History of Cashmere

Ever since Victorian England "discovered" the loft, warmth and feel of fabric made from Cashmere, it has been in demand for those in high society. Just pick up a novel or a fashion magazine, especially in the Fall, and you will see references to cashmere sweaters, socks, suits and shawls... all costing a lot of money. Historically, demand for these items has remained steady through feast and famine, war and peace. This is because of the wonderful feel or handle of the fiber combined with low bulk and high loft. These factors combine to make the warmest, softest and most comfortable garment money could buy. Cashmere producing areas remained in the Himalayan region throughout the first part of the 19th century, extending east to China and west to Iran. But because of political and geographical barriers, western clothiers never saw the animals that produced the fiber; they bought cashmere in bulk, primarily from India, China, Iran and Afghanistan. Meanwhile, both Australia and the American Southwest were being settled by a tremendous influx of immigrants from Europe. These peoples brought with them as much as they could from the "old country" and this included the domestic goat, known for its durability during long sea voyages, and as a provider of milk and meat. Over the years in Australia, farms failed and many goats escaped, resulting in flocks of wild, or feral, goats in the vast interior "Outback". In America, especially in the Texas "outback", huge tracts of arid lands were dedicated to running what is called a "Spanish" goats because nothing else would thrive. In neither environment were these goats tame. They ran wild most of the year and were rounded up annually to harvest the young animals for the meat market. It was the Australians who first noticed that natural selection had produced a hardy, robust and wily animal, some of which had a luxurious, downy undercoat as protection from the weather. In the late 1970's, the Aussies began selecting those fiber bearing animals and selectively breeding them in an effort to establish a new industry. Some Australian goats were exported to the United States in the mid 1980's. Emphasis was placed on fiber production, diameter and style, the natural "crimp" along the length of an individual fiber. As the search for suitable mates for these few imported animals progressed down to Texas, it was discovered that our own Spanish goats had similar fiber already! These animals were removed from their wild environment and bred to the Aussie imports with visions of bales of fine cashmere dancing in our heads. Very quickly we learned that cashmere is an elusive target. The very does who exhibited fine fiber in the wild, suddenly turned into well fed matrons that produced a similar fiber that was not cashmere. This fiber was at the time, called cashgora, although it is not truly a cross between cashmere and mohair, produced by the Angora goat. Later research proved that fiber diameter in goats is controlled both by genetics (genotype) and environment (phenotype) and that goats raised under less than optimum conditionscan exhibit finer fiber than they would otherwise, as is the case in China, where even the people are underfed. Goats exposed to a greater nutritional level as is necessitated when removing them from the arid southwest and taking them to Colorado, New Hampshire or Washington State, resulted in the production of this coarser, straighter, but still luxurious fiber, now called commercial

cashmere. True cashgora has a third fiber type called kemp, and is very much avoided by both the mohair industry and the cashmere industry. Especially in young animals, it is very difficult to differential between cashmere and cashgora. Unfortunately, this lead to the introduction of many "top quality cashmere goats" that were not, resulting in many disenfranchised and disappointed breeders. The good news is that we have realized the role that environment can play in fiber quality and have redoubled our efforts to identify goats that are genetically capable of producing cashmere. While we have not yet established a true breed of cashmere goat, one that will pass along its desired genetic package the majority of the time, we have made great progress and are now producing American grown cashmere. We are proud that we can grow our cashmere using traditional American values... that of high nutritional levels, good husbandry practices and humane harvesting techniques. We cannot and will not starve goats into growing "hunger-fine" fiber as they do in the historic cashmere producing regions of the world. World Cashmere Markets In 1991, estimates of the average annual production of "greasy", or raw (unseparated) fleece worldwide were as follows: China - 10,000 tons; Mongolia - 3450 tons; Iran and Afghanistan - 1800 tons; Pakistan - 600 tons; New Zealand - 150 tons; Australia 65 tons. About 150 breeds of goat produce cashmere. The world production is led by China. In 1999, China's output increased to 20,000 tons and Mongolia's to 5600 tons. This sudden glut of cashmere coincided with a marketing craze for "pashmina" shawls and other high end cashmere products. Prices for finished goods came down but demand for these items has increased. Today, cashmere sweaters are available at discount stores as well as Neiman-Marcus and Saks Fifth Avenue. In 1991, China disrupted the world market by withholding its entire clip. Spinners and processors in the United States, dependent upon the Chinese supply, closed their doors. China purchased its own spinning and dehairing machines and is producing its own line of sweaters, but the result was disastrous for world cashmere prices. They plunged from a high of $99 per kilogram in 1989 to $25 per kilo in 1991. During the mid 1990s, the price of raw cashmere stabilized at $30 to $40 per kilo. Prices in 199899 increased to $17 per kilo, and the latest report show that it has soared to $90 per kilo as the Western consumer market becomes hungry for cashmere sweaters and the latest passion "pashmina". Pashmina is just plain old cashmere, not some higher priced fiber combed from the necks and bellies of Himalyan goats. It's just cashmere, more often than not, cashmere blended with silk. But the market hype put upon these products has driven the price to over $500 per shawl. Somebody is making a lot of money and I bet it's not the producers. But, a drop in prices from 1990 is consistent with world prices for other natural fibers such as wool and mohair, which plunged to as little as $.07 per pound. The surviving manufacturers realized that consumer demand for quality sweaters remained, and that with the price of cashmere so low, they could produce superior quality sweaters using the finest fiber available... cashmere. All available cashmere in the pipeline was bought up and this caused an increase in the price because there was so little in the

absence of the Chinese product. Fine department stores now carry "reasonably" priced cashmere sweaters as are the prestigious mail-order catalogs such as Lands End and LL Bean. These sweaters are mostly Chinese made, using hunger-fine fiber produced in some of the most arid regions of Asia. This fiber is combed from winter weakened goats. It is estimated that Chinese goats lose 40% of their body weight between November and May. But how can the free world producer, especially we in the United States hope to compete with 30 million Chinese goats?? The answer is, we can't... we don't have to. The American grower is in the unique position of being able to produce fine cashmere and service a niche market of mid- to upper-income consumers wanting a unique American product. American cashmere is different from the Chinese fiber. Ours is richer and even more luxurious because we either shear a living fiber from a robust animal or lovingly comb the fiber out as it is naturally shed in the spring. Cashmere Style A dilemma faces American cashmere growers just now. Many are looking critically at their fleeces and are asking themselves, "Is this good cashmere?" How do you tell? There are three major aspects of cashmere that govern fleece quality: fiber diameter, yield and a third generally referred to as "style and character." This is the only aspect of fleece that cannot be objectively tested. Fiber diameter and yield are obtainable, at a price, but the elusive style and character continues to confound. Just what is style and character? Some assign separate definitions to the two words, but for the purposes of this article, the two will be combined into one, "Style." So, what is style? Style is the degree of crimp inherent to a single strand of cashmere underdown. A fleece with secondary fibers that are closely crimped is a web of interwoven fibers (see below). Fleece that appears as parallel fibers, uniform in their arrangement, has no crimp and therefore poor style. Goats with poor style usually have long shiny fiber that falls naturally into locks. This little doe "Sophie" was imported en utero, but was cashgora. The more crimp, the better the style. Style is the built-in quality control mechanism for cashmere fleece evaluation. In fact, style is the #1 selection criteria because fiber with good style can be identified as true cashmere as opposed to fine cashgora. Visual evaluation of a fleece exhibiting good style will readily reveal the presence of the dreaded "third fiber," the intermediate diameter, medullated (hollow) fiber that bespeaks Angora infusion and indicates animals liable to coarsen in time beyond the range of true cashmere. These third fibers will stick out like a sore thumb, flying away from the body of crimped fiber like little warning flags. This is also called "running out." Fleece with poor style tends to hide those runners within their neatly arrayed regiments. Care must be taken to differentiate between "runners" and fiber affected by weathering.

400x magnification of cashgora. "Sophie", sired while in quarantine Cashmere that is longer than its associated guard hair will become bleached and straight and these fibers can easily be mistaken for runners. Always examine the shorn end of a fleece staple, holding the weathered end in your fingers to avoid this confusion. Animals which exhibit good style should be carefully evaluated as to their other fleece characteristics and physical condition. They should only be used as breeding stock if they fit the growers' defined goals. It is always important to look at the big picture and not focus on a single criteria. But style is the most important fleece characteristic because the presence of style is the essence of cashmere. It is good style that differentiates good cashmere from poor, all other characteristics aside. The presence of the tight crimp allows spinners to fabricate a thin, strong, soft thread that is the hallmark of quality cashmere. Fleece with poor style doesn't cling together as well and results in thicker, slicker thread. The third fiber types will not take dye and will be unsightly in the finished garment. We the growers are responsible for supplying fiber that qualifies as cashmere; quality cashmere, not a poor substitute or simulation. Style is the only fleece characteristic that can assure this quality. For this reason, cashmere style is important when defining long term goals. For example, a grower wants to select a buck suitable for use over Spanish does. These does are all under 15 microns (u) , under 10 percent yield and have excellent style. Unfortunately, the fleece is not worth the cost of shearing. These does have true cashmere but the objective here is to make money. Fleeces with these numbers are not economically feasible. So, the grower decides to sacrifice fiber diameter and shoot for 16.5u fleece that has 25 percent production. How can the true cashmere quality be preserved during this genetic manipulation? Style! The buck must be carefully selected to complement the does in such a way as to produce a majority of offspring, or progeny, that fall within that defined goal. According to research by Pattie and Restall (1990), the selected buck should not only be 18u in diameter with about 40 percent yield but must be from a herd that averages 18u and 40 percent yield. It is very important to remember that an animal's ancestry affects his ability to pass on his genes. Bucks with this production level will not exhibit excellent style, but the presence of some style is imperative to assure that his fantastic production is not due to too many Angora genes in his gene pool, especially in young, still fine animals. Growers must guard against this third fiber type in all their breeding stock in order to establish the quality of American cashmere. To return to the above example, the grower has defined a long term goal and the use of style as a selection criteria has

assured that as the goal is achieved, quality cashmere is still being grown. Growers must consider all three selection criteria when choosing breeding stock as all three will combine to define the mature fleece type and ultimately, the amount of money paid for an individual fleece. But long-term planning must retain true cashmere as its hallmark and style is the key to the definition of American cashmere. Learn to recognize style and use it to select breeding stock. Ask potential suppliers of your next buck about his style as well as his pedigree, micron diameter and yield. Style will never lead you wrong. Order Form and get the most up-to-date information available.
http://www.capcas.com

HISTORY OF AMERICAN CASHMERE

THE

CASHMERE

PRODUCING

GOAT

History of Cashmere Goats Hardy multi purpose goats have been bred and used by the native people of Central Asia for hundred of years, the extremely fine, soft under-down these goats grow (cashmere) is highly prized for the making of incredibly soft, light and warm garments. Europeans "discovered" the fiber, notably in the so called Ring Shawl. These soft, warm shawls were so fine they could be pulled through a wedding ring, hence the name. Some reports have the Western world's demand for this fiber beginning when Napoleon brought back a ring shawl for his wife Josephine. Regardless of when the craze began, cashmere remains the ultimate in luxury fiber. In the 1970s, scientists in Australia started breeding feral goats for cashmere production. The project was quite successful, and other countries took note. Scotland and the United States also started breeding cashmere producing goats in the 1980s, using genetics from Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, as well as other regions. In the US the feral Spanish meat goats were used in the breeding program, after careful selection for fiber traits. There are variations in the appearance of the Cashmere herds in different countries, as they each have their own unique genetic make-up. However, they all share the ability to grow significant volumes of the very fine, crimpy, soft under-down. Farmers in Canada started their herds in the late '80s and early '90s using genetics from Australia and the US.

The

Cashmere

Goat

Cashmere goats in Canada and the US are goats which have been specifically bred for the cashmere fiber. The amount and quality of the fiber is vastly superior to goats not specifically bred for cashmere fiber production. Angora goats produce mohair, but will not produce cashmere. Attempts were made to breed Angoras to cashmere producing goats to increase yield. What resulted was a long, wavy, lustrous, coarser fiber that cant be called cashmere, hence the term cashgora from the combination of the goat names. Cashgora is, broadly speaking, fleece with three fiber components: coarse guard hair, a fine (crinkled) down or "cash" portion and the longer shiny and straighter "intermediate" fiber or "gora" component - the so called third fiber. There must be a down component. The term cashgora sometimes is also used to describe fiber

that is over 19 microns. Goats that produce cashgora do not easily shed, and require shearing as a harvest method. Most cashmere breeders find a tendency to produce cashgora undesirable in their goats. What is noticeable in Cashmere goats is the diversity of appearance. There are similarities too: they tend to have wide horns, blocky builds, and refined features. However, they come in all different colors, which make a herd of Cashmere goats appear like quite an assortment. White tends to be dominant, but black, brown, red, cream, gray, and badger faced are very common. They also may have either long or short guard hair. What matters is not the color or length of the guard hair, but the quality and quantity of the down underneath, and the size and correct build of the animal. Cashmere goats are judged 50% on fiber and 50% on body. Cashmere goats are generally raised as a dual purpose animal; for fiber and chevron (goat meat). Producing two commercial crops instead of one adds to their attraction as a productive and sustainable agricultural animal. Some breeders also breed for milk production. Cashmere goats tend to be alert and wary, rather than docile and placid. These traits are largely due to their feral ancestry, relatively only a few generations back. They also tend to be very easy kidders and good moms.

The

Cashmere

Fiber

Cashmere is a name for a very specific fiber, rather than the name of the animal it comes from. This is unique in the animal fiber community and is, in part, what makes cashmere the fiber that other fibers are so frequently compared to; as in: "As soft as cashmere". The fleece of the Cashmere goat is made up of two very distinct types of fiber. One is the fine under down which is the source of luxurious fiber for sweaters and suiting cashmere. The other is the coarse guard hair. Guard hair can be long or short; there must be good differentiation between the guard hair and the cashmere (down). Be weary of goats that do not show these two types of fiber. To be classed as cashmere the under down has to meet certain criteria set by the textile industry. These standards vary somewhat from country to country but in general the fiber must be: 1) Under 18.5 (+- .5) microns for adult animals, kids should be finer; a micron is one-millionth of a meter (a meter is about a yard), so each fiber is very, very fine. For comparison, a human hair can range from 17 to 181 microns in diameter. It is desirable to have a fleece with an even diameter from neck to breech. 2) Staple length longer than 1 inches; this is necessary for processing the down through machinery. Staple length is an important factor, contributing to the total down weight, (TDW); it must be a strong consideration for superior selection. 3) Have crimp its entire length: this is different than crimp looked for in sheeps wool which is very uniform along the staple, cashmere crimp is a crazy individual fiber crimp. The crimpiness of the fiber gives it loft and enables garments made of cashmere to provide warmth without weight. 4) Low to no luster. So although many goats might have a fine under down, it might not meet the requirement to be classed as cashmere. Other desirable traits to look for in the under down cashmere are; 1) Density, combined with good staple length, is a highly desirable characteristic.

A dense fleece will exhibit compactness and feel thicker, ("wool like"). Density also contributes to TDW. 2) Handle; Cashmere is warm and extremely soft to touch. Combined with warmth and lightness, handle is the "selling point for Cashmere garments. The total down weight (TDW) produced depends on the diameter; (the larger the diameter the heaver the weight), the length of the fiber; (quality cashmere is normally within the range of 1 - 2 inches, and the overall down density and coverage on the goat. Selective breeding for these traits is what makes for greater TDW. Goats with no selective breeding may produce only 1-2 ounces (30-55 grams) of raw down, but a goat selectively bred can produce as much as 4-6 ounces (145-170 grams) of raw cashmere annually. To assess a cashmere fleece, breeders should have a laboratory do a "histogram" This is a measurement of the mean fiber diameter of thousands of fibers from the animal. This, along with a fleece grading from someone experienced in cashmere classification, are tools used in breeding programs to develop and maintain a herd of Cashmere goats. Commercially there are three grades of cashmere; Premium below 16 microns, 16 to 16.6 micron and 16.7 to 18.5 micron. Cashmere comes in a variety of colors from pure white to cream to soft grays and browns. A black goat (black guard hair) would produce a soft gray or brown cashmere.

Counterfeit

Cashmere?!

Cashmere is an extremely valuable fiber. It is very light in weight, and each goat only produces a few ounces a year. Because of its value, there is a real concern with products being sold as cashmere, when they are not. The demand for cashmere continues to grow globally, which adds to its value and the problem with mislabeled products. Wool and other fibers are frequently blended with the cashmere, and sold as 100% cashmere. The marketing term "Pashmina" is often confused with cashmere. Pashmina is not a legal fiber term for labeling purposes, but instead is an Indian word used to describe cashmere in India and Nepal. Often items sold as "Pashmina" are a blend of silk and cashmere; however there is no guarantee or requirement that they have any cashmere in them. "Buyer Beware" is good advice for those investing in a cashmere garment or yarns. For more information on what to be aware of regarding fraud and the mislabeling of cashmere, check out the web page of the Cashmere and Camel Hair Manufacturers Institute (CCMI).

Chevron
Goat meat is regularly enjoyed in most regions of the world: the Mediterranean, Caribbean, Middle East, Latin America, and Asia. The demand for goat meat continually increases in Canada and the United States. The Cashmere goats, with their Spanish meat goat ancestry, perform well as a meat goat. The strengths they bring are their fertility, easy kidding, good mothering and fast rate of gain. They are often used in commercial meat goat operations for just these reasons. The dual purpose nature of these animals allows the producer to raise Cashmere goats commercially, and profitably. The demand for meat also allows producers to keep the quality of their cashmere high: it provides a solid market for animals with inferior fleeces. References: The Canadian Cashmere Producers, The

Australian Cashmere Growers Association Ltd., The Cashmere & Camel Hair Manufacturers Institute, The Cashmere Goat Registry, The Goat Notes, The Eastern Cashmere Association, The Northwest Cashmere Association.* http://northwestcashmere.blogspot.com/2009/06/april-2007-quarterly.html
The Cashmere & Camel Hair Manufacturers Institute (CCMI) is an international trade association representing the interests of producers and manufacturers of camel hair and cashmere fiber, yarn, fabric and garments throughout the world. Formed in 1984 as the Cashmere & Camel Hair Manufacturers Institute of America, the Institute changed is name in 1990 to better reflect the international character of its membership and activities. Today, the Institute is the leading authority on domestic and international issues concerning these luxury fibers and advises on labeling, international standards, supply and market trends.

The goal of the Institute is to promote and protect the image and integrity of camel hair and cashmere textile products. This is accomplished through: Government relations Product testing Media relations Industry relations

GOVERNMENT RELATIONS CCMI represents the interest of members at both national and international levels and works with appropriate government bodies whose activities affect the industry. PRODUCT TESTING CCMI monitors the marketplace for mislabeled camel hair or cashmere garments and provides a free fiber content testing service for CCMI members, manufacturers and retailers to determine if products are accurately labeled. This service is not available to consumers. PUBLIC RELATIONS CCMI actively works with trade and consumer media to communicate to the business community and general public about trends and issues facing the camel hair and cashmere industry and its products.

INDUSTRY RELATIONS CCMI provides a forum for industry leaders world-wide to meet and discuss important issues and to identify workable solutions for the common good of the industry. CCMI's staff offers professional consulting services and advice on issues specific to the camel hair and cashmere industries including government relations, international standards, supply and market trends.

http://www.cashmere.org/cm/general.php

Cashmere wool
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Kashmere" redirects here.. For information about the region see Kashmir (disambiguation)

Cashmere Scarves

Modern men's cashmere sweaters for sale.

Cashmere wool, usually simply known as cashmere, is a fiber obtained from Cashmere and other types of goats. The word cashmere derives from an old spelling ofKashmir. Cashmere is fine in texture, and strong, light, and soft. Garments made from it provide excellent insulation. In the United States, under the U.S. Wool Products Labeling Act of 1939, as amended, (15 Uction 68b(a)(6)), states that a wool or textile product may not be labeled as containing cashmere unless:

such wool product is the fine (dehaired) undercoat fibers produced by a cashmere goat (Capra hircus laniger);

the average diameter of the fiber of such wool product does not exceed 19 microns; and such wool product does not contain more than 3 percent (by weight) of cashmere fibers with average diameters that exceed 30 microns.

The average fiber diameter may be subject to a coefficient of variation around the mean that shall not exceed 24 percent.[1]

Contents
[hide]

1 Source 2 Gathering 3 Production 4 Types of fiber 5 History 6 See also 7 References 8 External links

[edit]Source

Pashmina goats, Ladakh

Cashmere wool fiber for clothing and other textile articles is obtained from the neck region of Cashmere and other goats. Historically, fine-haired Cashmere goats have been called Capra hircus laniger, as if they were a subspecies of the domestic goat Capra hircus. However, they are now more commonly considered part of the domestic goat subspecies Capra aegagrus hircus. Cashmere goats produce a double fleece that consists of a fine, soft undercoat or underdown of hair mingled with a straighter and much coarser outer coating of hair called guard hair. For the fine underdown to be sold and processed further, it must be de-haired. De-hairing is a mechanical process that separates the coarse hairs from the fine hair. After de-hairing, the resulting "cashmere" is ready to be dyed and converted into yarn, fabrics and garments.

[edit]Gathering

Cashmere shearing. Corindhap, Australia.

Cashmere is collected during the spring moulting season when the goats naturally shed their winter coat. In the Northern Hemisphere, the goats moult as early as March and as late as May. In some regions, the mixed mass of down and coarse hair is removed by hand with a coarse comb that pulls tufts of fiber from the animal as the comb is raked through the fleece. The collected fiber then has a higher yield of pure cashmere after the fiber has been washed and dehaired. The long, coarse guard hair is then typically clipped from the animal and is often used for brushes, interlinings and other non-apparel uses. Animals in Iran, Afghanistan, New Zealand,

and Australia are typically shorn of their fleece, resulting in a higher coarse hair content and lower pure cashmere yield. In America, the most popular method is combing. The process takes up to two weeks, but with a trained eye for when the fiber is releasing, it is possible to comb the fibers out in about a week.

[edit]Production
China has become the largest producer of raw cashmere and their clip is estimated at 10,000 metric tons per year (hair in). Mongolia produces somewhat more than 3,000 tons (2,721 tonnes) (hair in), while Afghanistan, Iran, Turkey, and other Central Asian Republics produce significant but lesser amounts. The annual world clip is estimated to be between 15,000 and 20,000 tons (13,605 and 18,140 tonnes) (hair in). "Pure cashmere", resulting from removing animal grease, dirt and coarse hairs from the fleece, is estimated at about 6,500 tons (5,895 tonnes). It is estimated that on average yearly production per goat is 150 grams (about 1/3 lb). Pure cashmere can be dyed and spun into yarns and knitted into jumpers (sweaters), hats, gloves, socks and other clothing, or woven into fabrics then cut and assembled into garments such as outer coats, jackets, trousers (pants), pajamas, scarves, blankets, and other items. Fabric and garment producers in Scotland,Italy, and Japan have long been known as market leaders. In the United States, the town of Uxbridge, Massachusetts was an incubator for the cashmere wool industry. It had the first power looms for woolens and the first manufacture of "satinets". Capron Mill had the first power looms, in 1820. It burned on July 21, 2007, in the Bernat Mill fire.

[edit]Types

of fiber

Raw - fiber that has not been processed and is essentially straight from the animal Processed - fiber that has been through the processes of de-hairing, washing, carding, and is ready either to spin or to knit/crochet/weave

Virgin - new fiber made into yarns, fabrics, or garments for the first time Recycled - fibers reclaimed from scraps or fabrics that were previously woven or felted, and may or may not have been previously used by the consumer

[edit]History
Cashmere shawls have been manufactured in Nepal and Kashmir for thousands of years. Famous shawls are the jamavar with the famous paisley pattern. The fiber is also known as pashm (Persian for wool) or pashmina (Persian/Urdu word derived from Pashm) for its use in the handmade shawls of Kashmir.[2] References to woolen shawls appear in Mughal texts between the 3rd century BC and the 11th century AD.[3] However, the founder of the cashmere wool industry is traditionally thought the 15th century ruler of Kashmir, Zayn-ul-Abidin, who introduced weavers from Turkestan.[3]

In the 18th and early 19th century Kashmir (then called Cashmere by the British), had a thriving industry producing shawls from goat down imported from Tibet andTartary through Ladakh. The down trade was controlled by treaties signed as a result of previous wars.[4] The shawls were introduced into Western Europe when the General in Chief of the French campaign in Egypt (17991802) sent one to Paris. The shawl's arrival is said to have created an immediate sensation and plans were put in place to start manufacturing the product in France.[5] Trading in Commercial quantities of raw cashmere between Asia and Europe began with Valerie Audresset SA, Louviers, France claiming to be the first European company to commercially spin cashmere.[6] The down was imported from Tibet through Kasan the capital of the Russian province Volga and was used in France to create imitation woven shawls. Unlike the Kashmir shawls, the French shawls had a different pattern on each side.[5] The imported cashmere was spread out on large sieves and beaten with sticks to open the fibers and clear away the dirt. After opening, the cashmere was washed and children removed the coarse hair. The down was then carded and combed using the same methods used for worsted spinning.[7] In 1819, M. Jaubert, at the expense of M. Ternaux and under the auspices of the French government, imported several Tibetan and Tartary cross goats into France. Edward Riley (nephew of Alexander Riley) saw the herd in 1828, and described it as a mixture of colors from brown to white, covered with coarse hair, with an average of three ounces (84 grams) of down underneath the hair. Mr Riley also saw M. Polonceau's herd. Polonceau selected from the Ternaux herd and crossed his animals with a selected fine Angora buck. In 1831 Mr Riley went back to France and purchased ten females in kid and two bucks from Mr Polonceau and sent them to Australia. At the time, the average production of the Polonceau herd was 16 ounces (500 grams) of down.[8] By 1830, weaving cashmere shawls with French-produced yarn had become an important Scottish industry. The Scottish Board of Trustees for the Encouragement of Arts and Manufactures offered a 300Pound Sterling reward to the first person who could spin cashmere in Scotland based on the French system. Captain Charles Stuart Cochrane collected the required information while in Paris and received a Scottish patent for the process in 1831. In the autumn of 1831, he sold the patent to Henry Houldsworth and sons of Glasgow. In 1832 Henry Houldsworth and sons commenced the manufacture of yarn, and in 1833 received the reward.[9] Dawson International claim to have invented the first commercial dehairing machine in 1890, and from 1906 they purchased cashmere from China, but were restricted to purchasing fiber from Beijing and Tianjing until 1978. In 1978 trade was liberalised and Dawson International began buying cashmere from many provinces.[6] In the United States, many early textile centers developed as part of the American Industrial Revolution. Among them, the Blackstone Valley became a major contributor to the American Industrial Revolution. The town of Uxbridge, Massachusetts became an early textile center in the

Blackstone Valley, which was known for the manufacture of cashmere wool and satinets, from circa 1810.

3 reasons to adopt Cashmere

1. It is warm and comfortable Cashmere wool is extracted from special goats that live at the foothills of Himalaya. Its delicacy and softness has made it popular amongst comfort and elegance seekers. 2. It is rare and precious For the finestcashmerewool is needed to wait an entire year, catching the combining seasons (spring and winter) that lasts for only three to four weeks . 3. It is fashion and will never go out It is unlikely that this covetable fiber will ever go out of fashion. Its fabulous journey starts from goats in Himalaya to artisans that transform these fibers in the most precious garments transform it

1. What is American Food.- By the way pizza is Italian/Hot dogs...ha ok u can have it 2. You never see a product that says made in U.S.A if you do it sucks 3. Chevrolet- Is a french word 4. The best Athletes are of African Decent 5.The Smartest people are Asian 6.We have one of the highest murder rates in the world 7. Less that 1% of our population makes over $250,000 a year (land of oppourtunity) 8.George Bush .....................!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 9. O yea and by the way none of us are true blooded americans only the Native American Indians are...oops were 10. Land of the free.........$$$$$ only for a limited time$$$$$

Science and technology

This section does not cite anyreferences or sources. (July 2012)

Further information: Science and technology in the United States

The Washington Post on Monday, July 21, 1969 stating "'The Eagle Has Landed'Two Men Walk on the Moon".

There is a fondness[undue weight? discuss] for scientific advancement and technological innovation in American culture, resulting in the flow of many modern innovations. The great American inventors include Robert Fulton (the steamboat); Samuel Morse (the telegraph); Eli Whitney (the cotton gin, interchangeable parts);Cyrus McCormick (the reaper); and Thomas Edison (with more than a thousand inventions credited to his name). Most of the new technological innovations over the 20th and 21st centuries were either first invented in the United States and/or first widely adopted by Americans. Examples include the lightbulb, the airplane, thetransistor, the atomic bomb, nuclear power, the personal computer, the iPod, video games and online shopping, as well as the development of the Internet. This propensity for application of scientific ideas continued throughout the 20th century with innovations that held strong international benefits. The twentieth century saw the arrival of the Space Age, the Information Age, and a renaissance in the health sciences. This culminated in cultural milestones such as the Apollo moon landings, the creation of the Personal Computer, and the sequencing effort called the Human Genome Project. Throughout its history, American culture has made significant gains through the open immigration of accomplished scientists. Accomplished scientists include: ScottishAmerican scientist Alexander Graham Bell, who developed and patented the telephone and other devices; German scientist Charles Steinmetz, who developed new alternating-current electrical systems in 1889; Russian scientist Vladimir Zworykin, who invented the motion camera in 1919; Serb scientist Nikola Tesla who invented the brushless electrical motor based on rotating magnetic fields in 1884. With the rise of the Nazi party in Germany, a large number of Jewish scientists fled Germany and immigrated to the country, one of them being a Jewish theoretical physicist Albert Einstein in the year 1933.

In the years during and following WWII, several innovative scientists immigrated to the U.S. from Europe, such as Enrico Fermi, who came from Italy in 1938 and led the work that produced the world's first self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction. Post-war Europe saw many of its scientists, such as rocket scientist Wernher von Braun, recruited by the United States as part of Operation Paperclip.

Education
Main articles: Education in the United States and Educational attainment in the United States

Higher education in the US by race

Education in the United States is and has historically been provided mainly by government, with control and funding coming from three levels: federal, state, and local. School attendance is mandatory and nearly universal at the elementary and high school levels (often known outside the United States as the primary and secondary levels). Students have the options of having their education held in public schools, private schools, or home school. In most public and private schools, education is divided into three levels: elementary school, junior high school (also often called middle school), and high school. In almost all schools at these levels, children are divided by age groups into grades. Post-secondary education, better known as "college" in the United States, is generally governed separately from the elementary and high school system. In the year 2000, there were 76.6 million students enrolled in schools from kindergarten through graduate schools. Of these, 72 percent aged 12 to 17 were judged academically "on track" for their age (enrolled in school at or above grade level). Of those enrolled in compulsory education, 5.2 million (10.4 percent) were attending private schools. Among the country's adult population, over 85

percent have completed high school and 27 percent have received a bachelor's degree or higher

Christian: (80.2%)

Protestant (51.3%) Roman Catholic (23.9%) Mormon (1.7%) Other Christian (1.6%) Remainder of Christians (1.7%)

Unaffiliated (12.1%) Atheist (4%) Other/Unspecified (2.5%) Jewish (1.7%) Buddhist (0.7%) Muslim (0.6%)

National holidays

Fireworks light up the sky over theWashington Monument. Americans traditionally shoot fireworks throughout the night on the Fourth of July.

Halloween is often observed in the United States. It typically involves dressing up in costumes and an emphasis on scary themes.

Rockefeller Center Christmas tree.

Martin Luther King Day memorializes the legacy of Dr. King, who is often regarded as the patriarch of the Civil Rights Movement. Dr. King is pictured above delivering his "I Have a Dream" speech.

The United States observes holidays derived from events in American history, Christian traditions, and national patriarchs. Thanksgiving is the principal traditionally American holiday. It evolved from the English Pilgrims_' custom of giving thanks for one's welfare. Thanksgiving is generally celebrated as a family reunion with a large afternoon feast. Christmas Day, celebrating the birth of Jesus Christ, is widely celebrated and a federal holiday, though a fair amount of its current cultural importance is due to secular reasons. European colonization has led to some other Christian holidays such

as Easter, Lent and St. Patricks Day to be observed, though with varying degrees of religious fidelity. Independence Day (also known as the Fourth of July) celebrates the anniversary of the countrys Declaration of Independence from Great Britain. It is generally observed by parades throughout the day and the shooting of fireworks at night. Halloween is thought to have evolved from the ancient Celtic/Gaelic festival of Samhain, which was introduced in the American colonies by Irish settlers. It has become a holiday that is celebrated by children and teens who traditionally dress up in costumes and go door to door trick-or-treating for candy. It also brings about an emphasis on eerie and frightening urban legends and movies. Additionally, Mardi Gras, which evolved from the Catholic tradition of Carnival, is observed notably in New Orleans, St. Louis, and Mobile, Alabama as well as numerous other towns. Federally recognized holidays are as follows: Date Official Name Remarks

January 1

New Year's Day

Celebrates beginning of the Gregorian calendar year. Festivities include counting down to midnight (12:00 am) on the preceding night, New Year's Eve. Traditional end of holiday season.

Birthday of Martin Third Monday Luther King, Jr., in January orMartin Luther King, Jr. Day

Honors Martin Luther King, Jr., Civil Rights leader, who was actually born on January 15, 1929; combined with other holidays in several states.

First January 20 following a Inauguration Day Presidential election

Observed only by federal government employees in Washington D.C., and the border counties of Maryland and Virginia to relieve traffic congestion that occurs with this major event. Swearing-in of President of the United States and Vice President of the United States. Celebrated every fourth year. Note: Takes place on January 21 if the 20th is a Sunday (although the President is still privately inaugurated on the 20th). If Inauguration Day falls on a Saturday or a Sunday, the preceding Friday or following

Monday is not a Federal Holiday

Third Monday Washington's in February Birthday

Washington's Birthday was first declared a federal holiday by an 1879 act of Congress. The Uniform Holidays Act, 1968, shifted the date of the commemoration of Washington's Birthday from February 22 to the third Monday in February. Many people now refer to this holiday as "Presidents' Day" and consider it a day honoring all American presidents. However, neither the Uniform Holidays Act nor any subsequent law changed the name of the holiday from Washington's Birthday to Presidents' Day.[21]

Last Monday in May

Memorial Day

Honors the nation's war dead from the Civil War onwards; marks the unofficial beginning of the summer season. (traditionally May 30, shifted by the Uniform Holidays Act 1968)

July 4

Independence Day

Celebrates Declaration of Independence, also called the Fourth of July.

First Monday Labor Day in September

Celebrates the achievements of workers and the labor movement; marks the unofficial end of the summer season.

Second Monday in October

Columbus Day

Honors Christopher Columbus, traditional discoverer of the Americas. In some areas it is also a celebration of Italian culture and heritage. (traditionally October 12); celebrated as American Indian Heritage Day and Fraternal Day in Alabama;[22] celebrated as Native American Day in South Dakota.[23] In Hawaii, it is celebrated as Discoverer's Day, though is not an official state holiday.[24]

November 11 Veterans Day

Honors all veterans of the United States armed forces. A traditional observation is a moment of

silence at 11:00 am remembering those killed in war. (Commemorates the 1918 armistice, which began at "the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month.")

Fourth Thursday in November

Thanksgiving Day

Traditionally celebrates the giving of thanks for the autumn harvest. Traditionally includes the consumption of a turkey dinner. Traditional start of the holiday season.

December 25 Christmas

Celebrates the Nativity of Jesus. Some people[who?] consider aspects of this religious holiday, such as giving gifts and decorating aChristmas tree, to be secular rather than explicitly Christian.

Fashion and dress

Please expand this section. Some suggested sources are given hereafter. More information might be found in a section of the talk page. (April
2012)

Main article: Fashion in the United States

A pair of blue jeans

Apart from professional business attire, fashion in the United States is eclectic and predominantly informal. Additionally, certain events may call for more formal attire, such as a dance, wedding, or formal party. While Americans' diverse cultural roots are reflected in their clothing, particularly those of recent immigrants, cowboy hatsand boots and leather motorcycle jackets are emblematic of specifically American styles. Blue jeans were popularized as work clothes in the 1850s by merchant Levi Strauss, a German immigrant in San Francisco, and adopted by many American teenagers a century later. They are worn in every state by people of all ages and social classes. Along with mass-marketed informal wear in general, blue jeans are arguably one of US culture's primary contributions to global fashion.[25] [edit]Popular

culture

Ray Browne, a leading scholar of American studies, said "Popular culture is the way of life in which and by which most people in any society live. In a democracy like the United States, it is the voice of the people their likes and dislikes that form the lifeblood of daily existence, of a way of life."[26]

Family structure
Further information: Family structure in the United States

American family structure has no particular household arrangement being prevalent enough to be identified as the average.
[38]

Family arrangements in the United States reflect the nature of contemporary American society, as they always have. Although the nuclear family concept (twomarried adults with biological children) holds a special place in the mindset of Americans, it is single-parent families, childless/childfree couples, and fused families which now constitute the majority of families.[citation needed]

Most Americans will marry and get divorced at least once during their life; thus, most individuals will live in a variety of family arrangements. A person may grow up in a single-parent family, go on to marry and live in childless couple arrangement, then get divorced, live as a single for a couple of years, re-marry, have children and live in a nuclear family arrangement.[1][38] "The nuclear family... is the idealized version of what most people think when they think of "family..." The old definition of what a family is... the nuclear family- no longer seems adequate to cover the wide diversity of household arrangements we see today, according to many social scientists (Edwards 1991; Stacey 1996). Thus has arisen the term postmodern family, which is meant to describe the great variability in family forms, including single-parent families and child-free couples."- Brian K. Williams, Stacey C. Sawyer, Carl M. Wahlstrom, Marriages, Families & Intinamte Relationships, 2005.[38] Other changes to the landscape of American family arrangements include dualincome earner households and delayed independence among American youths. Whereas most families in the 1950s and 1960s relied on one income earner, most commonly the husband, the vast majority of family households now have two-income earners.[citation needed] Another change is the increasing age at which young Americans leave their parental home. Traditionally, a person past "college age" who lived with their parent(s) was viewed negatively, but today it is not uncommon for children to live with their parents until their mid-twenties. This trend can be mostly attributed to rising living costs that far exceed those in decades past. Thus, many young adults now remain with their parents well past their mid-20s. This topic was a cover article of TIME magazine in 2005.[citation needed] Exceptions to the custom of leaving home in one's mid-20s can occur especially among Italian and Hispanic Americans, and in expensive urban real estate markets such as New York City,[39] California,[40]and Honolulu,[41] where monthly rents commonly exceed $1000 a month. Families (69.7%) Non-families (31.2%)

Year

Married couples (52.5%) Single Parents Nuclear family Without children Other blood relatives

Singles (25.5%)

Other nonfamily

Male Female

2000 24.1%

28.7%

9.9%

7%

10.7% 14.8%

5.7%

1970 40.3%

30.3%

5.2%

5.5%

5.6%

11.5%

1.7%

Single-parent households are households consisting of a single adult (most often a woman) and one or more children. In the single-parent household, one parent typically raises the children with little to no help from the other. This parent is the sole "breadwinner" of the family and thus these households are particularly vulnerable economically. They have higher rates of poverty, and children of these households are more likely to have educational problems.[citation needed]

Housing
Historically, Americans mainly lived rural lives, with a few important cities of moderate size. Following World War II, however, Americans began living in increasing numbers in the suburbs, belts around major cities with higher density than rural areas, but much lower than urban areas. This move has been attributed to many factors such as the automobile, the availability of large tracts of land, the convenience of more and longer paved roads, the increasing violence in urban centers (see white flight), and the lower expense of housing.[citation needed] These new single-family houses were usually one or two stories tall, and often were part of large contracts of homes built by a single developer and often with little variation (sometimes referred to as cookie cutter houses or homes). Houses were separated. The resulting low-density development was given the pejorative label urban sprawl.[citation needed] This has changed;[how?][when?] white flight has reversed, with Yuppies and uppermiddle-class, empty nest Baby Boomers returning to urban living, usually in condominiums, such as in New York City's Lower East Side, and Chicago's South Loop. The result has been the displacement of many poorer, inner-city residents.[citation needed] American cities with housing prices near the national median have also been losing the middle income neighborhoods, those with median income between 80% and 120% of the metropolitan area's median household income. Here, the more affluent members of the middle class, who are also often referred to as being professional or upper middle class, have left in search of larger homes in more exclusive suburbs. This trend is largely attributed to the Middle-class squeeze, which has caused a starker distinction between the statistical middle class and the more privileged members of the middle class.[42] In more expensive areas such as California, however, another trend has been taking place where an influx of more affluent middle-class households has displaced those in the actual middle of society and

converted former middle-middle-class neighborhoods into upper-middleclass neighborhoods.[43]

Tract housing in Kentucky near Cincinnati, Ohio.

The population of rural areas has been declining over time as more and more people migrate to cities for work and entertainment. The great exodus from the farms came in the 1940s; in recent years fewer than 2% of the population lives on farms (though others live in the countryside and commute to work). Electricity and telephone, and sometimes cable and Internet services are available to all but the most remote regions. About half of Americans now live in what is known as the suburbs. The suburban nuclear family has been identified as part of the "American Dream": a married couple with children owning a house in the suburbs. This archetype is reinforced by mass media, religious practices, and government policies and is based on traditions from Anglo-Saxon cultures. One of the biggest differences in suburban living as compared to urban living is the housing occupied by the families. The suburbs are filled with single-family homes separated from retail districts, industrial areas, and sometimes even public schools. However, many American suburbs are incorporating these districts on smaller scales, attracting more people to these communities.[citation needed] Housing in urban areas may include more apartments and semi-attached homes than in the suburbs or small towns. Aside from housing, the major difference from suburban living is the density and diversity of many different subcultures, as well as retail and manufacturing buildings mixed with housing in urban areas

Social class and work

Main article: Social class in the United States Editor's note: Are there any changes/differences from 18th, 19th, 20th centuries? Though most Americans in the 21st century identify themselves as middle class, American society and its culture are considerably fragmented.[1][45][46] Social

class, generally described as a combination ofeducational attainment, income and occupational prestige, is one of the greatest cultural influences in America.[1] Nearly all cultural aspects of mundane interactions and consumer behavior in the U.S. are guided by a person's location within the country's social structure. Distinct lifestyles, consumption patterns and values are associated with different classes. Early sociologist-economist Thorstein Veblen, for example, noted that those at the very top of the social ladder engage in conspicuous leisure as well as conspicuous consumption. Upper-middle-class persons commonly identify education and being cultured as prime values. Persons in this particular social class tend to speak in a more direct manner that projects authority, knowledge and thus credibility. They often tend to engage in the consumption of so-called mass luxuries, such as designer label clothing. A strong preference for natural materials and organic foods as well as a strong health consciousness tend to be prominent features of the upper middle class. American middle-class individuals in general value expanding one's horizon, partially because they are more educated and can afford greater leisure and travels. Working-class individuals take great pride in doing what they consider to be "real work," and keep very close-knit kin networks that serve as a safeguard against frequent economic instability.[1][47][48]

Hours worked in different countries according to UN data in a CNNreport.

[49]

Working-class Americans as well as many of those in the middle class may also face occupation alienation. In contrast to upper-middle-class professionals who are mostly hired to conceptualize, supervise and share their thoughts, many Americans have little autonomy or creative latitude in the workplace.[50] As a result white collar professionals tend to be significantly more satisfied with their work.[51][52] More recently those in the center of the income strata, who may still identify as middle class, have faced increasing economic insecurity,[53] supporting the idea of a working-class majority.[54]

Political behavior is affected by class; more affluent individuals are more likely to vote, and education and income affect whether individuals tend to vote for the Democratic or Republican party. Income also had a significant impact on health as those with higher incomes had better access to health care facilities, higher life expectancy, lower infant mortality rate and increased health consciousness.[citation needed] This is particularly noticeable with black voters who are often socially conservative, yet overwhelmingly vote Democratic.[55][56][57] In the United States occupation is one of the prime factors of social class and is closely linked to an individuals identity. The average work week in the U.S. for those employed full-time was 42.9 hours long with 30% of the population working more than 40 hours a week.[58] The Average American worker earned $16.64 an hour in the first two quarters of 2006.[59] Overall Americans worked more than their counterparts in other developed post-industrial nations. While the average worker in Denmark enjoyed 30 days of vacation annually, the average American had 16 annual vacation days.[60] In 2000 the average American worked 1,978 hours per year, 500 hours more than the average German, yet 100 hours less than the averageCzech. Overall the U.S. labor force was the most productive in the world (overall, not by hour worked), largely due to its workers working more than those in any other postindustrial country (excluding South Korea).[49] Americans generally hold working and being productive in high regard; being busy and working extensively may also serve as the means to obtain esteem

Race and ancestry

Main article: Race in the United States

Median Household income along ethnic lines in the United States.

Race in the United States is based on physical characteristics and skin color and has played an essential part in shaping American society even before the nation's conception.[1] Until the civil rights movement of the 1960s, racial minorities in the United States faced institutionalized discrimination and social as well as economic marginalization.[61] Today the U.S. Department of Commerce's Bureau of the Census recognizes four races, Native American or American Indian, African American, Asian and White (European American). According to the U.S. government, Hispanic Americans do not constitute a race, but rather an ethnic group. During the 2000 U.S. Census Whites made up 75.1% of the population with those being Hispanic or Latino constituting the nation's prevalent minority with 12.5% of the population. African Americans made up 12.3% of the total population, 3.6% were Asian American and 0.7% were Native American.[62] The Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitutionratified on Dec 6, 1865abolished slavery in the United States. The northern states had outlawed slavery in their territory in the late 18th and early 19th century, though their industrial economies relied on raw materials produced by slaves. Following the Reconstruction period in the 1870s, an apartheid regulation emerged in the Southern states named the Jim Crow laws that provided for legal segregation. Lynching was practiced throughout the U.S., including in the Northern states, until the 1930s, while continuing well into the civil rights movement in the South.[61] Chinese Americans were earlier marginalized as well during a significant proportion of U.S. history. Between 1882 and 1943 the United States instituted the Chinese Exclusion Act barring Chinese immigrants from entering the U.S. During the second world war roughly 120,000 Japanese Americans, 62% of whom were U.S. citizens,[63] were imprisoned in Japanese internment camps by the U.S. government following the attacks on Pearl Harbor, an American Military Base, by Japanese troops. Hispanic Americans also used to face segregation and other forms of discrimination. Although not proscribed by the law, they were regularly subject to second class citizen status. Due to exclusion from or marginalization by earlier mainstream society, there emerged a unique sub-culture among the racial minorities in the United States. During the 1920s, Harlem, New York became home to the Harlem Renaissance. Music styles such as Jazz, Blues, Rap, Rock and roll as well as numerous folk-songs such as Blue Tail Fly (Jimmy Crack Corn) originated within the realms of African American culture, and was later on adopted by the mainstream.[61] Chinatowns can be found in many cities across the country and Asian cuisine has become a common staple in mainstream America. The Hispanic community has also had a dramatic impact on American culture. Today, Catholics are the largest religious denomination in the United States and out-number Protestants in the South-west and California.[64]Mariachi music and Mexican cuisine are commonly found throughout the Southwest, with some Latin dishes, such as burritos and tacos, found anywhere in the nation.

Economic variance and substantive segregation, is commonplace in the United States. Asian Americans have median household income and educational attainment exceeding that of other races. African Americans, Hispanics and Native Americans have considerably lower income and education than do White Americans or Asian Americans.[65][66] In 2005 the median household income of Whites was 62.5% higher than that of African American, nearly one-quarter of whom live below the poverty line.[65] 46.9% of homicide victims in the United States are African American.[61][67] The concept that blackness was ugly degraded African Americans, manifesting itself as internalized racism.[citation needed][68] In her novel The Bluest Eye (1981), Toni Morrison depicts the effects of the legacy of 19th century racism for poor black people in the United States. The novel tells of how the daughter of a poor black family, Pecola Breedlove, internalizes white standards of beauty to the point where she goes mad. Her fervent wish for blue eyes comes to stand for her wish to escape the poor, unloving, racist environment in which she lives. In the 1960s, the Black is Beautiful cultural movement sought to dispel this notion.[69] After the attacks by Muslim terrorists on September 11, 2001, discrimination against Arabs and Muslims in the U.S. rose significantly. The American-Arab AntiDiscrimination Committee (ADC) reported an increase in hate speech, cases of airline discrimination, hate crimes, police misconduct as well as racial profiling.[70] The USA PATRIOT Act, signed into effect by President Bush on October 26, 2001, has also raised concerns for violating civil liberties. Section 412 of the act provides the government with "sweeping new powers to detain foreign nationals and immigrants indefinitely with little or no due process at the discretion of the Attorney General."[70] Other sections also allow the government to conduct secret searches, seizures, and surveillance, and to freely interpret the definition of "terrorist activities".[citation needed]

Sociological issues
[edit]Marriage

and divorce

Main articles: Marriage in the United States and Divorce in the United States See also: Cohabitation in the United States Marriage laws are established by individual states. The typical wedding involves a couple proclaiming their commitment to one another in front of their close relatives and friends, often presided over by a religious figure such as a minister, priest, or rabbi, depending upon the faith of the couple. In traditional Christian ceremonies, the bride's father will "give away" (hand off) the bride to the groom. Secular weddings are also common, often presided over by a judge, Justice of the Peace, or other municipal official. Same-sex marriage is currently legal in several states, while polygamy is universally banned. Some states offer domestic partnerships, instead.

Divorce is the province of state governments, so divorce law varies from state to state. Prior to the 1970s, divorcing spouses had to allege that the other spouse was guilty of a crime or sin like abandonment or adultery; when spouses simply could not get along, lawyers were forced to manufacture "uncontested" divorces. The no-fault divorce revolution began in 1969 in California; South Dakota was the last state to allow no-fault divorce, in 1985. No-fault divorce on the grounds of "irreconcilable differences" is now available in all states. However, many states have recently required separation periods prior to a formal divorce decree. State law provides for child support where children are involved, and sometimes for alimony. "Married adults now divorce two-and-a-half times as often as adults did 20 years ago and four times as often as they did 50 years ago... between 40% and 60% of new marriages will eventually end in divorce. The probability within... the first five years is 20%, and the probability of its ending within the first 10 years is 33%... Perhaps 25% of children ages 16 and under live with a stepparent."[73] The median length for a marriage in the U.S. today is 11 years with 90% of all divorces being settled out of court.

Military culture
Main articles: United States Armed Forces, U.S. Soldier's Creed, LDRSHIP, Culture of the United States Army, Culture of the United States Navy, Culture of the USAF, Culture of the USAAF, and Culture of the United States Marine Corps From the time of its inception the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of national unity and identity was forged out of the victorious Barbary Wars, as well as the War of 1812. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and not until the outbreak of World War II did a large standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the onset of the Cold War, created the modern U.S. military framework; the Act merged previously Cabinetlevel Department of War and the Department of the Navyinto the National Military Establishment (renamed the Department of Defense in 1949), headed by the Secretary of Defense; and created the Department of the Air Force and National Security Council. The U.S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its manpower from a large pool of paid volunteers; although conscription has been used in the past in various times of both war and peace, it has not been used since 1972. As of 2011, the United States spends about $550 billion annually to fund its military forces,[78] and appropriates approximately $160 billion to fundOverseas Contingency Operations. Put together, the United States constitutes roughly 43 percent of the world's military expenditures. The U.S. armed forces as a whole possess large quantities of advanced and powerful equipment, along with widespread placement of forces around the world, giving them significant capabilities in both defense and power projection.

There is and has been a strong military culture among those on active duty, those not on active duty, as well as veterans.

Cinema
This section is empty. You can help
by adding to it. (April 2012)

Main articles: Television in the United States and Cinema of the United States The cinema is a major mass media in the United States. Films produced by Hollywood (almost synonymous for American cinema) are circulated throughout the world. While a diverse variety of genres exist, comedies, dramas, and action films are most popular.[citation needed] The Hollywood cinema industry has been very influential on American culture, and others such as Bollywood has striven to emulate the American model. [edit]Broadcasting
This section is empty. You can help
by adding to it. (October 2012)

Main articles: Television in the United States and Radio in the United States

American family watching TV, 1958

The US has been at the forefront of developments in film, radio, and television. Many successful American TV shows have been exported around the world. The United States has a large number of national and local radio stations which cover a great variety of programming.

Greetings. Americans shake hands firmly with each other when first introduced, or when they meet again, but rarely when they part (a more European custom). Social kissing, as a greeting, accompanied by a light body hug, is also sometimes acceptable between men and women who know each other well and among women. American men rarely embrace each other or kiss on both cheeks. Distance and Eye Contact. When two Americans are standing and talking to each other they stay at least 16 inches away from each other, farther away than is customary in many other cultures. An American may feel threatened if you come too close, even if such a distance is perfectly ordinary in your own culture. Touching is not recommended, but making full, unambiguous eye contact at the first meeting stage is essential. Americans tend to warm

up to people who smile, especially when the smile is accompanied by full eye contact. Getting to the Point. When asking an American for something, especially when dealing with sales help in stores and markets, extensive preliminary pleasantries are not required as in some other countries. A brief excuse me is usually sufficient to get the person's attention, say, when asking for directions. Americans may feel threatened and become suspicious if a stranger begins with a general hello, how are you? sequence and does not get to the point of the encounter directly. Americans do exchange pleasantries among people they already know, but even then they are likely to get to the point relatively quickly. Clothing In America, your clothing--whether business or casual--should always be clean, ironed, and neatly worn. Business wear is fairly standard, though northeastern cities like New York and Boston are a bit more conservative than places like Los Angeles. Both men and women in business wear suits, meaning the jacket is of the same material and matches the trousers or skirt. Shoes are well maintained and shined. Women wear nylon stockings of appropriate color for the season. Men wear neckties, and many women wear some kind of neatly tied scarf with a suit. Do Some Research. If you don't know how you should dress in a particular environment, do some research by observing how other people dress in that environment. Other than in fashion-oriented businesses, conservative American cuts for suits and jackets are appropriate. Since clothing and appearance means a lot in American business, be careful not to spend a lot of money on a high fashion item that doesn't work. The term business casual calls for taking general business dress a step down. Men would wear a neat dress shirt, but with no tie, no jacket or a jacket that contrasts with the trousers. Women may dress similarly, doing without a neck scarve, certainly wearing an outfit less formal than a standard business suit, but still maintaining a level somewhat more reserved than truly casual clothing. Short pants for either gender, for example, would not qualify. In casual settings, exercise and sports clothing is widely worn by men, women and children, though in some environments it might be too casual. Blue jeans are worn throughout the United States by people in all walks of life. If you are in a casual setting but are afraid of appearing too casual, pick up a copy of a major golf magazine, and wear the same type of clothes the male golfers do.

Clothing Should Fit. Whether business or casual, the clothing should fit well, and be kept clean and neat. That means wearing a shirt, and certainly underwear, for a maximum of one day before throwing it in the wash. Many Americans find body odor extremely offensive (even though the same odor would not be out of place in certain other countries). Even if you yourself wash and use deodorant, your body odor could come across if you try to get an extra day out of your clothing before washing. Be sure that other people's noses will be more sensitive to this than your own. Furs. Many Americans object to the wearing of fur coats and other items of clothing made of fur because of the pain and suffering caused to the animals involved. The humanitarian aspects of fur use may not concern you, but you should be aware that you will offend many Americans if you wear fur. If you do wear fur, you will be criticized for it. to the American Culture [Return to Home Page] Culture influences every aspect of human life, from birth to death. You will gain first hand experience of the Culture of the United States of America during your training here. You may find some elements of culture to be very similar to your own, while others may be greatly different. The United States is a cultural mixing bowl. Citizens of the United States have come from every corner of the World. They brought elements of their culture with them. So, you may recognize some elements of the local culture, while others may be strange to you. This guide is designed to help you understand some cultural elements of the United States, especially those that may influence your training.

Major Cultural Elements Freedom - The cornerstone of American Culture. The Constitution of the United States of America ensures that the people retain certain rights and freedoms. It limits the influence the Government has on the personal lives of the Citizens. Americans who respect the rights of other Citizens are free to work, play, worship, travel, and live as they please. Family - American families are small by comparison to many of the World's cultures. The average American family has 2 or fewer children. Most American children live in two parent households. 60% of American mothers have jobs outside the home. Parents of adult children generally live

independently, maintaining their own homes though it is common for the Elderly citizens to live with their adult children late in life. Religion - The majority of American citizens are Christian. The Constitution of the United States ensures a separation of Church and State. There is no religious requirement to be a citizen of the United States. All of the World's religions are openly and freely practiced here. However, given that most of the Citizens are Christian certain religious consolations are made. Sunday is not included in the workweek and one religious holiday is recognized. - Christmas (December 25th) is the only religious holiday celebrated nationally. It is a celebration of the birth of Christ. It is a one-day holiday for Federal and State Government employees. Most businesses are closed. - Thanksgiving (the 4th Thursday in November) is a generic religious holiday. Many churches have services, but it is not an officially recognized holiday by any religion. It is a time for all American's to give thanks for the blessings they have. Food - You can get a good idea about American food preferences by looking at the menu of a typical American restaurant. Restaurants serve the food people are most interested in eating. You can see what Americans typically call Breakfast, Lunch, and Dinner. - Americans generally eat their largest meal of the day in the evening dinner. These meals seem to revolve around some form of meat (mostly red meats or chicken) served with a starch (potatoes are most common, rice is readily available) and vegetables. Many evening meals start with a lettucebased salad. - The noon meal - lunch - is usually light. It is most often some form of sandwich.
- Americans who eat breakfast favor either some form of cereal or eggs served with pork-based meat (bacon, sausage, or ham)

Daily Routines - Americans typically use a 40-hour workweek, 8-hour days, Monday through Friday. Actual working hours vary but usually begin before 9 a.m. and end before 6 p.m. Forty-two percent of the American workforce are women. - Lunch breaks are usually an hour or less. That's why the evening meal has become the big meal of the day for many Americans.

- Most Americans sleep only once a day from 10 or 11 p.m. until 6 or 7 a.m. Weekends are personal time.
- Recognizing differences between American routines and those you may be used to will help you understand the culture and people of the United States.

Greetings - People coming to work or to meeting each other in a routine setting will usually use a verbal greeting and response.
- Additionally, in small or rural communities, strangers simply passing on the sidewalk may exchange simple greetings. This is less common is larger cities but still may occur. - Verbal greetings vary depending on where you are in the U.S. and the familiarity of the people exchanging the greeting.

Simple verbal greetings - These greetings can be repeated as a response. "Good Morning/Afternoon/Evening" - varies with the time of day. (Often shortened to "Morning/Afternoon/Evening" informally)
"Hello" - Very common telephone greeting also used face to face. "Hi' - a shortened form of Hello

Other Common Verbal Greetings - Require a more advance response and invite conversation. These may follow up a simple greeting.
"How ya doin?" - an abbreviated form of "How are you doing?" a common response might be "Good, and you? (Returning the question) "What's up? - A way of asking how busy you are. Responses vary from "Nothing much" to "Working hard" followed by "What's up with you" or "How you doin?"

Physical Greetings - A wave of the hand or nod of the head may be used to acknowledge a friend in situations where a verbal greeting is not appropriate.
- A handshake is a common greeting used by adults of either sex, however, it is generally used upon first meeting someone or greeting someone you have not seen for an extended period of time. Americans generally do not exchange handshakes daily.

- A hug or kiss on the cheek are common greetings among family members or very close friends of opposite sexes especially if they have not seen each other for an extended period of time. Personal Space - Americans comfortably stand about 30 inches (75cm) apart when they are talking. Many international students come from cultures

where people stand closer together. Standing too close to an American may make them feel uncomfortable or crowded. If you are aware of personal space it will be easier to talk to people and make friends. Timeliness - Professionally, being on time is very important. Though in social situations Americans are more understanding. If you are more than a few minutes late it is a good idea to apologize, an excuse is usually not necessary. If you will be more than 10 or 15 minutes late it is considered polite to call and inform your host of your delay. Social Situations - You may be invited by your sponsor or someone you meet here to their home. Arriving on time makes a good impression.
- Gifts are usually not expected, but always appreciated. A small memento from your country is an excellent gift. - Flowers or chocolate are also popular gifts. Wine is a nice gift if you are sure the individuals drink alcohol. If you are unsure, avoid taking alcoholic beverages as a gift. - Your host should tell you if food is involved. Let them know if you have any restrictions to your diet. You will not be expected to eat anything you do not want. Your host may serve you or allow you to serve yourself. - If you serve yourself, don't take more than you can eat. It is better to get a second serving than leave a large portion on your plate. Many Americans will offer a second serving (called "seconds") only one time. They will not usually force a second serving once it is declined. It is O.K. to ask for a second serving, many Americans who cook think of this as a compliment. - Americans are indirect about when to end an evening. They may make a comment about how late it is getting or how early they might have to get up tomorrow. This is a sign that it is time to leave.

Classroom Etiquette Students often report to the classroom early and exchange greetings and light conversation. An instructor entering a classroom is a sign that class will begin. Students should take their seats. An instructor may exchange individual greetings with some students on the way into the classroom, but will not greet each student individually. If an instructor begins by greeting a class he is inviting the class to respond with a like greeting.

Timeliness - It is very important to be on time for class whether it is at the start of the day or after breaks or lunch. If you do show up late, do not make an excuse or interrupt the instruction, just walk in and sit down. Do not make a habit of showing up late.
- Some instructors may lock the door at the scheduled start time. If you are locked out of class, do not knock on the door; wait until the next break. You will not get credit for attending that instruction. It is up to you to catch up with the class and learn what material is testable. - Repeatedly showing up late for class will have a negative impact on your Academic Report and could jeopardize your class standing.

Rank - When instructors are on the platform they are in charge of the class, regardless of the rank of the students being taught.
- While Americans respect officers who are senior in rank, students are equal in the classroom. This can create some challenges because international students often are senior in rank to their U.S. classmates. - Officers may be tasked to lead squads that include Senior Officers. Rank can not interfere with the exercise or training mission. The classroom affords no privilege to rank. Everyone must participate in class to be considered for a diploma.

Breaks - Instructors will usually call a break every hour or so. They look for a logical point in the instruction to break rather than the clock. Students are expected to be in their seats in the classroom when the instructor is teaching. If you must leave the classroom for an emergency situation, just get up and go. Do not disrupt the class or ask permission.
- Breaks are an opportunity to socialize with your classmates and get to know each other. You can discuss the class or outside activities. It is an excellent opportunity to exchange ideas and ask questions. - Students who break into small groups and speak a language other than English are sending a message to other students that they do not want to talk to them. Speaking English during your course and breaks will help you improve your language skills and get to know your U.S. classmates.

Questions - Questions are a great way to clarify instruction. Instructors appreciate most questions because they benefit the entire class. If you have a question during class, raise your hand and wait for the instructor to recognize you. - It is not necessary to stand or introduce yourself when asking a question. Do not ask a question of another student or talk to other students when an instructor is speaking. Save personal conversations for the break.

Examinations and Quizzes - Examinations are often called exams or tests. They show up on the training schedule followed by a review.
- Instructors may allow international students more time for exams. Do not take additional time unless it is announced. - Instructors may allow international students to use notes during exams. Do not use your notes unless authorized by the instructor. - If you have a question during an exam, raise your hand and wait for the instructor. If the instructor is busy it may take a few minutes to get to you. Try to answer other test questions while you wait. - Do not ask questions of other students during an exam. - Exchanging information during an exam is strictly prohibited. Copying someone else's paper or allowing someone to copy your paper is sufficient reason for removal from class. - Quizzes are short tests that are unannounced. An instructor may start the day with a quiz to see if everyone did their homework or check the progress of the class. - Quizzes do not have the importance of scheduled exams; however, the scores are frequently included in your grade for a given block of instruction.

Practical Exercises - Some blocks of instruction include practical exercises. Your class may be divided into squads.
- The squad must work together to complete their mission. Instructors will usually designate squad leaders and other positions in the squad. Regardless of the rank of the squad leader, each member of the squad must contribute to the exercise. - Instructors monitor practical exercises. Students who do not participate in practical exercises are not eligible for a diploma.

Military Courtesies While Training in the United States it is important to observe the courtesy and traditions of the United States Army. You will meet many American Soldiers who are instructors, cadre, and classmates. How you interact with them reflects directly on their opinions of the professionalism of your Military. For some of the American's you meet you will be the only representative of your Army they ever encounter. It is important for you to make a good impression. How you wear your uniform and respond to military courtesies is a large part of that impression.

Making a good impression is easy if you pay attention to some simple military courtesies Uniforms - You are required to wear your uniform in class unless otherwise directed. If you did not bring a uniform, you will be required to buy a U.S. Battle Dress Uniform (BDU) to wear in class, this includes a hat and boots. Keep your uniforms clean and neat. Make sure your boots are shined. Wear your hat at all times when you are outside. Saluting - International rank insignia can be confusing for some Americans. It is always proper courtesy to return a salute rendered by a soldier in uniform.
- When you are in uniform, outside and approached by a Junior Officer or a Non Commissioned Officer outside they will render a salute. It is important for you to return the salute. If you are seated, stand and return the salute. - When you are outside and approach an Officer who is senior to you, you should render a salute and hold it until the Officer salutes in return. - A salute is not necessary if either of you is involved in a work detail or participating in PT at the time. - When reporting to the Commander, always salute upon entering the room.

Tributes to the Flag - The American Flag is raised on the post at reveille (0600 hours) and lowered at retreat (1630 hours) each weekday. These ceremonies are accompanied by a bugle call, which can be heard throughout the post. If you are outside when you hear the call of reveille or retreat you should stand at attention facing the flagpole until the music stops. This is true even if you are driving in your car. Pull over and get out of the car to show respect. Americans in uniform will salute the flag; Americans in civilian clothes will put their right hands over their hearts. You can salute or put your hand over your heart if you are so inclined.

Slang & Non-Verbal Communication - When learning a second language most people focus on vocabulary. But the language that is taught is often different then the spoken language. Some words have common usage's that are not found in dictionaries. Most languages have some form of slang. - Slang is a personal form of communication based on common experience. Movies and television shows introduce many slang terms. Your class may develop slang terms for individual blocks of instruction, instructors, or

events. A social event where someone named Sam falls in a swimming pool may be referred to as "Sam's Splash" for the remainder of the class' time together. - The only way to learn and understand slang is to talk to people and ask questions. Slang dictionaries seem to be outdated before they are ever printed. - A large percentage of communication is non-verbal. However, words are affected by the tone with which they are delivered and the gestures and mannerisms that accompany them. - Many gestures have different meanings in different parts of the world. Some gestures that may be offensive in your country may have no meaning here. Before you are offended by a gesture, be sure offense is intended. If you are not sure ask. Sometimes close friends use offensive gestures as a way to tease each other. A gesture, which may be offensive between two people who don't know each other, can be funny among two friends.

Some common American Gestures Thumbs Up - This is a positive gesture that means the outcome is good. If an instructor gives you a thumbs up, with either hand, it means he approves of what you have said or done. Thumbs Down - This is the exact opposite of thumbs up. It shows disapproval or a negative result. O.K. - This gesture is made with the thumb and first finger. It signifies that everything is all right or that you are in agreement. There is nothing negative about this gesture. Stop - Holding the hand up, palm forward with the fingers either extended or together means stop. This can easily be confused for a wave of the open hand which means "Hello". You can tell which gesture is intended by the look on the individual's face. Hello is usually accompanied by a smile. Learn as you Go - It is important to have an open mind when you are communicating in another culture. Asking questions is the best way to learn. - Asking questions about slang and gestures is a good way to get conversations started.

- Don't be shy about asking someone what they mean with either a gesture or a slang term.

Making the most of your experience - Working and training in another country is much more complicated than visiting or touring. You must have a greater understanding or the culture, people and language to be successful.
- While you train in the United States you should be aware of the culture and people you meet and work with. - If details about your course were all you needed, we could send you the books. You are in the United States to learn what is in the books and how Americans put that information to use. Culture is a huge part of that experience. - You must be willing to establish strong communication skills that go beyond simple vocabulary.

- You can make the most of your time here if you work with people to further your understanding of your training and the people who are presenting it to you.
- Reserve judgments; different is not necessarily better or worse. Accept differences and learn what you can from them.

Technology Threatens American Culture, Quality of Life

The Electronic Nightmare
Ever since the 1950s, Americans have been obsessed with electrifying their lives. The convenience associated with powered products is so addictive that each decade since has seen more of their non-electric products replaced with modern electric versions, oblivious to the effects this has on the planet, and those sharing it with us. We neglect to appreciate the quality of the non-electric products we've left behind, and look to cheapening our daily routines further by plugging in more of our traditionally adequate tools. Electricity has become fundamental to our way of life the way no other technology ever has in the past. Our over-dependence on wall sockets and batteries is dangerous to us as individuals, devastating to our society, and destructive to the future of our species. Prepare to be disgusted with your electronic life. How often do you spend watching television every day? It's not much more than an electrified piece of furniture, but most Americans spend four and a half hours

staring at it daily. Air-conditioning has become essential to comfort, clocks are depended on to wake us up in time to perform our duties, and we can't even write reports for school without computers anymore. As if it weren't bad enough that we have to pay the electric bill to keep all of these things going, it all absolutely must beep. Couple that with our addiction to caffeine, and it's no wonder the drug industry is America's most profitable. As a society, our electronic products are threatening to our culture and the quality of life. Fine, home cooked meals were the prize of the American family until they were raped and displaced by cheap microwave dinners. The rich blues and folk music of our forefathers has been supplanted by synthesizers and electric guitars. Even children's toys have been electrified. All of this is done for what purpose? Non-powered products are still more than adequate for the job, if not better. Mass production of wired garbage should be viewed as an insult to the American way of life and our dedication to quality goods, but instead it's been embraced. Our society's future is too humiliating to consider. Disposal of electronic trash continues to be a problem for our country. There's no incentive to disassemble these hazardous contraptions properly, so our landfills are continually made more toxic and irreparable. Power lines and telephone poles pollute our landscape and pose a serious risk to anyone unfortunate enough to suffer the sometimes inevitable plight of monkeying around them. Batteries are a sick issue by themselves. It's not enough that electronics ruin our lives and our culture, but the planet must also suffer so we don't have to turn the little handle on our can openers anymore. Words can't express the shame. Of course, electronic products aren't entirely evil. They're quite convenient and make our lives much easier. Hardship in America is only a shadow what it was before the advent of wall sockets, and with our high-tech tools we can prevent or evade those circumstances that were once disastrous. Humanity has managed for thousands of years without electricity, however. We managed to survive into the twentieth century just fine, hardships and all. In the end, it comes down to one question: Is it worth it? This question can only be answered with an emphatic "NO." How much more difficult is it to wash your clothes yourself, and why must we depend on mass broadcasts to deliver our daily

news? Electricity isn't harmless by any distortion of definition, and shouldn't be incorporated into our daily routine so heavily. Regardless, we continue to allow it to absorb our lives, our culture, and our world. How then can we challenge this insidious evil? The omen of a powerless future lingers as electricity becomes more expensive and blackouts become more frequent. As America wakes up from her electronic nightmare, we can only hope she embraces the true energy of living rather than yearn for the past.
http://voices.yahoo.com/technology-threatens-american-culture-quality-life5687.html

Technology in America
By Michael SacasasFriday, April 13, 2012

Filed under: Science & Technology, Culture

If Americas ongoing experiment in democracy and economic freedom is to endure, we will need to think again about cu ideology of technology.

Why are Americans addicted to technology? The question has a distinctly contemporary ring, and we might be tempted to thin

after all, have known anything about technology addiction before the advent of the Blackberry? Well, as it turns out, American

of technology addiction was one of the many Alexis de Tocqueville thought to answer in his classic study of antebellum Amer

To be precise, Tocqueville titled the tenth chapter of volume two, Why The Americans Are More Addicted To Practical Than

carry the expansive and inclusive sense it does today. Instead, quaint sounding phrases like the mechanical arts, the useful a

assign to the single word technology.1 Practical science was one more such phrase available to writers, and, as in Tocqueville phrases captured the distinction we have in mind when we speak separately of science and technology.

To answer his question on technology addiction, Tocqueville looked at the political and economic characteristics of Americans

As well see, much of what Tocqueville had to say over 150 years ago resonates still, and it is the compelling nature of his diag

the enduring American fascination with technology might have on American political and economic culture. But first, why we

We buy our books to give shape to our thinking, but it never occurs to us that the manner in which our character than the contents of the book.

Tocquevilles rough and ready quasi-sociological approach led him to conclude that Americans preferred technology to pure sc

the culture of the higher sciences, or of the more elevated departments of science, than meditation, Tocqueville explained, an

society.2 Theoretical science in his view required aristocratic repose and leisure, and nothing of the sort existed in America. In

nations, according to Tocqueville, are always dissatisfied with the position which they occupy, and are al ways free to leave it

it.3 Tocqueville, himself an aristocrat, did not think this restless, entrepreneurial climate the ideal habitat of sustained theoretic

Tocqueville understood what impressed Americans and it was not intellectually demanding and gratifying grand theory. It was

machine which spares labor, every instrument which diminishes t he cost of production, every discovery which facilitates pleas

value of science and America was no exception. Science was prized only insofar as it was immediately applicable to some prac believed knowledge was power and science was valuable to the degree that it could be usefully applied.

It is chiefly from these motives that a democratic people addicts itself to scientific pursuits, Tocqueville concluded. You ma authors.5

free, the greater will be the number of these interested promoters of scientific genius, and the more will discoveries immediatel

Technologies not only allow us to act in certain ways that may or may not be ethical, their use also s

We could summarize Tocquevilles observations by saying that Americansociety was more likely to produce and admire a Tho

still. The inventor-entrepreneur remains the preferred American icon; Steve Jobs and Bill Gates are the objects of our veneratio

the distinct blend of technology and economics that we might label Americas techno -start-up culture. But if Tocqueville was r

economic circumstances, we should go one step further to ask what might be the political and economic consequences of this e

When we ask questions about technology we often ask about matters such as safety and efficiency or costs and benefits. We do

of me? Or, more to the present point, What sort of citizen will the use of this or that technology make of me? We dont ofte

the neutrality of technology, a theory we could call the NRA approach to technology. Guns dont kill people, people kill peop neutral and ethical implications attach only to the use to which a technology may be put by individuals.

This notion enjoys a certain commonsensical plausibility, and, as far as it goes, it is true enough. A hammer could be used to b

city or flatten it. But it is not quite all that can be said on the matter. A fuller account of technologys ethical ramifications wou

habits and engender certain assumptions. In others words, technologies not only allow us to act in certain ways that may or ma

consequences. Winston Churchills observation about buildings captures this dynamic nicely. We shape our buildings, Churc shape our technologies and afterwards our technologies shape us.

Technologies collapse the distance between a desire and its fulfillment by reducing either the time o

Our technologies, of course, are immensely varied and the uses to which they are put even more so. This alone should warn us

technologys impact on American society. That said, it may nonetheless be possible to draw some tentative and modest conclu

the logic underlying so many of our everyday tools: the often successful effort to collapse the distance between desire and fulfi Technologies collapse the distance between a desire and its fulfillment by reducing either the time or the effort involved. This

digital technologies have only augmented a longstanding trend. But they have done so to such a degree that the change may be

receive commodities that just a few years ago would have taken us considerably more time and trouble to acquire. The content point remarkably well. Consider what it would have taken to find a relatively rare or out of print work in 1990. What would it

long would it have taken to actually have the book in hand? Now consider the same scenario in 2012. The Internet and Amazon

If the book were available electronically, what could have easily taken weeks would now take seconds. This pattern is replicate

technologies that surround you. Youll find that many of them similarly collapse the distance between some desire, trivial or ot

Theoretical science in his view required aristocratic repose and leisure, and nothing of the sort exist

All of this is marvelous and fascinating and helpful, but cranks, and Im not always above being a crank, might point out that m

trivial. If you eliminate the effort and time involved in realizing a desire, you also diminish the satisfaction and joy that attends

assumptions and how these in turn shape individuals who together comprise the political and economic culture of the nation. W around this general tendency?

Certainly not the kind of habits that sit well with the venerable notion of delayed gratification. Nor, it would seem, would these

political order knew that its success would hang on what they understood as classical republican virtues thrift, hard work, a m

easy to imagine how different our current political and economic circumstance might be if these virtues were in greater supply

For one thing, economic and political forces have themselves been complicit in the erosion of civic virtue. For another, it woul character or drives economic and political history. But the technological factor should not be underestimated. Technology is a

imagine that it plays no part in making us the sort of people we become over time. Unfortunately, we are idealists when it com

believe. It is true, of course, that ideas have consequences. It is also true, however, that we are shaped by habitual patterns of b

us that the manner in which we make our purchases may have a more lasting influence on our character than the contents of the Tocqueville gave us a wonderful phrase when he described what sustained the American experiment in democracy. Alongside

habits of the heart. Media scholar Quentin Schultze riffed on Tocqueville by speaking of the habits of the high -tech heart.7 long associated with the practice of both economic and political liberty.

Americans were in this sense good Baconians, they believed knowledge was power and science was v

But it is not only through the shaping of our habits that technology affects our political and economic culture. When Tocquevil

have called theAmerican technological sublime. Perry Miller was the first to note in passing the almost religious veneration tha

He found that in the early 19th century technological majesty had found a place alongside the starry heavens above and the

Sublime.8 Technologys cultural ascendancy, he suggested, was abetted by an aspect of awe and wonder bordering on religiou

David Nye followed up on Millers observation with a book-length treatment of the technological sublime in America. 9 He wo

that attended the appearance of technological artifacts including the railroads, the Brooklyn Bridge, the Hoover Dam, skyscrap

responded to these technologies, either because of their scale or their dynamism, in a manner that can best be described as a ne

notion of inevitable progress, came to function as a distinctly American ideology of technology.

Belief in inevitable progress is usually associated with the Enlightenment and is assumed to have characterized European and A

During that time, however, the idea experienced a subtle but significant evolution. Earlier proponents viewed technological adv

understood to include moral and political considerations. By the late 19th century, technology had come to be seen as the leadi moral corollaries. Progress came to be understood as the advance of technology for technologys sake.

The inventor-entrepreneur remains the preferred Americanicon; Steve Jobs and Bill Gates are the

Two 19th-century paintings wonderfully illustrate these developments: John Gasts American Progress from 1872 and Chris

publicist George Crofutt, who tasked Gast with painting a beautiful and charming female floating westward through the ai

carry a book in her right hand symbolizing the common schoolthe emblem of education while with her left she unfolds an throughout the land.

John Gasts American Progress

Gasts painting allegorically captures the ethos of the emerging ideology of technology. The goddess Liberty has become Prog

technology. A similar narrative emerges when we compare John Trumbulls famous (if not quite accurate) painting of the signi

Christian Schusseles Men of Progress

The two paintings are linked by the image of Benjamin Franklin who, in Trumbulls painting, is positioned prominently before

work, he appears in the top left corner of the scene watching approvingly over the 19th-century men of progress, including Sam

Morse. We might safely call this the American Pantheon, and may not be too far off the mark to conclude that the reverence pa these men of progress.

John Trumbull's "Declaration of Independence"

Russell Kirk famously suggested that conservatism is the negation of ideology, but the ideology of technology is one that ha shared by most Americans regardless of political affiliation. The problem with such ideologies, as Kirk well knew, is that they

ideology of technology no less than any other. In this case, it may be that we have been blinded to the irreducible necessity of p

economic and political ills. We forget that our economic and political culture is finally composed of individuals whose actions

habitual patterns of action. It would be one of historys great ironies if under the cover of the ideology of technology, we allow of our society.

In the middle of the turbulent 1930s, with Nazism, Fascism, and Stalinism flourishing, T. S. Eliot wrote of men who dreamed

technology tempts us in a similar manner. In the end we always find that such dreams yield nightmares that are all too real. If A

endure, we will need to think again about cultivating the necessary habits of the heart and resisting the allure of the ideology of Michael Sacasas is pursuing a PhD in the University of Central Florida's "Texts & Technology" program. He blogs on University.

http://www.american.com/archive/2012/march/technology-in-america