Institute for English Business Communication Univ.-Prof. Dr. Richard J.

Alexander, MA

UNDP MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS ON EDUCATION AND POVERTY IN SOUTH SUDAN The plan on the big scale and realization on the small scale on the practical example of the big contributions made by a small NGO (Miakwadang) SS 2012 Andreas Achleitner 0852297
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WIRTSCHAFTSUNIVERSITT WIEN
Vienna University of Economics and Business

Bachelor Thesis

English title of the Bachelor Thesis

UNDP Millennium Development Goals on Education and Poverty in South Sudan

German title of the Bachelor Thesis

Die UNDP Millennium Development Goals im punkto Bildung und Armut im Sdsudan

Author last name, first name(s) Student ID number

Achleitner, Andreas

0852297

Degree program

Bachelor's Program in Business, Economics and Social Sciences (Code nr. J 033 561) Major in International Business Administration

Examiner degree, first name(s), last name

Univ.-Prof. Dr. Richard J. Alexander, MA

I hereby declare that 1. I have written this Bachelor thesis independently and without the aid of unfair or unauthorized resources. Whenever content was taken directly or indirectly from other sources, this has been indicated and the source referenced. this Bachelor thesis has neither previously been presented for assessment, nor has it been published. this Bachelor thesis is identical with the assessed thesis and the thesis which has been submitted in electronic form. (only applicable if the thesis was written by more than one author): this Bachelor thesis was written together with first name(s), last name(s). The individual contributions of each writer as well as the co-written passages have been indicated.

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Date

26 June, 2012

Table of Content:

1. Introduction ....................................................................................... 1 1.1. 1.2. 2.1. Aim of the paper .................................................................... 1 Structure of the paper ............................................................ 2 Miakwadang & Project Environment ...................................... 3 2.1.1.1. 2.1.1.2. 2.1.1.3. 2.1.2.1. 2.1.2.2. 2.1.2.3. 2.1.3.1. 2.1.3.2. 2.1.3.3. 2.2. History and project team of Miakwadang .............. 3 Principles and ideals.............................................. 4 Personal affiliation with Miakwadang..................... 5 Brief country history ............................................... 6 Geography and demographics .............................. 8 Nature and resources ............................................ 9 Role of the UNDP in South Sudan ...................... 11 Millennium Development Goals (MDG) in South Sudan .................................................................. 12 Criticism of MDG and UN .................................... 12 Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger ................... 14

2. Main Part .......................................................................................... 3 2.1.1. Miakwadang an Austrian-Sudanese NGO .................... 3

2.1.2. South Sudan..................................................................... 6

2.1.3. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) ........ 10

2.2.1. Status quo in South Sudan............................................. 14 2.2.2. The governments approach to fight poverty .................. 16 2.2.2.1. 2.2.2.2. 2.2.3.1. 2.2.3.2. 2.2.3.3. 2.3. What are social cash transfers? .......................... 17 South Sudans social cash transfer model .......... 17 The role of small NGOs ....................................... 20 Microfinance against poverty ............................... 21 Why microfinance is better than social cash transfers ............................................................................. 22 Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education ...................... 26 2.3.1. Educational Status quo in South Sudan ......................... 26 2.3.2. Remaining challenges .................................................... 27

2.2.3. Problem-solving approach by Miakwadang.................... 19

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2.3.2.1. 2.3.2.2. 2.3.2.3. 2.3.2.4. 2.3.2.5. 2.3.2.6. 2.3.3.1. 2.3.3.2.

Vast demand for efficient education force ........... 28 Lack of teacher payment and career development system ................................................................. 29 Establishment of comprehensive teacher training program ............................................................... 29 Gender disparities ............................................... 30 Need for permanent classrooms ......................... 32 Lack of uniform textbooks.................................... 33 Accomplishments up to date ............................... 34 Educational visions .............................................. 35

2.3.3. Problem-solving approach by Miakwadang.................... 34

3. Conclusion ...................................................................................... 37 4. Glossary ......................................................................................... 38 5. Bibliography .................................................................................... 44

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Table of Figures:

Figure 1: Percentage of people living on less than $1.25 a day, worldwide 1990 and 2005. ....................................................................... 15 Figure 2: Number of primary school teachers and pupil-teacher ratio ...... 28 Figure 3: Untrained and undertrained teachers (% of all) in primary school ........................................................................................................ 30 Figure 4: Countries ranking on the Gender Parity Index (GPI), most recent years............................................................................................... 31 Figure 5: Primary school classroom by type of construction ..................... 32 Figure 6: Number of pupils per Math textbook by state, 2010. ................. 33

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1. Introduction
Give a South Sudanese money and you will feed him for the day, show him how to earn money and you will feed him and his family for a lifetime. (Dr. Bronnenmayer, 2012)

Decades of civil war have left the newly founded country of South Sudan one of the poorest nations in the whole wide world. The South Sudanese face extreme poverty and hunger, they lack education and healthcare and the environment is in great need of protection. In order to provide guidance for a way out of this miserable situation, the United Nations came into play and set the framework for a comprehensive development of the country; they introduced the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). At the same time, foreign and local NGOs have been making small but crucial contributions towards promoting peace and growth in South Sudan. However, all this foreign aid is worth little to nothing if it is done the wrong way. Hence, it is extremely important to take the long-term prospects into account and to focus on a sustainable development approach that is essentially carried out by South Sudanese people. We do not want to feed the people of South Sudan only for a day, but for a whole lifetime!

1.1. Aim of the paper This paper has a dual objective. On the one hand, it seeks to analyze the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in South Sudan. For the sake of brevity and clarity, only the first two MDGs, namely the reduction of extreme poverty and hunger as well as the achievement of universal primary education, are under close scrutiny. On the other hand, this paper also takes the practical view on the small scale into account by analyzing how Miakwadang, an Austrian-Sudanese NGO, deals with the issues of poverty and education. A considerable amount of research on poverty reduction and education in South Sudan has been conducted by the United Nations and related organizations. However, very little critical literature about the effectiveness of

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the MDGs for poverty reduction and education is available. For this reason, many of the critical parts of this paper are based on experiences and opinions of South Sudan experts, collected in the form of personal, telephone and email interviews.

1.2. Structure of the paper This paper is structured into three main sections. The first section consists of an introduction to the operations of the NGO Miakwadang and to the country in general in order to give you a better understanding about the critical situation and challenges Miakwadang along with the country of South Sudan is concerned with. Furthermore, the UN Millennium Development Goals will be discussed. The second section focuses on the first Millennium Development Goal in South Sudan, the reduction of poverty and hunger. Firstly, the governments and UNs measures to accomplish this goal will be discussed, secondly, an alternative approach by Miakwadang will be analyzed. Last but not least, the third section of the paper explains the second Millennium Development Goal, which concerns education in South Sudan. As in the previous paragraph, first the governments and UNs, second, Miakwadangs contributions to improving the educational situation in South Sudan shall be taken under closer scrutiny.

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2. Main Part 2.1. Miakwadang & Project Environment

In this section of the paper we shall be concerned with providing an introduction to the surroundings of the treated topic. First, the NGO this paper often refers to will be introduced, along with a quick NGO history, the project team, the principles and a little excursus into my personal affiliation with the NGO. The second part of this section will deal about the country South Sudan, including a brief historical and geographical part as well as information about the nature and resources of South Sudan. In the third part of this introduction we will discuss the UN Millennium Development Goals in South Sudan, the role of the United Nations Development Program and the UN Millennium declaration.

2.1.1. Miakwadang an Austrian-Sudanese NGO 2.1.1.1. History and project team of Miakwadang Miakwadang is a word in the language of the Dinka and means future. The Dinka are an ethnic group and constitute the largest tribe in South Sudan with about 1.5 million people (Dinka people). The very roots of Miakwadang date back to the year 1978, when Dr. Herbert Bronnenmayer was engaged in a primary health care project in Melut, Southern Sudan. After five years of passionate work he was forced to leave the country because of reverting civil conflicts. More than 20 years later in 2007, he was finally able to establish contact with the Sudanese again, which led to the establishment of Miakwadang Sudan as a national NGO for integrated village-based development aid. At the same time, Miakwadang Austria was launched as a sister organization to Miakwadang Sudan. By 2008, Miakwadang was also represented in America by the Canadian organization Devxchange. With the incorporation of Miakwadang Romania in 2009, Miakwadang was able to extend its ties again. The Austrian part of the NGO is run by Dr. Herbert

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Bronnenmayer, who co-founded the project together with Mary Akuot Ruun, chairwoman of Miakwadang Sudan. (Miakwadang: ber uns)

2.1.1.2. Principles and ideals Miakwadang addresses the realization of development aid on a person-toperson, heart-to-heart approach. A high premium is hereby put on mutual respect and acceptance of local culture, traditions, customs and habits (Grain for Pain: About us). It emphasizes empowering and enabling local people from the village to guide and carry out the projects with a high degree of independence. Miakwadang is offering assistance by providing know-how and material support, but only as far as reasonable and needed (Final report 2008). It has always been considered highly crucial to work together with the people and support them in everything they are trying to accomplish but not to work for or instead of them. Furthermore, pursuance of the Millennium Development Goals by the United Nations Development Program (explained in more detail in section 2.1.3.) is of high importance. Miakwadang has developed models that can be applied by the villages in the Melut and Northern Nile regions in order to promote growth and raise the standard of living. These models are comprised of the five domains of Miakwadang:
1. Agriculture: Because of the twenty-two years of war during which agriculture halted, there are many people who dont know how to grow fruits, vegetables or cereals. Miakwadang is bringing teams to show people how an efficient and healthy agriculture is developed. 2. Medical: Health care is almost nonexistent. Tropical diseases, severe malnutrition, lack of vaccines and tribal practices are the reasons why in Sudan one in five children do not reach the age of five years and one in ten women dies during childbirth. Besides bringing medical teams to consult and treat people, Miakwadang began to train several women in villages to provide primary medical care.

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3. Education: The lack of education is worrisome. Most inhabitants of the villages are illiterate. Most of them dont even know their own age. The strongest desire of the mothers is that their children attend school. But this requires the construction of a schoolhouse and a financial support for teachers. 4. Microcredit: Because people in the village have no income, Miakwadang wants to give them the chance to earn their daily bread. Relatively small amounts of well invested money will help families that receive the money later to generate profit for reinvestment. This will allow for not just survival, but also progress. 5. Art and Culture: It is not good for any nation to lose its cultural values. Therefore, Miakwadang encourages villagers to continue making objects of art and to explore and develop their songs and customs to promote the value of their culture. (Grain for Pain: About us)

2.1.1.3. Personal affiliation with Miakwadang In the summer of 2010 I had the unique privilege of getting hands-on experience in an absolutely fascinating project. It all started with a message on Facebook by Dr. Herbert Bronnenmayer, who happens to be a good friend of my parents. He asked me if I could imagine becoming an active part of the project and maybe apply some of the knowledge I had gained in the course of my International Business studies. I was instantly thrilled about the idea of throwing myself out into a completely different environment. And a few e-mails, meetings and months later I already found myself on the back seat of a Jeep driving down the bumpy roads from Khartoum to the south. Our final destination was a small village called Nyeyok, located in the Upper Nile region close to Melut, South Sudan. I had the privilege of being actively engaged in many different fields of the project acquiring lots of practical experience by teaching English in the village school, playing sports with the children, working on handicrafts with the village woman, helping out in the local clinic, and more. However, my main task was to work on a microloan project in the village. In cooperation with Benjamin Doplbauer, a fellow student from my university in Austria, we worked out a

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plan on how to establish a microloan system and we were even able to grant loans to two villagers. In addition, after my stay in Sudan I was able to contribute to Miakwadang by presenting the project at a charity event and a courtyard festival in my hometown of Eferding. At this point, I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Herbert Bronnenmayer for giving me the unique chance to be an active part of such an exciting project. Furthermore, I would like to thank Mary Akuot Ruun, chairwoman of Miakwadang Sudan, for being so welcoming and taking such great care of the whole team for the whole duration of our stay. She represents core characteristics of the South-Sudanese such as hospitality, warm-heartedness, cheerfulness and diligence in the best possible way.

2.1.2. South Sudan Having looked at the history, principles, ideas and my personal affiliation with Miakwadang in the section above, we are now going to take a peek at the bigger scale, which is the country history, geography and the nature and resources of South Sudan. This aims to provide a better understanding of the history, surroundings and the very complex challenges Miakwadang faces during its operations in South Sudan.

2.1.2.1. Brief country history Before having become an independent country in 2011, South Sudan was a semi-autonomous region of the Republic of Sudan and it was called Southern Sudan. That means, before 2011, technically speaking, we cannot speak of the country of South Sudan, even though it has had a certain degree of autonomy. Nevertheless, it had to endure a long period of violence, conflicts and civil war. In fact, since its existence the Republic of Sudan therefore also South Sudan has spent more time in civil war than in peace.

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First Civil War The modern Sudan has its origins in the period of British colonization, more precisely the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium (1898-1955), where it was officially occupied under the name of the Egyptian Khedive, but it was basically considered a British Colony (Daly 1986). Sudan finally gained independence in 1956. When establishing the government, the British failed to distribute equal powers to the north and the south, which would result in severe negative long-term effects for the south. Thus, the Arab-dominated north with the government in Khartoum failed to delegate rights to the mainly black African south and suppressed them. Consequently, the southerners engineered a revolt and formed the Anyana guerilla army with the goal of establishing an independent south. This would lead to the First Civil War lasting from 1955 to 1972 (Sudan First Civil War). Second Civil War After a mere decade of peace, conflicts emerged again in 1983. A more than twenty-year-long period of unrest, fear and misery came along with the Second Civil War in Sudan. Two primary factors fueled the Second Civil War. On the one hand the great amount of natural resources, especially the oil fields that are mainly located in the boarder area between the north and the south. On the other hand, the great number of tributaries to the Nile River and the higher precipitation provides the south with more fertile land. For all these reasons and more, the north was doing everything conceivable to not allow the south to gain the independence it strived for. The Sudan People Liberation Movement (SPLM), the main force to oppose the northern Muslim government, enforced this desperately pursued independence. To make matters worse, the south also suffered under heavy disputes within its boarders between the two main tribes, the Dinka and the Nuer (Raftopoulos and Alexander 2006: 12). The disastrous consequence of this 22 year long reign of terror and the famine coming along with it was a death toll of nearly two million people in Sudan, one of the highest numbers of civilian fatalities since World War II. On top of that, about four million people were displaced from their homes (Africa.com Sudan).

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Africas longest ongoing civil war finally ceased in January 2005, when the SPLM together with the north-dominated Government of Sudan signed the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA). The CPA aimed to ensure the establishment of democratic countrywide governance respecting the needs of both sides and the fair distribution of oil revenues. Furthermore, it was meant to set a schedule for a referendum on Southern Sudans independence (Text of the CPA, 2005). Referendum final independence from the north About six years after the CPA was signed, the Southern Sudanese took their final step towards complete independence from the north. The referendum on whether Southern Sudan should remain part of Sudan or become a fully independent country took place in January 2011. Under the watchful eyes of an international community, such as former U.S. President Jimmy Carter, former U.N. Secretary General Kofi Annan, former Tanzania Prime Minister Joseph Warioba, actor George Clooney, etc., the South Sudanese voted in favor of independence with an overwhelming majority of almost 99%. Half a year later on the 9th of July 2011 South Sudan officially became the 193rd country of the world (The Carter Center: Jimmy Carter... to Observe Referendum of Self-Determination of Southern Sudan, Sudan referendum result confirmed, Hello country number 193). However, with the ratification of the independence treaty South Sudan is still not out of the woods. Especially in the oil-rich boarder regions, armed conflicts are still being registered. It takes comprehensive efforts by the international community to monitor peace developments in order to allow the country to have a prosperous future (One Year After Independence, South Sudan Still Needs International Support).

2.1.2.2. Geography and Demographics The Republic of South Sudan is a landlocked country bordered by Sudan to the north, Ethiopia to the east, Kenya, Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the south and the Central African Republic to the west. It ! 8!

consists of ten states, namely Upper Nile, Jongley, Eastern Equatoria, Central Equatoria, Western Equatoria, Western Bahr el Ghazal, Northern Bahr el Ghazal, Warrap, Unity and Lakes (Geography of South Sudan, GoSS.org) The population is estimated to be 8,260,490 (2008 census). With Juba as its capital city, the worlds youngest country also joined the United Nations and has become a member state of the African Union. The official language is English. However, numerous indigenous languages, which account for far more speakers than English, are also recognized as national languages (GoSS.org). In terms of religion, a co-existence between a rising minority of Christianity (Catholic and Anglican), a constant minority of Islam and yet a majority of traditional indigenous beliefs has been registered (Kaufmann 2004). The President of the Government of South Sudan, Salva Kiir, pledged that his country is one with respect for the freedom of religion (South Sudan To Respect Freedom Of Religion Says GOSS President).

2.1.2.3. Nature & resources South Sudan bears a fascinating diversity of natural resources and wildlife. The latter, however, was strongly effected by the Second Civil War starting in 1983. Due to ongoing fighting and violence a great number of the animals were forced to flee. The area near the border with Congo (Sudd wetland and Southern National Park) as well as the area west of the Ethiopian border (Boma National Park) was home to large populations of antelopes, buffalos, elephants, giraffes, giant forest hogs, red river hogs, chimpanzees and forest monkeys. With the return of peace in 2006, the wildlife stock also seems to be thriving in an area that is home to the worlds second largest wildlife migration (Wildlife Conservation Society: South Sudan). In terms of natural resources, South Sudan is said to have enormous potential both on and under the ground. The agricultural possibilities seem endless, especially in the areas around the Nile River. The incredibly fertile soil would allow farmers to grow all sorts of grain, sugar cane, coffee, tea, a variety of tropical fruits, etc. Yet, most of this agricultural potential remains not taken

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advantage of. Traditionally most of the farmers concentrate on raising livestock. Ironically, most of it is not even for slaughter. In a land with a lack of a proper banking system, cattle were used as a means of payment (South Sudans future. Now for the hard part). What is more, a huge variety of natural resources are slumbering under the cattles hooves. The worlds youngest country contains huge amounts of mostly unexplored gold, copper, iron ore, zinc, tungsten, mica, silver, diamonds and many more. Nevertheless, South Sudan largely relies on oil as its driving economic revenue. 80% of Sudans untapped oil deposit is estimated to be in South Sudan. The dependency on oil can be more of a curse than a blessing though, as it has historically proved to be a major trigger of conflict with the north. Hence, the south is well advised to strive for taking advantage of its agricultural potential in order to reduce oil dependency and diversify economic risks (Awaiting Independence Vote, Southern Sudan has high hopes).

In this section we have learned that South Sudan has had to face severe challenges on its way to independence. After almost 40 long and dreadful years of civil war, which claimed two million victims, the south and the north were tired of fighting and let reason prevail. They signed the Comprehensive Peace Agreement in 2005 and six years later in June 2011 South Sudan was announced as the worlds 193rd country. This achieved political stability is highly crucial for the country, on the one hand to protect and support the fascinating wildlife migration, and on the other hand to be able to benefit from the potentials provided by fertile soil and natural resources.

2.1.3. Role of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in South Sudan
The previous section has shown the history and specifics of South Sudan along with the numerous problems and challenges the bumpy past caused.

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We have also gotten a first impression of the role of Miakwadang in South Sudan. In this section we shall be concerned with the UNDPs measures set to tackle the challenges of the past and how it is linked to Miakwadangs field of tasks. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) is a worldwide network for development aiming to assist countries getting better knowledge, experience and resources in order to ultimately help people build a better life. The UNDP as a solution-oriented, knowledge based development organization supports countries to reach their own and international objectives, as well as the Millennium Development Goals, which will be presented in more detail below (United Nations Development Programme: What we do).

2.1.3.1. Role of the UNDP in South Sudan With South Sudan turning into an independent nation in July 2011, there is a lot at stake, not only for the young country itself, but also for its international partners. The main role of the UNDP is to help the Government of South Sudan create sustainable governance structures by providing technical assistance, mentoring and direct financial support. Furthermore, the UNDP assists to develop an efficient legal framework. This includes cooperation with the Ministry of Legal Affairs and Constitutional Development. A further emphasize is put on the prevention of future conflicts and crises, which can be effected by promoting community security and infrastructure as well as controlling small arms, while at the same time boosting economic development. In cooperation with other non-state participants such as NGOs, media and traditional leaders the UNDP also works on initiatives to reduce poverty and combat HIV/Aids, malaria and tuberculosis (Our Work).

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2.1.3.2. Millennium Development Goals (MDG) in South Sudan When the world leaders assembled at the UN Millennium Summit in 2000, they set the Millennium Development Goals with the aim of addressing and improving human conditions around the world. Specifically, eight measurable goals were introduced. In an effort not to go beyond the scope of a bachelors thesis, I decided to only describe the first two in greater detail.
Goal 1: Eradicate poverty and hunger In South Sudan, chronic hunger was reduced from 48 to 33 percent between 1995 and 2004. However 50.6 percent of the population lives below the national poverty line. The South Sudan Development Plan aims to reduce this to 46 percent by 2013. One key initiative is social cash transfers, which the Government intends to be provided to a least 20 percent of households Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education Net enrolment in primary school was 46 percent in 2010, but far fewer children complete all eight years. The qualified teacher to children ratio stands at 1:117. The South Sudan Development Plan sets a target of 65 percent enrolment in the next three years. Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women Goal 4: Reduce child mortality Goal 5: Improve maternal health Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development (access to foreign markets, debt relief and increased grant) (The Millennium Development Goals in South Sudan - UNDP)

2.1.3.3. Criticism of MDG and UN As groundbreaking and valuable the Millennium Development Goals appear, they are not entirely free of criticism. Deneulin and Shahani (2009: 66) point out drawbacks concerning the insufficient analytical power and justification of the eight goals. In addition, they do not involve empowerment and participation issues (except for gender empowerment), equity and

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distributional concerns as well as the sustainability of the development goals after expiration in 2015. On a larger scale, the United Nations in general also had to face some critique. According to Gold (2004: 216-217), the UN was accused of practicing moral relativism as it occasionally tolerated and sometimes even supported genocide and terrorism. Furthermore, the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is said to be an exclusive group of elite nations and nuclear powers. Its five permanent members, consisting of Russia, the United States, China, the United Kingdom and France, are imputed with focusing on issues that are of political and strategic interest. This was particularly obvious in humanitarian interventions: for instance, they immediately protected oil-rich Kuwait in 1991, while they barely put any effort in protecting Rwanda, which is not so blessed with natural resources (Rajan 2006). Given the fact that South Sudan is rich in natural resources and oil, it might not appear too surprising that the United Nations show strong presence in the worlds youngest nation.

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2.2. Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

Target one: Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people whose income is less than $1 a day. Target two: Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger. (The Millennium Development Goals Report 2011, 6-15)

2.2.1. Status quo in South Sudan In this chapter we shall be confronted with extreme poverty and hunger in South Sudan. First, we are going to analyze the current situation with facts and figures, followed by a look at the measures taken by the Government of South Sudan in cooperation with the UNDP. In the following section we are going to take a look at Miakwadangs approach on how to tackle the problem of extreme poverty and hunger on a smaller scale. From an international perspective the attainment of the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) of halving the number of the poor (measured by income of less than $1 a day) looks quite promising and achievable. If one believes projections made by the world bank, the overall poverty rate is expected to drop under 15% by 2015, which means meeting the MDG is possible (The Millennium Development Goals Report 2011, 7). When looking at the numbers of Figure 1, we can easily discover that the inconsistencies in terms of poverty reduction from 1990 to 2005 between the worlds poorest regions are significant. Whereas particularly countries in Eastern-, Southeastern and Southern Asia registered substantial improvements, with Eastern Asia even having quartered its numbers, some other countries are still lagging miles behind. Sub-Saharan Africa ranks at the very bottom of the list, among it, South Sudan. According to data by the South Sudan National Bureau of Statistics (2009), in 2009, 50.6% of the countrys population lived below the national poverty line, which corresponds to the Sub-Saharan African average in 2005 (see Figure 1). The South Sudan Development Plan strives for a reduction to 46% by 2013. We can conclude from these figures that poverty remains an endemic problem, which

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essentially means that, unlike the UN MDG Report predicts, the MDG of halving poverty by 2015 is highly unlikely to be met (UNDP Draft country programme document for the Republic of South Sudan, 2012, 2).

Figure 1: Percentage of people living on less than $1.25 a day, worldwide 1990 and 2005. Source: The Millennium Development Goals Report 2011, United Nations, 6

For the sake of clarity, it has to be noted that the poverty line used in the graph is $1.25 of income per day. The standard practice for international poverty comparisons does not use market exchange rates but usually refers ! 15!

to power purchasing parity (PPP) exchange rates. However, to date there is no existing PPP exchange rate for South Sudan. For this reason a market exchange rate is used in this case, which amounts to $1 a day.

2.2.2. The governments approach to fight poverty While there are a variety of short- and long-term measures the government can use to alleviate poverty, for the sake of brevity, I decided to focus on one explicitly suggested in the MDGs: the implementation of social cash transfers (The Millennium Development Goals in South Sudan). First, we will learn about social cash transfers in general and the different existing varieties along with their advantages and disadvantages. In the subsequent section we will have a closer look at the approach the government decided to take.

2.2.2.1. What are social cash transfers? Cash transfers are state-run cash transfer programs with the primary goal of providing a basic level of consumption to its recipients.
Cash transfers provide non-contributory payment in the form of cash to the poor or to those who risk falling into poverty. The objective of these programs is to increase the households real income. (Knnemann and Leonhard 2008, 9)

Generally, we can distinguish between two forms of cash transfers differing in terms of conditionality: Unconditional cash transfers also referred to as basic income programs are universal programs providing income to all people in a certain territory (e.g. country, region) without any conditions or a so-called means test. A means test is a method to assess a persons or a households income. Conditional transfer systems, on the other hand, are based on certain conditions. Conditionality implies that (further) payment will only be effected after certain requirements, for example

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educational enrollment or uptake of health-checks, vaccinations, etc., have been met. While both types can be effective, they each have distinct positive and negative aspects. Experience with conditional transfer systems have often proved to be successful. Brauw and Hoddinott (2010, 5-10) analyzed the positive outcomes of conditional over unconditional transfer systems on a study conducted in Mexico. While the latter included payments to households with no strings attached (unconditional cash transfers), the first system was based on the condition that the children had to attend secondary school if the household wanted to receive payments. Results showed considerably higher enrolment rates for the households who were encouraged to send their children to school. Nevertheless, there still are certain arguments that legitimize unconditional cash transfer systems. Thus, in particular supporters of a rights-based stance on human development argue that all members of a society have the right to receive social protections and have a minimum standard of living. Therefore, states have should be obligated to protect and ensure these rights with all efforts and resources available to them (Knnemann and Leonhard 2008, 1820).

2.2.2.2. South Sudans social cash transfer model After decades of civil war, hardship and poverty South Sudan finally achieved independence and now the Government of South Sudan (GoSS) is striving to create a better future for its poor people. With assistance of the UNDP and other development partners, the GoSS established the first South Sudan Development Plan in 2011. This plan should serve as a guide for development for the next three years and recommends actions and targets concerning the creation of a democratic governance, economic development, social and human development as well as security and conflict prevention (UNDP Draft country programme document for the Republic of South Sudan, 2012, 9-13).

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In terms of addressing poverty, the GoSS is trying to enhance social and human development by launching a social cash transfer model. It involves cash payments, made on a regular basis targeting a broad sector of the population, for example every household with a child under five years. The money can be used by each family as desired. It is assumed that families know best what their greatest needs are and are the most likely to spend the money carefully and reasonably. The money is intended to immediately raise the familys quality of life. What is more, a social cash transfer system should also boost sustainable economic growth, since the money is spent locally, for instance on animals or fertilizers, which is intended to create new jobs and generate income (South Sudan Update 2011: 4). South Sudans social cash transfer model does not primarily seek to provide a safety net, but is a rights-based development approach. The money can be used as at will and there are no strings attached. Hence, it can be categorized as an unconditional cash transfer system. Joseph Hanlon, a leading figure in the field of social cash transfers and technical advisor for the GoSS, invited by the UNDP, established six key principles for a successful implementation of social cash transfers in cooperation with the GoSS and the UNDP: Fairness must be fair to everyone Assured must be administered on a regular basis Practical simple and within the capacity of the civil service and banking sector Not just pennies the payments must be large enough to make a difference Popular and politically acceptable Must be Government run and seen by the population to be so (South Sudan Update 2011: 4; Hanlon, Barrientos and Hulme 2010: 177) In order for a social cash transfer system to be effective, it needs to be regarded as fair and reasonable by the people. The households need to have

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a guarantee that they will receive regular payments at an amount that improves their lives noticeably. Social cash transfers must be performed by the government and should immediately reach the poorest of the poor, so the people can actually feel the governments efforts and presence. In this section we have learned about the GoSS attempts to fight poverty, with a special focus on social cash transfers. We distinguished between two forms, conditional and unconditional cash transfers and discussed the advantages and disadvantages of each. From a human rights perspective, unconditional cash transfers are preferred, because they have no strings attached and no members of a society are excluded. South Sudan uses an unconditional model targeting all families with children under the age of five with the aim to immediately improve the families quality of life and thus reduce poverty. In light of the aforesaid, one might have the impression that social cash transfers could be a revolutionary instrument used towards sustainably alleviating poverty. However, as we will learn in the next section when we exemplify Miakwadangs approach on poverty eradication, there still should be some serious concerns about the real efficiency and sustainability of social cash transfers in South Sudan.

2.2.3. Problem-solving approach by Miakwadang As mentioned in section 2.1.1 of the paper, Miak Wadang stands for future in the language of the Dinka. So when it comes to the future of the people in South Sudan, the Austrian-Sudanese NGO Miakwadang is aiming for independence, peace and growth in the long run and not just for short-term relief. This requires highly elaborate, strategic and sustainable methods. Thus, Miakwadang is pursuing a person-to-person, heart-to-heart approach in order to make accomplishments together with the people and not just for them.

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2.3.3.1. The role of small NGOs In a UNDP country programme document draft for the Republic of South Sudan (2012), the GoSS and the UNDP addressed the importance of cooperation with local and international NGOs, however, only to a rather limited extent concentrating on medical and health issues. The work of small NGOs should not be underestimated. They developed strong ties with SouthSudanese people and leaders and played a very crucial role on the countrys weary way towards independence (NGOs can and should help South Sudan along the path to peace and prosperity). 38 South Sudanese NGOs, working on peace-building, development and humanitarian assistance, compiled a joint briefing paper with ten recommendations for the GoSS to prioritize in the first years of independence. Miakwadangs work especially targets the third recommendations, which states the following:
3. Involve communities and strengthen civil society. Provide more substantial support for initiatives that promote community participation in humanitarian and development assistance; support initiatives aimed at strengthening civil society; and facilitate access by national NGOs and civil society organisations to international funds. (Getting it Right from the Start Priorities for Action in the New Republic of South Sudan).

Miakwadang also emphasizes the strong importance of collaborating with the villagers, initiating involvement, encouraging self-responsibility, giving them authority and having them run projects themselves. One such tool meeting all the criteria mentioned above is microfinance. The remainder of this section will mainly build on information and expert opinion provided by Dr. Herbert Bronnenmayer, chairman of Miakwadang Austria. We will find out that Miakwadangs approaches to fighting poverty sometimes differ from those the Government of South Sudan (GoSS) and the United Nations with the UNDP are planning to implement.

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2.3.3.2. Microfinance against poverty As opposed to the GoSSs and UNDPs approach with social cash transfers, Miakwadang addresses the issue of reducing poverty with a microfinance system. Miakwadang takes a different approach for a number of reasons, as we will find out in a later paragraph of this section. First, the principals of microfinance will be explained. Microfinance has its roots in Bangladesh in the early 1980s, where Professor Muhammad Yunus pioneered the idea of microfinance by founding the Grameen Bank. In 2006 he received the Nobel Peace Prize for creating economic and social development through his revolutionary work. Yunus identified a way of how lending to the poorest of the poor is possible, mainly targeting people in rural areas who live in villages without tangible possessions and collateral of any kind whatsoever. He addressed people lacking any infrastructure, roads or power supplies. The only asset he found out that the people possessed was interdependence and trust within the communities. Essentially, he came up with a system where this trust is converted into collateral (Moyo 2010, 126). In order to make this conversion of trust into collateral more illustrative, here is a practical example of the solidarity lending process: In a small village in Bangladesh a group of five traders receives a loan of US$100 (that is about the average loan size). However, the loan does not go to the whole group, but only to a single member, let us call her (97% of all receivers of loans are female) trader A. Trader A receives the loan with a pre-specified maturity of one year (typical period). After this year she is solely responsible for repaying the loan plus interest (microloan interest rates are traditionally high). Providing the loan is paid back successfully before or at maturity, the next loan will be granted to trader B. Even though technically no group joint liability is prevalent in this case as only trader A has to repay the loan the whole group will be supporting trader A and do everything conceivable to make sure she repays the loan in order to also get the chance to receive a loan. In other words, each individual group members behavior affects the whole group.

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With this simple concept the Grameen Bank has achieved astonishing success. Since its inception in 1983 it had served 36,000 clients with a portfolio of US$3.1 million. By 1997 this number increased to 2.3 million members and a portfolio totaling US$230 million. Most impressively, the average credit default rate remained as low as only 2% (Moyo 2010, 126127). Since that time, microfinance has not only proved to be successful in Asian countries, but it has continued its wave of success throughout the whole world, namely in South American and also African nations. Impressed and encouraged by the positive results of microfinance, Dr. Herbert Bronnenmayer decided to make it a basic element of the Miakwadang project.

2.3.3.3. Why microfinance is better than social cash transfers As we might be able to conclude from section 2.2.2.1 and 2.2.2.2, the idea of social cash transfers basically appears to be a wonderful concept to tackle poverty cash payments, made on a regular basis targeting a broad sector of the population boosting economic growth and generating income and creating new jobs. Assuming that families know best what their greatest needs are and that they will spend the money the most thoughtfully, each family can use the money as desired sounds like a blessing and a win-win situation for the government and the people of South Sudan (South Sudan Update 2011: 4). However, when taking a closer look at social cash transfers by considering the countrys history and culture as well as the mentality of the people, it will soon become clear that social cash transfers are more illusion than reality and may turn into the opposite of a blessing. Dr. Bronnenmayer (2012), chairman of Miakwadang Austria and South Sudan expert, questions the effectiveness of social cash transfers and even warns about the possible damages it could cause. He stresses that social cash transfers are not in line with the South Sudanese culture.

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Bronnenmayer argues one must consider that the people of South Sudan have gone through decades of civil war, suppression and violence and due to this they were forced to seek refuge in flight. Consequently, they were forced to live from day to day and all they could hold was cattle, chicken, goats and other animals. Since they constantly had to be prepared to flee, in many cases they were no longer able to practice arable farming and in the course of time many forgot their agricultural know-how. To prevent the worst, international aid agencies (e.g. UN, Medair, etc.) kept (and still keep) assisting them by bridging food gaps. As essential for survival as this emergency relief is, it can become problematic when people become continually dependent on it. If villagers habitually rely on relief in emergencies, then they have less incentive to be self-responsible and take care of themselves. Now when we compare the aid by international aid agencies and the principles of social cash transfers we can find one very essential thing they share: People get used to this type of unconditional service and become dependent. According to Dr. Bronnenmayer (2012), they have no responsibilities and no incentive for increasing self-reliance. Another problem is the assumption that families know best what their greatest needs are and spend the money the most reasonably. The truth of the matter is that the families are very hierarchically structured, typically with the man as the head of the family as the person in charge. That means if the families were to receive money, the man would be the first one to take advantage of it and use it primarily for his own purposes. In many cases he would buy alcohol, which often leads to violence within the family. And even if the mother and children were to receive the money, they would mainly use it to meet their daily needs and requirements but would not invest it, since they have no incentive for performance whatsoever. Families need to be trained first on how to use the money purposefully. Furthermore, it is quite likely that this constant giving will lead to dependence on the government, since responsibility is delegated to others, the money is misused (e.g. for alcohol) and people would rather be weakened in their struggle for existence. What is more, social cash transfers in South Sudan are regulated and run by the

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government, as we have learned in section 2.2.2.2. But where in a country with low average income and consequently low tax revenues does the government take the money from? If it cannot be generated from internal sources it has to come somewhere from the outside in many cases from international aid donors. According to Moyo (2010, 48-57), aid in the long run is anything but beneficial, often leading to corruption and even said to be the silent killer of growth (Moyo, 48). Therefore, it can be argued that social cash transfers do little to boost economic growth, generate income and create new jobs. Social cash transfers may rather turn out as a curse than a blessing to the South Sudanese. The situation, however, is different with microfinance. Unlike social cash transfers, the microfinance concept encourages people to take responsibility and gives incentive for self-reliance. It is a guarantee that the money is used for the right purposes, since the loan recipients are eager to repay the loan in order to give other members of the group a chance to receive a loan, as well as to get a second loan themselves. Furthermore, loan recipients will receive training on proper use of money and support on running their investment projects. Miakwadang witnessed initial success with microfinance. Two very ambitious village women took the initiative and started a project. They were granted a micro loan and with that money they opened up a roadhouse about two kilometers outside of the village near a newly built street. The roadhouse includes a small restaurant, a teahouse and a little shop. They are already planning to expand and consider adding a small motel and a repair shop. Encouraged by the progress of this project, several other villagers have already expressed interest in new business ideas, e.g. a jalabiya tailor shop (note: a jalabiya is the traditional Sudanese mens clothing), a fruit and vegetable store, a fish store, etc. As we can see from this first project, once initiative is taken and the ball gets rolling, microfinance indeed can be a way to promote growth, generate income and create new jobs through selfinitiative and responsibility. And if this simple but revolutionary concept works in one small village, why should it not work in other villages or maybe even in the whole country and become the backbone of South Sudans economic ! 24!

recovery all this under the peoples own steam and without any gifts from outside. The chief lesson we can learn from the aforesaid is that in order to achieve the Millennium Development Goal of eradicating extreme poverty and hunger in South Sudan, it is our main responsibility to promote responsibility and self-reliance among the South Sudanese. It is incredibly essential to not make the same continually repeated mistake of the past, which is to just leave people with gifts and grants of all kinds (e.g. social cash transfers). The result in the long run this will make the situation worse rather than better.

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2.3. Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education

Target: Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling. (The Millennium Development Goals Report 2011, 6-15)

2.3.1. Educational Status Quo in South Sudan In the following paragraphs South Sudans current educational situation will be analyzed. Prevalent deficits as well as initiatives by the government and the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MoEST) to tackle those deficits will be highlighted. Furthermore, the numerous challenges South Sudan is about to face if it wants to meet the Millennium Development Goals will be displayed. The data for the current situation is extracted from UNESCO reports, consultant reports, South Sudanese online newspapers as well as from presentations by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology.
There is a hunger for education in South Sudan that is obvious wherever you go. Young people will travel hundreds of kilometers to attend school or university. Old people in the most impoverished areas will ask a visitor for food, but young people will ask for scholarships. (Markam 2012)

In developed countries such as Austria, the feeling might arise that people take education for granted and sometimes even perceive it more as a burden than a blessing. In this case, we are all well advised to bring ourselves back to reality by taking a glimpse at other countries like South Sudan where education is a privilege and young people are enthusiastic if they are given the rare chance to go to school. In South Sudan, however, education is seen as something much more fundamental than just a process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge (Education definition 2012). Markam (2012) states that education is an important catalyst as a country transitions from war to peace. Nevertheless, more than 1.3 million primary school age children do not receive primary education. The country ranks second last in world rankings for primary education net enrolment and last in secondary education enrolment. In addition to these poor rankings, in some parts of the country one teacher has

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to take care of more than 100 students. On top of that, schools are short of textbooks and classrooms are insufficiently equipped (UNESCO 2011a). Without confirmation of accurate data, it is estimated that currently between 12,000 and 25,000 teachers are active (MoEST 2008). However, a Public Sector Personnel survey conducted in 2005 arrived at a number of merely 7802 teachers (Computer Feeds Ltd. & Ecotech Consultants 2006). Thus, the optimistic estimate of an education force of 25,000 teachers can be questioned. Furthermore, only 16 % of all teachers have attained tertiary education and a degree. Only 7% of all teachers were of female gender. (JAM Sudan 2005). The Ministry of Science Education and Technology (MoEST) reported a lack of 25,000 additional teachers required in 2011. However, this is only the tip of the iceberg. The long periods of conflicts the South Sudanese were exposed to led to ad hoc bush schools (Kirk 2008) with strongly varying teaching workloads ranging from seven to 35 hours weekly. Hence, it is considered highly crucial that standards are being set for professional accountability and performance of teachers (MoEST 2008).

2.3.2. Remaining Challenges As was pointed out in section 2.3.1, South Sudan has identified education as a vital topic. Certainly, first steps have already been taken. But if the country wants to achieve sustainable growth and development, education has to be assigned as one of its top priorities, if not the top priority, as stated by Salva Kiir, President of South Sudan (Education remains our top priority 2011). Nonetheless, a lot of challenges have yet to be faced. In the next section, we will discuss the young nations urgent need for a greater number of welltrained teachers and a comprehensive system to provide adequate payment and career development.

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2.3.2.1. Vast demand for efficient education force According to the MoEST (2008), the main education issue in South Sudan is the fact that the regional training institutions can only generate 2,500 new teachers per year. That is only a drop in the ocean, considering the countrys aim to reach a gross enrollment rate of 50%, which means they would have to employ 25,000 additional teachers. In order to meet this goal, a number of measures are in the process of planning. In the short-term, voluntary teachers and teachers from the diaspora and neighboring countries are being hired so at least part of the initial demand can be met. In the long run, however, it will take a more strategic and coordinated approach.
Long term planning to increase the capacity of the pre-service and in-service training systems are critical including, for example, the establishment of a network of decentralized teacher training and support through, for example, resource centres and school clusters, supported by learning methodologies such as radio (Kirk 2008: 9).

Figure 2: Number of primary school teachers and pupil-teacher ratio, Southern Sudan 20072009. Source: Education Policy and Data Center and Systems Service Center, AED (2010: 13)

Figure 1 illustrates the number of primary school teachers in each region and the ratio between teachers and pupils. Despite an increase in the absolute number of teachers, an overall rise in the pupil-teacher ratio can be witnessed. Figure 1 shows that the average national rate increased from 43:1 in 2007 to

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52:1 in 2009. This phenomenon can be explained by the fact that in case of booming enrollments, it is hard to acquire the additional teaching staff required to meet this excess demand (AED, 2010: 14). We can conclude from the above that measures have to be implemented to boost teacher recruitment. In the next section we will analyze some of the measures that have already been taken and still have to be tackled.

2.3.2.2. Lack of teacher payment and career development system A substantial problem the country encountered was the non-existence of a payment and career development system for teachers. In 2007, for instance, all teachers regardless of experience and level of education received the same salary. The absence of a comprehensive planning tool on teachers data posed serious problems in performing precise calculations of current and future capacities. (Kirk 2008) By June 2008, however, the MoEST (2008) realized the strong urgency for a basic system to manage information concerning teachers. The Southern Sudanese government made it a top priority for the following two years and conducted a comprehensive teacher headcount across 10 states. The main goal of this headcount was to establish a system that benefits hard working teachers by timely and accurate payment in order to grant the children education of higher quality (South Sudan to conduct teachers headcount 2008).

2.3.2.3. Establishment of comprehensive teacher training program No education system is better than its teachers (UNICEF 2011b). In addition to the quantitative lack in educational force we discovered above, there is also a lot to catch up on in terms of quality of education. The best way to contribute to better teaching outcomes is to provide the schools with professionally trained staff. The following table shows the significant majority of untrained and undertrained teachers.

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Figure 3: Untrained and undertrained teachers (% of all) in primary school, Southern Sudan 2008-2009. Source: Education Policy and Data Center and Systems Service Center, AED (2010: 14)

The tremendous lack of trained teachers can be derived from the figures above. Whereas in 2008 trained teachers accounted for at least 23% of the working force, in 2009 the portion slumped to 13%. Given the fact that preservice training for teachers usually takes between two to three years, it is hard to provide an adequate number of education professionals for the skyrocketing number of students. This should be a clear indicator of the importance of the initial development of comprehensive teacher training programs (AED 2010: 14)

2.3.2.4. Gender disparities Even though progress has been made on the educational sector in recent years, according to the former South Sudanese Minister of Education, Dr. Michael Milly Hussein, a very significant gender gap is still prevalent across the entire country (South Sudan Illiteracy reduces to 73% 2011).

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Figure 4: Countries ranking on the Gender Parity Index (GPI), most recent years, Source: Government of South Sudan (2011) Education Statistics for Southern Sudan. National Statistics Booklet. Juba, Ministry of Education

As the chart above suggests, in an international comparison South Sudan can be found at the very bottom of the Gender Parity Index (GPI) ranking. Girls represent a significant minority at both primary and secondary school level. In the average first grade primary school classroom ten boys face only seven girls. To make matters worse, according to statistics girls are also more likely to drop out of school prematurely. Out of 20 girls entering primary school, only eleven progress to third grade and only one reaches eighth grade (GoSS 2011). In other words, a young girl in South Sudan is three times more likely to not survive pregnancy or birth than to reach eighth grade. We can conclude from this graph that there is a lot of catching-up to do for the GoSS in order to battle the lack of female education (UNESCO 2011b: 7).

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2.3.2.5. Need for permanent classrooms While we have learned about the essence of an efficient and well-educated teaching staff above, one must also bear in mind that it is crucial to have the proper surroundings in order to guarantee high quality education. Ideally, students should be taught in sturdy, permanent buildings with solid waterproof roofs and robust walls. This is of particular importance when the climate tends to be harsher, for example in the rain period (Marlowe, 2010). However, reality in South Sudan shows a different picture, as we can observe on the graph (Figure 4) below.

Figure 5: Primary school classroom by type of construction, Source: Government of South Sudan (2011) Education Statistics for Southern Sudan. National Statistics Booklet. Juba, Ministry of Education

As can be witnessed above, the majority of classrooms consist of roof only- or open-air learning facilities. Even though the situation has been improving in recent years, especially through immediate help by the setup of relatively durable UNICEF tents (AED 2010: 15), the ideal solution would be robust and permanent school buildings. Not only do they guarantee more resistance against the rough climate, but they also provide a higher degree of protection in case of reverting conflicts and violence (UNESCO 2010b: 10).

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2.3.2.6. Lack of uniform textbooks Another rudimentary factor for effective education is the sufficient supply of uniform and professional textbooks. As we can see on the graph below (Figure 5), textbook shortages still pose a significant challenge, considering the aim of reducing the ratio of pupils per textbook from currently 4:1 to 1:1 by 2015. According to a UNESCO report (2010b: 12), this will require another 5.6 million textbooks on primary school level.

Figure 6: Number of pupils per Math textbook by state, 2010. Source: Government of South Sudan (2010) Education Statistics for Southern Sudan. National Statistics Booklet. Juba, Ministry of Education

Besides the lack in the number of textbooks, another barrier is the missing uniformity and language of textbooks. The government is trying to reduce the use of curricula of neighboring countries like Kenya and Uganda and establish a nationally standardized primary education curriculum. The most important element of uniformity is, without a doubt, the language. Given the fact that South Sudan puts a high premium on having English as its major language, especially the Arabic speaking regions experience major challenges. Hence, efforts towards providing uniform English textbooks in a sufficient quantity need to be concentrated (AED 2010: 17). We can conclude from the paragraphs above that the education system in South Sudan is just about to get off the starting blocks and many challenges still have to be faced. We have first learned about the significant lack in educational workforce that is prevalent in South Sudan. The path to fundamental improvement should not only focus on the quantity of teachers but also on the quality of education they are providing. At the same time, we have seen that a first step towards an efficient education system is the

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implementation of a systematic teacher payment and development system. Furthermore, a comprehensive teacher training program needs to be established. Another significant challenge the country encounters is the disparity between genders among both students and teachers. Last but not least, we need to be aware of the importance of equipping students and teachers with uniform textbooks and permanent teaching facilities. Having scrutinized the countrys current situation and challenges, we are now going to take a look at how Miakwadang is dealing with the circumstances and is approaching these challenges.

2.3.3. Problem-solving approach by Miakwadang This paper has a dual objective. On the one hand, it seeks to explore the first two UNDP Millennium Development Goals in South Sudan, namely poverty and education, including description of the status quo and the challenges being faced. On the other hand, it aims to highlight the significant contributions a small NGO can make to accomplish these goals. In section 2.3.1 we analyzed the current educational situation of South Sudan. We have learned that in terms of primary school enrollment South Sudan ranks among the very bottom in a worldwide comparison. However, the country has identified the numerous challenges it still has to tackle (section 2.3.2) and it is willing to set education as one of its top priorities in order to improve its situation and build the foundation for a prosperous future.

2.3.3.1. Accomplishments up to date Together with the people of South Sudan, Miakwadang has always highlighted the great importance of education for their children. It is one of the most basic factors for the reduction of poverty and establishment of peace. In cooperation with two villages, Miakwadang decided to take the initiative and opened the first primary school in the village of Nyeyok. Initially, all school

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activities were conducted under a tree. In order to provide protection against natural and civil threats, the villagers constructed school buildings made of stick walls and grass roofs. Even though this still is a complete startup situation, first considerable successes have already been achieved. Three teachers have been employed and 200 children registered, however, many had to be turned down, as the absolute maximum capacity was reached with 200 pupils. Miakwadang assists with assuring teachers a base salary, in case the government is not able to pay timely. Furthermore, Miakwadang provides the children one healthy, nutritious meal a day. After one and a half years of school, children are already capable of carrying on a simple conversation in English. As the quality of teaching is already higher than in the nearby district town, many families consider sending their children to Nyeyok for schooling. As we have learned in section 2.3.2, the school system in South Sudan is still facing a lot of challenges. The village of Nyeyok shares many of those challenges. Thus, there is a lack of well-trained teachers prevalent in Nyeyok, which results in a pupil-teacher ratio of 50:1 (compared to about 70:1 in the Upper Nile Region). However, measures are taken to improve this situation by implementing teacher recruitment and training processes. Experienced teachers are brought into the village to change the teaching style from the old colonial front teaching method to a more stimulating self-learning approach based on the Montessori-technique with more interactive and communicational elements. Moreover, the school lacks solid buildings and class equipment in order to provide the children a safer and more efficient learning environment (Bronnenmayer 2012).

2.3.3.2. Educational visions As we have learned above, very important initial steps have been taken for providing education to the people of Nyeyok and surrounding villages. First successes have become apparent. Now, it is very important to follow up on this successful start and set the framework for a prosperous future.

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Miakwadangs vision is to create a school center that extends from primary school to high school, with the goal of providing the graduates with general qualification for university entrance. Strongly supported by the government, Miakwadang seeks to take action to offer agricultural and prevocational education themes. The establishment of a school farm as well as facilities for woodwork, metalwork and home economics aim to introduce the new generations to work techniques with the goal to strengthen the rise of a new nation. The school center will also be open for children that are now situated in Uganda and Kenya. Government officials in Juba even encouraged Miakwadang to envisage the creation of tertiary education facilities, with a remark to think big enough in terms of campus size (Miakwadang Projektreise Jnner 2012).

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3. Conclusion
As presented in the introductory section, this paper was compiled with a dual objective: On the one hand, we critically discussed the first two Millennium Development Goals in South Sudan, i.e. the reduction of extreme poverty and the achievement of universal primary education. On the other hand, we analyzed the approach to tackle the issues poverty and education on the example of Miakwadang, an Austrian-Sudanese NGO. We can conclude that South Sudan is still in the very early stages when it comes to education. We analyzed that a lot of challenges have yet to be faced. Not only does South Sudan need a better education force both in terms of quantity and qualification, but they also have to focus on issues such as gender disparity, shortage of uniform textbooks and a need for permanent classrooms. Furthermore, we found out that the governments main measure to address the reduction of poverty by implementing a social cash transfer model sounds much more promising in theory as it might turn out to be in practice. The chief reason for this, according to Dr. Bronnenmayer, is the lack of responsibility and self-reliance. In order to encourage responsibility and self-reliance and to guarantee that the money is used for the right purposes, Bronnenmayer suggests considering microfinance as a greatly promising alternative to social cash transfers, as he witnessed initial success when launching a microfinance project with Miakwadang. Nevertheless, we have to keep in mind that microfinance cannot be the only and ultimate cure but it takes a bundle of measures to guide South Sudan out of poverty. Unfortunately this paper is limited in scope and thus not able to cover further specific measures for reduction of poverty and promotion of education in South Sudan, however, it could encourage for deeper research on the matter. Last but not least, I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Herbert Bronnenmayer, who provided me with his expertise and inspired, encouraged and supported me throughout the whole writing process.

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4. Glossary Term: Definition, Authentic Sample Sentences, Collocations:

Definition: Collateral is defined as property that secures a loan or other debt so the lender may seize the property if the borrower fails to make proper payments on the loan (Slee 2011: 212). Authentic Sample Sentences: By itself, collateral will not turn a poor credit risk into a good credit and it never eliminates credit risk (Harding and Johnson 2002: 3). However, it has been shown that collateral can be used as a screening device as long as the potential applicants are endowed with sufficient personal wealth that can be used to fully guarantee the loan (Sena 2008: 17). Thus, periods of financial distress, when borrowers have less unencumbered collateral, are also times of relatively high agency costs in investment (Bernanke and Gertler 1986: 2). Owners must be able to develop a business and furnish collateral to cover 40 per cent of any loan (Hulme and Mosley 1996: 256). Moreover, these complex and arbitrary divisions can diminish the use of property as collateral simply by creating confusion about what is included under the law (Fleisig, Safavian and De la Pena 2006: 26). Collocations: collateral .. collateral to have less unencumbered collateral to develop a business and furnish collateral the use of property as collateral will not turn can be used as

Collateral p. 22

(Credit) Default rate p. 23

Definition: While the arrears rate indicates the proportion of the loan portfolio which might be at risk, the default rate shows the proportion of the loan fund which has gone a stager further towards being lost (Johnson and Rogaly 1997: 127). Authentic Sample Sentences: If the default rates are themselves shifting, the analysis can become more protracted (Hong Kong Institute of Bankers: 291). While the potential existed for a ballooning default rate, the default rate actually remained stable (Parsons 1997: 175).

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Fourth, the calculation of default rates as simple proportions is possible only when no samples are censored1 during the one year period (Li 1999: 3). This is achieved by convoluting the conditional, marginal loss distributions of the individual positions to develop the aggregate loss distribution, with default correlations between different counterparties determined by the systematic risk driving the correlated average default rates (Wilson 1998: 73). To date, most of the work on credit risk has focused solely on the systematic variation of the default rate (Frye 2005: 7).

Collocations: default rates the the calculation of to drive the correlated average the systematic variation of the default rate default rates default rates default rate are themselves shifting actually remained stable

Conditional cash transfers (CCT) p. 17

Definition: Conditional cash transfers (CCTs) are programs that transfer cash, generally to poor households, on the condition that those households make prespecified investments in the human capital of their children (World Bank Policy Research Report 2009: 1). Authentic Sample Sentences: CCTs, in general, show promising results in addressing structural poverty and breaking the intergenerational cycle of disadvantage (Fajth and Vinay 2010: 4). Instead of mean-tested, some households have implemented gendertargeted CCTs to explicitly address intra-household disparities in human capital investments (Chaudhury and Parajuli 2006: 2). The results show that a a conditional cash transfer program can be effective in a low-income setting (Maluccio and Flores 2005: 3). In this paper, we proposed a micro-simulation method for evaluating and experimenting with conditional cash transfer program designs, ex-ante (Bourguignon et al. 2002: 21). Governments throughout Latin America and South America have adopted conditional cash transfer programs aimed at alleviating short-term poverty and reducing the intergenerational transmission of poverty by providing incentives for private investment in schooling and health (Behrman et al. 2005: 1). Collocations: conditional cash transfers to implement gender conditional cash show promising results

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targeted a to experiment with

transfers conditional cash transfer conditional cash transfer conditional cash transfer can be effective program designs programs aimed at

Gross enrollment rate p. 29

Definition: The gross enrollment rate (GER) is the number of pupils enrolled in a given level of education, regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of the population in the official age group for the same level of education (Buvinic 2008: 122). Authentic Sample Sentences: The gross enrollment rate of junior and senior middle school students increased by about 20 percent over 1997 (Mengkui 2009: 245). Educational attainment is a composite of two variables, a two thirds weight based on the adult literacy rate and a one-third weight on the combined primary, secondary, and tertiary gross enrollment rate (Nafziger 2012: 34). Despite the stagnancy of income, Kenya made rapid strides in the expansion of primary education during this period; the gross enrollment rate for primary school-aged children increased from 53 percent in 1970 to 94 percent in 1991 (Deolalikar 1997: 3). In 1991, the gross enrollment rate for the three levels of pre-primary education was 49 percent (Berlinski and Galiani 2005: 5). The relationship is similar if we take the Gross Enrollment Rate as the measure of access (Crouch and Vinjevold 2006: 5). Collocations: the a one-third weight on the combined the the to take the gross enrollment rate gross enrollment rate gross enrollment rate gross enrollment rate gross enrollment rate for primary school-aged children increased for the three levels of preprimary education was as the measure of access of junior and senior middle school increased

Maturity p. 22

Definition: Maturity date of a bill is defined as the date on which payment will fall due (Gurusami 2009: 290).

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Authentic Sample Sentences: Regardless of the currency that an MNC uses to finance its international operations, it must also decide on the maturity that it should use for its debt (Madura 2010: 542). This section investigates whether the maturity structure that is optimal for individual firms is socially optimal when the government cannot commit to future policies, that is, whether the government could increase welfare by (Tirole 2006: 560). This maturity effect is greater for high credit quality portfolios (Financial Stability Review 1999: 132). What does exist is a limited number of contributions that, using drastic simplifying assumptions, highlight some particular aspect of the maturity choice (Schiantarelli and Sembenelli 1997: 5). If maturity is extended to more than five years, this fraction falls to 8% of total capital (or just under 40% of total debt) (Barclay and Smith 1996: 8). Collocations: to decide on the the this some particular aspect of the if maturity maturity maturity maturity maturity that is optimal for individual firms effect is greater for choice is extended

MDGs p. 1

Definition: The eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) which range from halving extreme poverty to halting the spread of HIV/AIDS and providing universal primary education, all by the target date of 2015 form a blueprint agreed to by all the worlds countries and all the worlds leading development institutions (UN 2012). Authentic Sample Sentences: Huge obstacles remain in the way of mobilising predictable external finance to meet the Millennium Development Goals (Cheru and Bradford 2005: 3). Progress toward the International Development Goals in June 2000 formally paved the road for a monitoring process of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (Agnor et al. 2005: 3). As a part of that agreement, Bangladesh is working towards achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) committing herself to a set of internationally agreed development targets (Rahman et al. 2005: 1). For the billion-plus people still living in extreme poverty, the Millennium Development Goals are a life-and-death issue. (Sachs 2005: 4). More relevant is the fact that gender gaps in secondary education may well narrow more quickly in the new millennium than in the 1990s as a result of the gender Millennium Development Goal (Wagstaff and Claeson 2004: 4).

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Collocations: to meet the to pave the road for a monitoring process of the to work towards achieving the the as a result of the gender MDGs MDGs MDGs MDGs MDG are a life-and-death issue

Microcredit p. 5

Definition: Microcredit is generally defined as making small loans available directly to small-scale entrepreneurs to enable them either to establish or to expand micro-enterprises and small businesses (Commonwealth Youth Programme 2002). Authentic Sample Sentences: We have learned in the last years that microcredit is one of the best tools to eradicate poverty (Narasaiah 2006: 15). Micro credit should be used to meet the current demands of the poor woman, whether these are for health, education or consumption purposes (Jerinabi 2006: 165). In last years report, Munro dismissed the belief that the very poor cannot use microcredit and described a groundbreaking health insurance program developed in partnership with mission hospitals in Kenya (Daley-Harris 2009: 4) Having noted that the poorest join BRACs credit program and that they also actively borrow after they join, it has to be mentioned that there is evidence which suggests that households who join microcredit programs a few years after the village group has been established tend to be less poor compared to the members who join at the start of the program (Zaman 2000: 2). When someone claims microcredit has a thousand year history, or a hundred year history, nobody finds it as an exciting piece of historical information (Yunus 2006: 1). Collocations: microcredit microcredit the very poor cannot use households who join microcredit microcredit microcredit programs has a thousand year history is one of the best tools to eradicate poverty should be used to

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Microfinance p. 21

Definition: Microfinance has evolved as an economic development approach intended to benefit low-income women and men. The term refers to the provision of financial services to low-income clients, including the self-employed (Ledgerwood 1999: 1). Authentic Sample Sentences: Hence, locally originated microfinance proved to be the better solution. It has become one of the rare financial and sustainable success stories of today's emerging and developing markets84 financial system (Becker 2010: 47). Commercialized subsidy-free microfinance was soon portrayed as international best practice (Bateman 2011: 2). To others, microfinance is still to be fully developed and tested by time (Armendariz and Morduch 2007: 1). However, formal sector lending practices are often not suitable for microfinance institutions, as many microbusinesses or business owners do not have many assets or adequate financial reporting systems (Ledgerwood 1999: 68). Although microfinance provision appears to be evolving towards greater sustainability, relevance and usefulness, there are few certainties and the search for better practice continues (Johnson and Rogaly 1997: 12) Collocations: microfinance microfinance microfinance to be not suitable for microfinance microfinance provision appears to be proved to be the better solution. was soon portrayed as is still to be fully developed

Microloan p. 5

See Microcredit

NGO p. 1

Definition: At face value, the simplest definition of an NGO (Non-Governmental Organization) is an organization that is the opposite of a government organization independent from the state and state authority (United Nations Human Settlements Programme 2003: 153). Authentic Sample Sentences: NGO accountability is connected to the much larger topic of civil society and its relationship to the individual, the market and the state (Jordan and Van Tuijl 2006). While all parties aspire to a comprehensive view of the subject, in most

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practical situations NGO accountability boils down to the domain of finance (Edwards and Fowler 2002: 214). Second, this criticism is also self-criticism, as the author has been involved in NGO activism for some 15 years (Shivji 2007: 2). NGOs exist within multiple frameworks that structure how the NGO functions but also facilitate resistance to existing structures (Nawyn 2006: 1). NGOs are voluntarily formed in the sense that (ideally speaking there is no compulsion from government or others which leads their formation (Rajasekhar 1999: 5). Collocations: NGO NGO involved in NGO NGOs NGO accountability is connected to accountability boils down to activism exist within are voluntarily formed

! ! Referendum Definition: p. 9
Referendum can be defined as a low governmental institution whose concept is that the citizens with the political rights are entitled to express their opinion in voting on the constitution and other most important problems of political life (Szumanska 2009: 7). Authentic Sample Sentences: The widespread use of the referendum is evidence the device is an important one for the making and/or unmaking of public policies, and the various forms of the device merit serious scholarly examination of their relative advantages and disadvantages (Zimmermann 2001: 17). The period between the announcement of the referendum and the actual referendum was very intense (Strauss 2009: 50). It was agreed that it should conduct a more ambitious petition campaign for a referendum as part of a comprehensive Action Programme to advance the Aboriginal cause (Attwood and Markus 1967: 27). We address the visibility of a referendum in the news and we also focus on assessing the tone of evaluations of political leaders in the news (Vreese and Semetko 2004: 17). This is supposed to be decided by a referendum and popular consultations in 2011 but the holding of such a referendum is surrounded by more and more uncertainty (Helly 2009: 7). Collocations: the widespread use of the the actual referendum referendum was very intense

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a the visibility of a to be decided by a

referendum referendum referendum

as part of a

Social cash transfer p. 13

Definition: Cash transfers provide non-contributory payment in the form of cash to the poor or to those who risk falling into poverty. The objective of these programs is to increase the households real income (Knnemann and Leonhard 2008: 9).

Authentic Sample Sentences: As already indicated, the five social cash transfer schemes were in the nature of pilots rather than fully fledged schemes (Ellis et al. 2009: 190). In response, several donors started promoting predictable social cash transfers as a form of minimal social welfare for families in countries too poor to afford comprehensive social welfare or social security systems (Padayachee 2010: 164). Social cash transfers are emerging in many developing countries as a lead social protection initiative tackling poverty and vulnerability (OECD 2009: 43). Social Cash Transfers (SCTs) are transfer payments which are made on the basis of economic criteria in order to provide the recipients a minimum of social protection and consumption. (Javad 2011: 1). They should make this experience available to states building up their social cash transfer systems (Knnemann and Leonhard 2008: 5). Collocations: the five to promote predictable social cash transfer social cash transfers social cash transfers social cash transfers to build up their social cash transfer are emerging are transfer payments systems schemes were

! Unconditional Definition: cash Unconditional cash transfers provide cash to all eligible and registered beneficiaries (Garcia and Moore 2012: 18). transfers p. 17
Authentic Sample Sentences: Efficient Redistribution in the Presence of Market Failure position with informed rational agents, benevolent governments, and functioning markets should be to favor unconditional cash transfers (Fiszbein and Schady 2009: 49) However, in order to tackle the weaknesses of the method described, as a first step I would oppose unconditional cash transfers as they indeed open the door for misuse and non-sustainable behavior (Stimpfle 2010: 15). The scheme provides a monthly unconditional cash transfer to

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approximately 2400 households in four areas out of nine of the district (Knnemann and Leonhard 2008: 44). Central and local governments need to consider its alternative: providing unconditional cash transfers (or non-cash transfers), improved social services and public infrastructure in coordinated manners, but without employing conditionality (Fajth and Vinay 2010: 3). Support is growing for unconditional cash transfers as a social protection response to hunger (IDS 2006: 1) Collocations: to favor to oppose to provide a monthly to provide unconditional cash transfers unconditional cash transfers unconditional cash transfer unconditional cash transfers unconditional cash transfers as a social protection

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5. Bibliography:
AED (2010) - Education Policy and Data Center and Systems Service Center: Seeing the Reconstruction of Primary Education in Southern Sudan through EMIS 2006-2009. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0019/001912/191238e.pdf. Accessed on 24 Feb 2012. Agnor, Pierre-Richard, Nihal Bayraktar, Emmanuel Pinto Moreira and Karim El Aynaoui (2005), Achieving the Millennium Development Goals in Sub-Saharan Africa. http://ideas.repec.org/p/wbk/wbrwps/3750.html. Accessed on 23 Mar 2012 Africa.com Sudan http://www.africa.com/sudan. Accessed on 25 Feb 2012. Armendariz, Beatriz and Jonathan Morduch (2007): The Economics of Microfinance. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Attwood, Bain and Andrew Markus (1967): The 1967 Referendum. Canberra: AIATSIS. Awaiting Independence Vote, Southern Sudan has high hopes. In: Pulitzer Center of Crisis Reporting, 28 Nov 2010. http://pulitzercenter.org/articles/southern-sudanese-sayindependence-vote-will-improve-life Accessed on 27 Feb 2012. Barclay, Michael J. and Clifford W. Smith (1996): On Financial Architecture: Leverage, Maturity and Priority. In: Journal of Applied Corporate Finance, Winter 1996. Bateman, Milford (2011): Confronting Microfinance Undermining Sustainable Development. Sterling, VA: Kumarian Press. Becker, Philipp (2010): Investing in Microfinance. Wiesbaden: Gabler Verlag. Behrman, Jere R. Susan W. Parker and Petra E. Todd (2005): Long-Term Impacts of the Oportunidades Conditional Cash Transfer Program on Rural Youth in Mexico. Goettingen: Ibero-America Institute for Economic Research. Berlinski, Samuel and Sebastian Galiani (2005): The Effect of a Large Expansion of Preprimary School Facilities on Preschool Attendance and Maternal Employment. London: University College London. Bernanke, Ben and Mark Gertler (1986): Agency Costs, Collateral and Business Fluctuations. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. Bourguignon, Franois, Francisco H. G. Ferreira and Phillippe George Leite (2002): Ex-ante Evaluation of Conditional Cash Transfer Programs: The Case of Bolsa Escola. Washington DC: The World Bank. Brauw, Alan De and John Hoddinott.(2010) "Must Conditional Cash Transfer Programs Be Conditioned to Be Effective? The Impact of Conditioning Transfers on School Enrollment in Mexico". http://www.cid.harvard.edu/neudc07/docs/neudc07_s1_p05_debrauw.pdf. Accessed on 27 Feb 2012 Bronnenmayer, Dr. Herbert (Chairman of Miakwadang Austria). E-Mail interview, 3 March to April 27, 2012. Buvinic, Mayra (2008): Equality for Woman Where Do We Stand on Millennium Development Goal 3? Washington DC: The World Bank. The Carter Center: Jimmy Carter, Kofi Annan, Joseph Warioba, and John Hardman to Lead Carter Center Delegation to Observe Referendum of Self-Determination of Southern Sudan. http://www.cartercenter.org/news/pr/sudan-010311.html. Accessed on 26 Feb 2012.

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Chaudhury, Nazmul and Dilip Parajuli (2006): Conditional Cash Transfers and Female Schooling: The Impact of Female School Stipend Program on Public School Enrollments in Punjab, Pakistan. Washington DC: The World Bank. Cheru, Fantu and Colin Bradford (2005). Millennium Development Goals Raising the Resources to Tackle World Poverty, London: Zed Books Ltd. Commonwealth Youth Programme (2002). The Commonwealth Youth Credit Initiative Toolkit. London: Commonwealth Secretariat. Computer Feeds Ltd. & Ecotech Consultants (2006). Report on the Survey of Serving Public Service Personnel in Southern Sudan. Prepared for the Government of Southern Sudan supported by The Low-Income Countries under Stress (LICUS) Trust Fund Grant of the World Bank. Crouch, Luis and Penny Vinjevold (2006): South Africa: Access Before Quality, And What To Do Now. http://www.rti.org/pubs/rev101ART6ing.pdf. Accessed on 13 July 2012. Daley-Harris, Sam (2009): State of the Microcredit Summit Campaign Report. Washington DC: Microcredit Summit Campaign. Daly, M. W. (1986). The Cambridge History of Africa. Chapter 15: Egypt and the AngloEgyptian Sudan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Deneulin, Sverine and Lila Shahani. (2009). An Introduction to the Human Development and Capability Approach: Freedom and Agency. Sterling, VA: Earthscan. Deolalikar, Anil B. (1997): The Determinants of Primary School Enrollment and Household Schooling Expenditures in Kenya: Do They Vary by Income? Seatlle, WA: University of Washington. Dinka people. In: Wikipedia.org. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinka_people. Accessed on 21 Feb 2012. Education definition (2012), In: Dictionary.com online. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/education. Accessed on 10 Feb 2012. Education remains our top priority: S. Sudan President (2011). In: Sudan Tribune online. 12 Aug 2011. http://www.sudantribune.com/Improving-education-remains-our,39805. Accessed on 13 Feb 2012 Edwards, Michael and Alan Fowler (2002): The earthscan reader on NGO management. New York, NY: Routledge. Ellis, Frank, Stephen Devereux and Philip White (2009): Social Protection in Africa. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited. Fajth, Gaspar and Claudia Vinay (2010): Conditional Cash Transfers: A Global Perspective http://mdgpolicynet.undg.org/ext/MDG_Insight/MDG_Insights_Feb_2010.pdf. Accessed on 24 June 2012 Final report (2008): A Feasibility Study for Miakwadang, Project trip 19.01.2008 27.01.2008 Financial Stability Review (1999): The nature of credit risk http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download;jsessionid=CE560E1A78285E1119625F2 51BB79564?doi=10.1.1.199.3268&rep=rep1&type=pdf. Fiszbein, Ariel and Norbert Schady (2009): Conditional Cash Transfers: Reducing Present and Future Poverty. Washington DC: The World Bank.

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