Two-Body Orbital Mechanics

The Two-Body Problem

Energy Equation
Elliptical Orbits
Escape Velocity
Hyperbolic Orbits
MAE 155A
NASA Image
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MAE 155A
The Two-Body Problem
Motion of a spacecraft in the solar system is generally dominated by one central body
at a time.
The trajectory of the spacecraft relative to the central body (Earth, sun, moon, etc.)
represents a solution to the two-body problem.
Assumptions for the two-body problem include:
The motion of the spacecraft is governed by attraction to a single central body.
The mass of the spacecraft is negligible compared to the central body.
The bodies are spherically symmetric, with mass concentrated at the center of each body.
Only gravitational forces act on the bodies.
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Circular Orbit
Newton's law of universal gravitation states that the gravitational force between two
masses is inversely proportional to the square of the distance beteen them.
F=
Gm M
r
2
F=gravitational force
m=spacecraft mass
M=central body mass
G=6.6710
11
m
3
/( kg.s
2
)
For a circular orbit to occur, the gravitional force must balance the centrifugal force
(radial component of acceleration).
m
V
2
r
=
G mM
r
2
V =
.
M G
r
velocity for circular orbit
V=velocity
r=orbital radius
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Gravitational Constants
It is convenient to define a gravitational constant as the product of the central body
mass and the universal constant.
j=GM=gravitational constant
Mercury 22,032.1 2439.7
Venus 324,858.8 6051.8
Earth 398,600.4 6378.14
Mars 42,828.3 3397
Jupiter 126,711,995.4 71,492
Saturn 37,939,519.7 60,268
Uranus 5,780,158.5 25,559
Neptune 6,871,307.8 24,764
Moon 4902.8 1737.4
Sun 132,712,439,935.5 696,000
j(km
3
/ s
2
) radius( km)
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MAE 155A
Energy Equation
The specific energy of the spacecraft is the total energy (kinetic + potential) divided
by vehicle mass.
e=
V
2
2

j
r
V =
.
2j
r

j
a
V =
.
j
r
circular (a = r)
V =
.
2j
r
parabola ( a = infinite)
V =
.
2j
r
+
j
a
ellipse (a > 0)
hyperbola (a < 0)
The energy (or vis-viva) equation gives the velocity of the spacecraft at a given
distance from the central body.
e=
j
2a
e=specific energy
a=semimajor axis
V=velocity
r=orbital radius
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Specific Momentum
The angular momentum per unit mass, also called the specific momentum, is
specified in terms of the flight path angle.
H=r V cos
H=specific momentum
r=orbit radius
V =velocity
= flight path angle
e=
.
1
H
2
ja
e = 0 circle
e < 1 ellipse
e = 1 parabola
e > 1 hyperbola
The shape of the orbital trajectory is determined by the eccentricity (e) parameter.
r
V
tan =
1
r
dr
d 0

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Parameters of the Elliptical Orbit
Line of Apsides
Apoapsis
Periapsis
General: Periapsis Apoapsis
Sun: Perihelion Aphelion
Earth: Perigee Apogee
Moon: Perilune Apolune
a c
r
a
r
p
b
V
0
r
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Elliptical Orbit Geometry
Useful relationships can be derived from the orbit geometry.
r=
r
p
(1+e)
1+e cos 0
=
a(1e
2
)
1+e cos 0
cos 0=
r
p
(1+e)
r e

1
e
=
a(1e
2
)
r e

1
e
radius:
true anomaly:
e=
r
a
r
p
r
a
+r
p
=
c
a
=
r
a
a
1=1
r
p
a
eccentricity:
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MAE 155A
More Elliptical Orbit Geometry
Yet more useful relationships can be derived from the orbit geometry.
tan =
e sin0
1+e cos 0
flight path:
P=
2n
n
=2n
.
a
3
j
period:
r
p
V
p
=r
a
V
a
semimajor axis:
V
p
=velocity at periapsis
V
a
=velocity at apoapsis
a=
r
a
+r
p
2
=
r
p
1e
=
r
a
1+e
velocity:
n=
.
j
a
3
mean motion:
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Escape Velocity
A parabolic orbit represents the boundary between elliptic and hyperbolic orbits.
Comet trajectories are known to approach that of a parabolic orbit.
The velocity on a parabolic orbit is the minimum needed for a spacecraft to escape
attraction of the central body.
The parabolic orbit velocity therefore represents the escape velocity.
V
es
=
.
2j
r
What is the escape velocity from the surface of the Earth?
j=398,600 km
3
/ s
2
r=6,378km
V
es
=11.2 km/ s36,000 ft / s
V =
.
2j
r

j
a
parabola (a = infinite)
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Hyperbolic Trajectories
Hyperbolic orbits are used for Earth departure on planetary flights and for planetary
arrival and targeting.
V =
.
2j
r
+
j
a
velocity on
hyperbolic
trajectory
V
es
=
.
2j
r
V =
.
V
es
2
+V
HE
2
parabolic
escape
velocity
V
HE
=
.
j
a
hyperbolic
excess
velocity
Note: Some references define the semi-major axis of hyperbolic orbit as a
negative number (a < 0).