniform guidelines for when foreign language instruction should begin, how many languages should be taken at the primary or secondary level or what assessments will be used to demonstrate proficiency in the language. Nor is there a standardized requirement to verify how many years of foreign language instruction a student must receive in order to graduate. For example, in New York State it is mandatory that students successfully complete two units of study of Checkpoint A LOTE (unit of study = 180 minutes per week) and must earn one high school credit by the end of ninth grade in order to graduate from high school (New York State Association of Foreign Language Teachers [NYSAFLT], 2012). However, in Minnesota the foreign language requirements proposed by legislation in 2007 did not pass therefore world language standards and graduation requirements are left up to individual schools (National Council for State Supervisors for Languages

Steps to Reform: Foreign Language Education 13 [NCSSFL], 2010). It appears that consistency should be one of the first steps that the U.S. takes in reforming foreign language education. Without a solid framework and uniform set of standards and requirements it becomes difficult to gain the support of school officials, teachers and parents who play an integral role in the implementation of effective foreign language programs. Not only is there a deficiency in the support the government provides for frameworks but there is also a lack of financial backing for research and development. The 2000 CAL report, Foreign Language Teaching: What the United States Can Learn from Other Countries, was conducted after the United States Department of Education designated foreign language education as one of their main policy priorities. However, despite the importance placed on this area of education, not enough time and money has been invested by state and federal agencies to work on strengthening or reforming programs. According to the article Why we need The Year of Languages, Total federal funding for foreign language education was approximately $85 million for 2003, which represents less than one-sixth of 1 percent of the overall Department of Education budget (Cutshall, Allen Over Geld section, 2005). It is baffling to many foreign language educators and supporters of foreign language education that an area deemed as a national priority would receive such little funding. Without an appropriate amount of money, how can the United States begin to make necessary changes? As President Obama stated during a conference regarding education reform at a technology school in Boston, "People started to realize what is needed is not either, or -- not either more money or more reform, it's both and Both more money and more reform" (as cited on Real Clear Politics, 2011). Strong Framework and Leadership Abroad

Steps to Reform: Foreign Language Education 14 In the 2000 CAL report, Pufahl et al. found that the schools they researched put heavy emphasis on policy formulation since it is the policies at the national, regional and local levels that help or hinder the effectiveness of language education (Pufahl et al., 2000, p.17). Based on the report, policies in the other countries appear to place importance on pluralism in the languages offered in schools, early language education, and working on widespread foreign language policies that are consistent and that offer students a better transition from primary school through college. For instance, the National Policy on Languages (NPL), which presents a framework for foreign language education in Australia, has helped develop specific guidelines in each of the eight states/territories of Australia including one that results in the near-universal introduction of languages in primary school (Pufahl et al., 2000, p.17). The Spanish government act (LOGSE) is another example of strong policy and leadership. The act prescribes a core curriculum and precise time allocation with a compulsory timetable in the weekly teaching load. Foreign languages account for between 9% and 11% of contact hours in primary education (Pufahl et al., 2000, p.18). One of the effects of this act is a guarantee that foreign language education will begin early in order to fulfill the minimum time requirement. The specificity of an act like this could help to get American schools on the same page. TEACHER PREPARATION Preparing Teachers in the U.S. In the United States, once a person has decided that he wants to pursue a foreign language teaching career, he will typically enroll in a primary or secondary education program at a four or six-year school majoring in the language(s) of his choosing and taking courses towards an initial teaching certification. The programs vary depending on the university. Some programs may focus heavily on linguistics while others focus on literature and/or culture. In the ideal

Steps to Reform: Foreign Language Education 15 college program a student will focus equally on linguistics and literature, and during their pedagogy coursework will be required to apply what they have learned in their content classes to actual lesson planning. During a students last semester he will then student-teach, meaning he will take on the responsibilities of one or two licensed cooperating teachers who will supervise him during the semester, offering guidance and criticism whenever necessary. While some student teachers find their experiences to be fruitful, many leave the teacher preparation program not feeling fully prepared to begin their careers. A lack of confidence may result from a late start in their own language education, especially for those students who are not native-speakers in the language they aim to teach. They also might find it difficult to transition from their secondary language courses to those at the university level. This problem can be attributed to a lack of policies that would make foreign language education cohesive from primary school to higher education. A student who encounters this problem might have to choose between falling behind in their academic degree or plunging headfirst into the university courses not fully prepared. Even if a student is able to transition effectively they still might find that the colleges program was not well balanced, leaving them insecure in their content knowledge, teaching knowledge or both. However, students are left with little time to sort out these insecurities, as they must delve into their student-teacher responsibilities. Just as the quality of a student teacher varies so does the quality of cooperating teachers and the experience that they will offer those under their tutelage. Also, the amount of freedom given to the student teacher to hone their craft under the cooperating teacher varies. Some student teachers are expected to completely take over the classroom with little guidance from the cooperating teacher. In other instances student teachers

Steps to Reform: Foreign Language Education 16 are micromanaged and are given little room to apply what they have learned so that they can develop as a teacher. Foreign language teaching in the U.S. has evolved over the years. However, not all practicing teachers have been kept up-to-date with the changes. In affluent districts it is normal for teachers to participate in workshops and seminars as part of their professional development. But in high needs districts these opportunities may not come as easy. Therefore, some districts are keeping up with new research and changing methodologies while others continue to use teaching techniques that have been proven to be ineffective. This makes it difficult for state and national standards to be met on a consistent basis from school to school. Teacher Preparation in Other Countries The inadequacies of the teacher preparation programs in the United States are highlighted especially when considering many of the aspects of equivalent programs in other countries. To begin, in countries like Finland, these programs are highly selective and competitive, recruiting from among the best high school students in the country. In addition, the pre-service training that aspiring teachers receive is extremely rigorous compared to what is witnessed in the U.S. For example, in Morocco students study English for four years, spend an entire year studying language teaching methodology, and are given the option to focus on either literature or linguistics for one year. Also, a majority of these teachers obtain masters or doctoral degrees from English speaking countries, so not only do they have the opportunity to experience the target language firsthand but they also are aiming to be experts in their field by continuing their education (Pufahl et al., 2000, p.11). Furthermore, there appears to be a growing trend in study and work abroad programs for European students studying foreign languages. Unlike at universities in the U.S. where these programs are merely offered for aspiring teachers,

Steps to Reform: Foreign Language Education 17 universities abroad highly suggest and may even require their students to take advantage of a semester or year in the target language country. In some countries this opportunity is even extended to practicing teachers as part of in-service training (Pufahl et al., 2000, p.12). In China, teachers of foreign languages have been sent abroad or to special courses within the country for advanced training, in which new teaching methods are taught, foreign textbooks used, and native speakers employed (Li, 2004, p. 87). Germany also provides a more detailed and thorough teacher program for their students, which is divided into two stages. In the first stage students double major in two academic subjects in order to obtain a masters degree. Coursework for those studying a foreign language is divided equally between academic subjects and topics in applied linguistics or teaching. In the second stage students take part in a student-teacher program for 1- years. During this time they are supervised by expert teachers but must also continue their studies in pedagogy and didactics through seminars. In this way, potential teachers in Germany are able to work through insecurities and develop as teachers, while also receiving more consistent and quality support than seen in the United States. At the end of this stage they must take and pass a state exam, which consists of two demonstration lessons, a thesis, and a 2-hour oral exam (Pufahl et al., 2000, p.11). Requirements such as exams and demonstration lessons are also administered in the United States, but not on a consistent basis from university to university and state to state. TEACHING METHODOLOGY Teaching Strategies in the U.S. So if it takes hundreds of hours to acquire a minimal level of fluency in a foreign languagehow can a student who is only exposed to the language for a few minutes a day truly learn another language? We have already discussed the option of earlier language education,

Steps to Reform: Foreign Language Education 18 which is the most obvious remedy for this problem, but what else are schools and teachers abroad doing to facilitate language acquisition? Before examining some of the successful teaching strategies utilized in foreign language classrooms in other countries, it would be helpful to examine some of the approaches and tools currently used in the United States. When asked to recall their foreign language education during their junior and high school years, most Americans have very limited or negative memories of what their experience was like. Some might remember repeating vocabulary word after vocabulary word or conjugating verbs that they were not sure how to use in a meaningful way. Consequently, very few students had the opportunity to carry out complete conversations in the target language nor do they remember much about the culture associated with the language they learned. In general, it appears that the education they received was useless, as most have not retained enough of the language to use in any practical situation. In recent years, there has been somewhat of an attempt to change how foreign language teachers conduct their lessons as current studies have shown that grammar drilling and vocabulary memorization are the wrong way to go. In the article, The wrong and right way to learn a foreign language, linguist Stephen Krashen (2012) states: We do not master languages by hard study and memorization, or by producing it. Rather, we acquire language when we understand what people tell us and what we read, when we get comprehensible input. As we get comprehensible input through listening and reading, we acquire (or absorb) the grammar and vocabulary of the second language (Intro). According to Krashen, research has proven time and time again that students who experience comprehensible input outperform those students who learn by approaches that emphasize

Steps to Reform: Foreign Language Education 19 grammar and vocabulary memorization. They excel on tests since they have internalized the grammar and vocabulary of the language rather than just acquiring it superficially. Furthermore, comprehensible input gives students the chance to hold their own in real communicative situations and even better, it helps students feel comfortable enough with their own skills to go on with foreign language study. Although it is still common to see teachers teach vocabulary and grammar to their students in the same way they did decades ago, national and state standards are encouraging teachers to spice up lessons with culture and topics that are relevant to students lives. Those schools and teachers who are members of foreign language teacher organizations at the national, state and regional level are also obtaining additional tools to utilize in their classrooms. As part of the countless conferences that these organizations put together, teachers are able to attend workshops and seminars on a variety of topics. Typically, the most popular of these workshops has to do with technology training. Teachers may receive training on how to use certain computer programs to manage their classroom, how to use interactive whiteboards to get students out of their seats and become active learners, or even how to use iPods to listen to music in the target language or to record voices as part of oral assessment. However, technology training is not necessarily available to all teachers, and when it is, it is often limited and/or incomplete. Teachers are shown how to use the technology but not how to tie it into the entire learning experience. Teaching Approaches Abroad There is no argument that technology, a tool that makes teaching easier, has brought us closer to the rest of the world. But there is far more to technology than merely using it to have students search for pictures of other countries using Google Images or watch videos of cultural

Steps to Reform: Foreign Language Education 20 celebrations on YouTube. Just like in the U.S., technology is also in classrooms abroad. However, there seems to be some differences in how and when technology is used. Although this topic is relatively new in terms of educational research, the 2000 CAL report included feedback from Canadian, Thai and European language educators that described teachers and their students interacting with educators and learners from the country of their target language. Teachers and their students at all levels of proficiency now interact and collaborate with their peers on shared projects via e-mail, Web sites, and bulletin boards (Pufahl et al., 2000, p.13). In these countries technology serves multiple purposes: 1) it exposes students to authentic materials, 2) it promotes communicative skills, 3) it allows students to practice skills and use tools that they will need after they graduate, and most importantly, 4) it puts students in charge of their own learning, helping them to become autonomous learners. However, like the U.S., not all schools abroad have access to technology in the classroom. Furthermore, a lot more can be said about the teaching strategies that instructors use in their classrooms. As mentioned before, one of the most successful teaching methods has to do with combining language and content learning. In other countries this is done through contentbased instruction or immersion programs. In Content-based instruction the target language is used as a vehicle for teaching non-language subjects to students who have already achieved adequate proficiency in the target language. On the other hand, immersion programs usually begin in elementary school. In this type of program students begin learning almost completely in the target language (Pufahl et al., 2000, p. 14). Communicative language teaching, an instruction method that utilizes interactions among learners and instructors as a medium for teaching the language, is another effective approach to language teaching. Pufahl et al. found that many European countries emphasize communicative

Steps to Reform: Foreign Language Education 21 and intercultural learning and as a result find that it has not only stimulated a productive discussion of teaching objectives, methods, and underlying rationales, which are now reflected in curricula and textbooks, but also resulted in increased oral and written proficiency and fluency for their students (Pufahl et al., 2000, p. 15). The 2000 CAL report also includes a very good example of how communicative learning can help schools succeed despite limited resources: In Peru, a project to teach Spanish to Quechua-speaking children in predominantly rural areas, although generally hampered by a lack of resources and well-trained teachers, is nevertheless successful: All children, regardless of grade or proficiency level, are exposed to Spanish through communicative activities. Such activities may include games and songs that reflect the cultural environment of the children at the beginning of the school year. As the year progresses, these activities gradually include experiences and cultural referents beyond the rural environment (Pufahl et al., 2000, p.16). Another strategy has been to utilize the connection between a students first and second language, which recent research has show to be significant. It has been argued that a students first language is his foundation for learning a second language. Thus, creating programs that build on a students mother tongue is a necessary step for ensuring his achievement in another language. Some other important strategies used abroad include modular teaching and projectoriented learning. Following the modular teaching approach, students are not grouped by grade but rather by proficiency level. In this setting the individual needs of each student are considered, which allows teachers to plan and adapt lessons accordingly. The main advantage of this approach is that students do not feel rushed to comprehend the material or discouraged if they do not. Instead each student is allowed to develop at his own pace, which in turn produces a

Steps to Reform: Foreign Language Education 22 confident learner. In project-oriented learning, students access authentic materials, using technology to conduct research and complete projects based on the culture of the target country. Here we see that students are using all language skills (reading, writing, listening and speaking), they are utilizing technology, reinforcing research skills that will be necessary for college, and they are also reaching outside of their classroom to learn more about another world. This is a prime example of how teachers can link together many aspects of foreign language education to create a more meaningful learning experience. ASSESSMENTS Assessment in the U.S. National, state and local assessments have always been widely debated topics in the United States, especially when it comes to core subjects such as English Language Arts and Mathematics. There are always the questions of how and when students should be assessed on what they have learned. States, administrators, teachers and parents all have different answers to these questions. There is no argument that students skills must be evaluated at some point in their academic career, however, opinion changes when we think about whether standardized testing is the answer and how often students should be assessed. In addition, standardized exams are often criticized for the time they take away from profound learning. In his book, The Case Against Standardized Testing: Raising the Scores, Ruining the Schools, author Alfie Kohn (2000) argues: high scores often signify relatively superficial thinking many of the leading tests were never intended to measure teaching or learning a school that improves its test results may well have lowered its standards to do so

Steps to Reform: Foreign Language Education 23 far from helping to "close the gap," the use of standardized testing is most damaging for low-income and minority students as much as 90 percent of the variations in test scores among schools or states have nothing to do with the quality of instruction far more meaningful measures of student learning - or school quality - are available (Book flap). What is more, standardized tests may not be a perfect fit for assessing foreign language proficiency. Learning a language takes a lot of time and as a result there are many parts to demonstrating fluency. It is hard to believe that a few hours in a testing room will be able to prove whether or not a student has become a proficient speaker who can successfully maneuver his way through a variety of social situations. For example, up until the 2009-2010 school year, checkpoint A students in New York State (those students who took one to two years of a foreign language) would take a state proficiency exam consisting of four sections: speaking, listening, reading and writing. Initially, this might seem like an adequate test, but upon closer inspection we see that there are only 20 listening comprehension questions, and 10 very short reading questions. In addition, teachers grade their own students speaking and writing sections using a very vague rubric. It is not uncommon for students who exhibit little fluency during class time to pass this exam. The same issues occurred with the New York Regents Exams for foreign languages, which was discontinued by the state board of education in June 2011 in order for the state to save money. The discontinuation of these examinations, or the lack of testing altogether for minority languages that do not have state assessments, leaves room for states to experiment with assessment. However, it still has taken a long time for many schools to get the ball rolling. Some

Steps to Reform: Foreign Language Education 24 districts offer training for teachers to work on developing their own summative assessments (quizzes, exams, and projects) and formative assessments (exit tickets, graphic organizers, peer and self assessment, etc.). Formative assessment has proven to be one of the most effective forms of assessment as it gives teachers a way to check, help and correct students as they develop a specific skill, instead of afterwards. In addition, we have seen some move to project-based assessment where students have the opportunity to demonstrate what they do know rather than what they do not know. These are definitely steps in the right direction; however, these assessments are not being implemented as well as they could be. Assessment Abroad According to the 2000 CAL report, many respondents reported that practically all assessment of students foreign language skills occur within courses, where teachers are the ones who determine grades or credit. For the most part, the only standardized exams that exist for this content area are school-leaving examinations which take place at the end of a students high school career (Pufahl et al., 2000, p. 18). In Holland, for example, students take a nationally developed examination either at the end of 10th or 12th grade, depending on their course stream and in both examinations, the results account for 50% of the final grade (Pufahl et al., 2000, p. 19). China also offers an excellent example of language assessment, having developed the Matriculation English Test (MET), which tests not only grammar and lexis but also their use, thus leading to a decrease of rote memorization in English learning practice (Pufahl et al., 2000, p19). CONFLICTS After all is said and done, the commitment of other countries to foreign language education has made their programs more successful. So what is stopping the U.S? What are some

Steps to Reform: Foreign Language Education 25 of the issues that the U.S. faces with regards to foreign language education? Aside from a late start for foreign language education we see three main obstacles that prevent this country from improving a foreign language education system that is deficient: 1) budget cuts, 2) the idea that English is enough and 3) the fact that foreign language is not valued as a core subject. Foreign Language Appreciation vs. Funding In recent years opinion has begun to shift to reflect an appreciation for the need to be multilingual. This has been especially evident in the increased need for foreign language experts, following the tragedy of 9/11, to carry out American diplomatic, military, and other endeavors. Barack Obama has stated that it is critical for all American students to have language skills. (MLA Executive Council). Even before him, former President George W. Bush emphasized the importance of the ability to engage foreign governments and peoples, especially in the post 9/11 world Americans must be able to communicate in other languages (Berdan & Weiner, 2011). In addition to increased importance placed on foreign language education by the current and former presidents, this value has also been reflected by increased interest in foreign language study among students, particularly at the university level. Two articles, Foreign Language Programs Under Fire by Valerie Clemens and Education Funding for Foreign Languages Cut by Jason Koebler, describe this recent trend. Both shed light not only on increased interest in foreign language, but a shift in focus to a few languages in particular. In his article Koebler (2012) states: America is seeing growth, however, in Mandarin Chinese, Japanese, and Arabic classeslanguages that have a high economic or national security value. According to a report released last April by ACTFA, the number of K-12 students taking Chinese classes tripled between the 2004-2005 school year and

Steps to Reform: Foreign Language Education 26 2007-2008, while the number of students taking Japanese increased 17 percent. Only 10 states reported enrollment numbers for Arabic, but the 2,300 students represented a 172 percent increase over 2004-2005 numbers (2012). In her article, Clemens discusses two reports that echo increased interest in Chinese and Arabic in higher education, along with Korean and American Sign Language (2011). Despite the positive signs of an acknowledgement of the need for foreign language education at the presidential level, and interest in foreign language study at the student level, numerous reports and articles in recent years have detailed the disproportionately massive cuts to language funding as a result of the need for budget cuts across the board, from the governmental to the district level. For example, recently the Medford Public Schools in Massachusetts proposed to cut their middle school foreign language program. This would delay foreign language until 9th grade (Bencks, 2012). Unfortunately, this is an issue that is becoming more common as local funding is cut and schools must rely heavily on state and federal funding. English is Enough? In September 2008, the House of Representatives, Committee on Armed Services and Investigations Subcommittee met to discuss the U.S. Department of Defense's work with states, universities and students to transform the country's foreign language capacity. During this meeting the chairman said something that alludes to the learned helplessness that some Americans might feel with regards to foreign language learning: we certainly learned this last decadethat we need foreign language skills and cultural awareness to achieve our national security objectives, and we expect the DOD [Department of Defense] to be able to meet those needs. However, they have inherited a national problem, and you all as well, better than anyone else,

Steps to Reform: Foreign Language Education 27 knows that we Americans are not very good at foreign languages (Department of Defense [DOD], 2008, p. 1). It is true that Americans are behind other countries in this area of education, but why has this become a problem in the first place? Has xenoglossophobia (fear of foreign languages) threatened language programs in this country? Do Americans feel that English is enough? More often than not, foreign language teachers in the U.S. will hear students say, But Im just not good at foreign languages or Why cant everyone else just learn to speak English? In the document English is Not Enough, Catherine Porter (2010) discusses the misconceptions of foreign language education in the U.S. Porter addresses the American belief that it's just too hard to learn a second language (p. 1). She connects this idea to a limited foreign language education system that begins late in learners lives and that does not provide teachers with the opportunity to expand on their own language skills. In addition, foreign language articulation from high school to college is often chaotic and/or inconsistent, leaving students with a negative perception of foreign language study. Porter says as a result of these faults in the foreign language education system, the U.S. is left with large numbers of adult citizens who have never tried to learn another language or who see themselves as having tried and failed (Porter, 2010, p. 1). She relates this feeling to the reason why Americans are reluctant to make foreign language study a priority in public schools. Porter focuses on the importance of beginning foreign education earlier and points out, Although it is never too late to begin or resume foreign-language studythe children in our society must depend on uson

Steps to Reform: Foreign Language Education 28 school boards, state legislatures, federal agencies, educational organizationsto create contexts in which foreign-language learning can and will occur (Porter, 2010, p. 2). All in all, it is becoming more evident that in this increasingly global economy, English is losing some of its premiere status as the worlds go-to language. Furthermore, the lack of emphasis on foreign language education, by government and public alike, needs to be addressed, especially since these attitudes do play a role in school and government policy decisions. The Fifth Subject According to the 2000 CAL report, one of the most influential policies with respect to foreign language learning is the status of languages within the school curriculum (Pufahl et al., 2000, p. 18). In countries like Germany, foreign language courses hold the same importance as mathematics, reading, writing and social studies. In addition, the countrys universities require that students have a background in two foreign languages upon enrolling (Pufahl et al., 2000, p. 18). For years, Americans have thought of the core subjects solely as English, math, science and social studies. What is more, as we see an increase in education acts such as No Child Left Behind, we see more emphasis placed on reading and math and less on other areas such as foreign language. As previously discussed, public perception and budget issues have also been contributors to a demotion of foreign language to the status of a fifth subject. CONCLUSION At the start of 2012, an opinion poll administered in the UK on attitudes towards languages found: almost three in four (72%) of people in the UK think everyone in the EU should be able to speak one other language besides their mother tongue. But just

Steps to Reform: Foreign Language Education 29 over a third (39%) can actually have a conversation in a foreign language[putting] the UK close to the bottom of an EU table on languages, with only Hungary and Italy below (35% and 38% respectively) (Kershaw, 2012). This shows that there are countries abroad that are also in need of improvement. However, the UK has used these results to reform and improve their foreign language programs, including plans to begin a compulsory early language program beginning at age seven by September 2014. It is astonishing that the UK has reacted so quickly to this survey whereas in some areas of the U.S., officials are still having trouble accepting the findings of a study conducted in 2000. As we have seen in this paper, the decline in foreign language education has to do with a shortage of early language programs, a lack of strong educational frameworks and leadership, limited teacher education, a need for greater and more effective uses of teaching strategies and technology, as well as appropriate language assessments. In addition we have seen the obstacles that Americans will have to overcome if they want to make foreign language education a priority in their schools. This is a necessary step towards distancing ourselves from the ethnocentric English only perspective that hinders our competitiveness in a globalized world.

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