Chapter 1 The Problem and its Background

Introduction

This immersion report is about the proposal in improving the antenna tower and signal of TV5 Broadcasting Company.

Kapatid TV5 (short for Kapatid TV) is an international television station owned by the Philippine-based multimedia conglomerate ABC Development Corporation, through its subsidiary Pilipinas Global Network, Ltd. The network is currently available in Europe, Middle East, North Africa, Guam, and the United States on Dish Network. Pilipinas Global Network, Ltd., the international distributor of Kapatid TV5 and Aksyon TV International, aims to expand both channels to Canada, Asia and the Pacific regions in the second quarter of 2012.

This immersion report will be focused on the improvement of the monitoring of the transmitters and other equipments.

Background of the Study

Broadcasting is the distribution of audio and video content to a dispersed audience via any audio or visual mass communications medium, but usually one using electromagnetic radiation (radio waves). The receiving parties may include the general
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public or a relatively large subset thereof. Broadcasting has been used for purposes of private recreation, non-commercial exchange of messages, experimentation, self-training, and emergency communication such as amateur (ham) radio and amateur television (ATV) in addition to commercial purposes like popular radio or TV stations with advertisements.

In telecommunication and information theory, broadcasting refers to a method of transferring a message to all recipients simultaneously. Broadcasting can be performed as a high level operation in a program, for example broadcasting Message Passing Interface, or it may be a low level networking operation, for example broadcasting on Ethernet.

In computer networking, broadcasting refers to transmitting a packet that will be received by every device on the network.[1] In practice, the scope of the broadcast is limited to a broadcast domain. Broadcast a message is in contrast to unicast addressing in which a host sends datagrams to another single host identified by a unique IP address.

Not all network technologies support broadcast addressing; for example, neither X.25 nor frame relay have broadcast capability, nor is there any form of Internet-wide broadcast. Broadcasting is largely confined to local area network (LAN) technologies, most notably Ethernet and token ring, where the performance impact of broadcasting is not as large as it would be in a wide area network.

The successor to Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4), IPv6 also does not implement the broadcast method, so as to prevent disturbing all nodes in a network when only a few may be interested in a particular service. Instead it relies on multicast addressing a conceptually similar one-to-many routing methodology. However,
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multicasting limits the pool of receivers to those that join a specific multicast receiver group.

Both Ethernet and IPv4 use an all-ones broadcast address to indicate a broadcast packet. Token Ring uses a special value in the IEEE 802.2 control field.

Broadcasting may be abused to perform a DoS-attack. The attacker sends fake ping request with the source IP-address of the victim computer. The victim computer is flooded by the replies from all computers in the domain.

Objectives of the study

General Objective

The immersion report aim to develop an understanding between the solid state and vacuum tube transmitters and a transition from analog baseband to digitally processed baseband signal in TV5 Broadcasting Company.

Specific Objective:

1. Provide a basic knowledge of solid state broadcasting transmitter. 2. Differentiate solid state and vacuum tube transmitters. 3. Proposed an improvement on monitoring the transmitter

Chapter 2 Review of Related Literature

Broadcast: Make Widely Known

The ancient Greeks were the first to experiment with alternative (i.e. other than sending a messenger) methods of transmitting information over long distances. These early 'transmissions' involved the tops of hills, and fire by night, plus columns of smoke or large mirrors by day. This principle did not evolve very far until the 19th century, when experiments began to transmit messages via a series of electrical clicks on wires. Thus the telegraph system was born, laying the foundations for the broadcast of the human voice and other noises.

The Beginnings of Radio

Radio is the first 'modern' media form, and had a huge impact on the history of the 20th century. For the first time information could be broadcast, ie it could be received by anyone with the right equipment, without wires. The birth of radio ushers in the era of mass communications. Many people have likened the explosion in radio in the 1920s to what is happening with the internet today - lots of enthusiasts setting up their 'broadcast slot' and sharing their knowledge with similar people. Wireless communication has really come full circle, as more and more people turn to mobile phones and handheld computers
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that can receive internet 'transmissions'. As with the recording of images (in the 19th century they were recorded on metal plates, now they are recorded on metal plates that make up DVDs and computer hard drives) the broadcast of information has come full circle.

The first documented radio transmission occurred in 1895 and was sent by a 21 year old Italian, Guglielmo Marconi, who conducted simple experiments using a radio transmitter and receiver, the transmitter placed at his house, and the receiver placed three miles away. He got his servant to fire a gun when the transmission had been received - the three dots of the letter S in Morse Code. The Italian government were not at all interested in Marconi's invention, so he continued his experiments in Britain where he had the full support of the Minister of Post. Marconi (who had never been to university and had taught himself physics and electronics!) took out several patents and started to build radio stations across the south coast of Britain. In late 1901 he crossed the Atlantic to St John's Terranova, and there, on 12 December, received the first weak transatlantic radio signal, another .

The Beginnings of Television

The idea of television (i.e. sending and receiving images along wireless technology) was first bouncing around in the 1870s, but it did not become a reality until the 1920s. It is very difficult to name one person as 'the inventor of television' as different scientists all over the world invented different components to combine into what we understand today as 'TV technology'. The first of these was Vladimir K. Zworykin, who
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in 1921 invented a device that would convert patterns of light into electronic impulses. He was followed by Scotsman, John Logie Baird, who produced the first television set in 1924, but it showed only shadows. Also in 1924, Philo Farnsworth, an American, came up with the concept of broadcast television. By 1928 engineers had managed to create a crude receiver set and camera, and this went on show at the World's Fair - the first public viewing of television. However, the opportunities presented by TV were clear to many before this, and both the BBC and CBS were established in 1927.

TV broadcasting in most countries (with the exception of the US) was interrupted by the onset of World War 2. From 1939-1945 people around the world depended on their radios for up-to-the-minute news of the conflict, for speeches from politicians, for instructions from government bodies, and for light entertainment which might take their minds of the conflict for a short time. However, as soon as the war was over, the studios were reopened, the dustcovers were pulled off the equipment, and broadcasting resumed, often exactly where it had left off (in the middle of a Mickey Mouse cartoon in 1939, in the BBC's case). TV was back, and quickly established itself as the most popular media form of the 20th century, with the ownership of tv sets rising every year from the 1940s to the present day. There are currently around 1 billion TV sets in the world.

TV sets have come a long way from their basic origins. Colour TVs were first introduced in the early 1950s (once a way had been found to make colour broadcasts backwards compatible for everyone who still had a black-and-white TV set!). Today's high definition televisions are meant for watching so much more than TV shows. They have movie and sports settings, stereo speakers for listening to music, and can be hooked up to games consoles or computers. The latest innovations, like 3D and wireless home
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theater systems, mean that the TV set will remain the center of home entertainment for some time to come, although TV broadcasts are just one form of entertainment that will have to compete for space on the screen.

History of Broadcasting The history of broadcasting began with early radio transmissions which only carried the dots and dashes of wireless telegraphy. The history of radio broadcasting (experimentally around 1906, commercially around 1920) starts with audio (sound) broadcasting services which are broadcast through the air as radio waves from a transmitter to an antenna and, thus, to a receiving device. Stations can be linked in radio networks to broadcast common programming, either in syndication or simulcast or both.

One of the first signals of significant power that carried voice and music was accomplished in 1906 by Reginald Fessenden[1] when he made a Christmas Eve broadcast to ships at sea from Massachusetts. He played "O Holy Night" on his violin and read passages from the Bible. However, his financial backers lost interest in the project, leaving others to take the next steps. Early on, the concept of broadcasting was new and unusualwith telegraphs, communication had been one-to-one, not one-to-many. Sending out one-way messages to multiple receivers didn't seem to have much practical use.

Charles Herrold of San Jose, California sent out broadcasts as early as April 1909 from his Herrold School electronics institute in downtown San Jose, using the
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identification San Jose Calling, and then a variety of different call signs as the Department of Commerce began to regulate radio.[2] His station was first called FN, then SJN (probably illegally). By 1912, the United States government began requiring radio operators to obtain licenses to send out signals. Herrold received licenses for 6XF and 6XE (a mobile transmitter) in 1916.

He was on the air daily for nearly a decade when World War I interrupted operations. After the war, the Herrold operation in San Jose received the callsign KQW in 1923. Today, the lineage of that continues as KCBS, a CBS-owned station in San Francisco.

Herrold, the son of a farmer who patented a seed spreader, coined the terms broadcasting and narrowcasting,[3] based on the ideas of spreading crop seed far and wide, rather than only in rows. While Herrold never claimed the invention of radio itself, he did claim the invention of broadcasting to a wide audience, through the use of antennas designed to radiate signals in all directions.

By comparison, David Sarnoff has been considered by some, arguably and perhaps mistakenly, as "the prescient prophet of broadcasting who predicted the medium's rise in 1915", referring to his radio music box concept.[4][5]

A few organizations were allowed to keep working on radio during the war. Westinghouse was the most well-known of these. Frank Conrad, a Westinghouse

engineer, had been making transmissions from 8XK since 1916 that included music programming.[6]

However, a team at the University of WisconsinMadison headed by Professor Earle M. Terry also had permission to be on the air.[7] They operated 9XM, originally licensed by Professor Edward Bennett in 1914, and usually sent Morse code weather reports to ships on the Great Lakes, but they also experimented with voice broadcasts starting in 1917. They reportedly had difficulties with audio distortion, so the next couple of years were spent making transmissions distortion-free.

Following the war, Herrold and other radio pioneers across the country resumed transmissions. The early stations gained new call signs. 8XK became KDKA in 1920. Herrold received a license for KQW in 1921 (later to become KCBS). 9XM became WHA in 1922.

The National Broadcasting Company began regular broadcasting in 1926, with telephone links between New York and other Eastern cities. NBC became the dominant radio network, splitting into Red and Blue networks.

The Columbia Broadcasting System began in 1927 under the guidance of William S. Paley.

Radio in education soon followed and colleges across the U.S. began adding radio broadcasting courses to their curricula. Curry College, first in Boston and then in Milton,
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Massachusetts, introduced one of the first broadcasting majors in 1932 when the college teamed up with WLOE in Boston to have students broadcast programs.[8]

Several independent stations formed the Mutual Broadcasting System to exchange syndicated programming, including The Lone Ranger and Amos 'n' Andy.

A Federal Communnications Commission decision in 1939 required NBC to divest itself of its Blue Network. That decision was sustained by the Supreme Court in a 1943 decision, National Broadcasting Co. v. United States, which established the framework that the "scarcity" of radio-frequency meant that broadcasting was subject to greater regulation than other media. This Blue Network network became the American Broadcasting Company (ABC). Around 1946, ABC, NBC, and CBS began regular television broadcasts. Another TV network, the DuMont Television Network, was founded earlier, but was disbanded in 1956.

Two years later, a consortium of radio manufacturers formed the British Broadcasting Company (BBC). This broadcast continued until its licence expired at the end of 1926. The company then became the British Broadcasting Corporation, a noncommercial organisation. Its governors are appointed by the government but they do not answer to it.

Lord Reith took a formative role in developing the BBC, especially in radio.[9] Working as its first manager and Director-General, he promoted the philosophy of public service broadcasting, firmly grounded in the moral benefits of education and of uplifting
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entertainment, eschewing commercial influence and maintaining a maximum of independence from political control.

Commercial stations such as Radio Normandie and Radio Luxembourg broadcast into the UK from other European countries. This provided a very popular alternative to the rather austere BBC. These stations were closed during the War, and only Radio Luxembourg returned afterward.

BBC television broadcasts in Britain began on November 2, 1936, and continued until wartime conditions closed the service in 1939.

Before the Nazi assumption of power in 1933, German radio broadcasting was supervised by the Post Office. A listening fee of 2 Reichsmark per receiver paid most subsidies.

Immediately following Hitler's assumption of power, Joseph Goebbels became head of the Ministry for Propaganda and Public Enlightenment. Non-Nazis were removed from broadcasting and editorial positions. Jews were fired from all positions.

The Reichsrundfunk programming began to decline in popularity as the theme of Kampfzeit was continually played. Germany was easily served by a number of European mediumwave stations, including the BBC and domestic stations in France, the Low Countries, Denmark and Sweden, and Poland. It became illegal for Germans to listen to

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foreign broadcasts. (Foreign correspondents and key officials were exempt from this rule).

During the war, German stations broadcast not only war propaganda and entertainment for German forces dispersed through Europe and the Atlantic, but provided air raid alerts.

Germany experimented with television broadcasting before the Second World War, using a 180-line raster system beginning before 1935. German propaganda claimed the system was superior to the British mechanical scanning system, but this was subject to debate by persons who saw the broadcasts.

Sri Lanka has the oldest radio station in Asia (world's second oldest). The station was known as Radio Ceylon. It developed into one of the finest broadcasting institutions in the world. It is now known as the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation.

Sri Lanka created broadcasting history in Asia when broadcasting was started in Ceylon by the Telegraph Department in 1923 on an experimental footing, just three years after the inauguration of broadcasting in Europe.

Gramophone music was broadcast from a tiny room in the Central Telegraph Office with the aid of a small transmitter built by the Telegraph Department engineers from the radio equipment of a captured German submarine.

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This broadcasting experiment was a huge success and barely three years later, on December 16, 1925, a regular broadcasting service came to be instituted. Edward Harper who came to Ceylon as Chief Engineer of the Telegraph Office in 1921, was the first person to actively promote broadcasting in Ceylon. Sri Lanka occupies an important place in the history of broadcasting with broadcasting services inaugurated just three years after the launch of the BBC in the United Kingdom.

Edward Harper launched the first experimental broadcast as well as founding the Ceylon Wireless Club, together with British and Ceylonese radio enthusiasts on the island. Edward Harper has been dubbed ' the Father of Broadcasting in Ceylon,' because of his pioneering efforts, his skill and his determination to succeed. Edward Harper and his fellow Ceylonese radio enthusiasts, made it happen.

Television began to replace radio as the chief source of revenue for broadcasting networks. Although many radio programs continued through this decade, including Gunsmoke and The Guiding Light, by 1960 networks had ceased producing entertainment programs.

As radio stopped producing formal fifteen-minute to hourly programs, a new format developed. "Top 40" was based on a continuous rotation of short pop songs presented by a "disc jockey." Famous disc jockeys in the era included Alan Freed, Dick Clark, Don Imus and Wolfman Jack. Top 40 playlists were theoretically based on record

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sales; however, record companies began to bribe disc jockeys to play selected artists, in what was called payola.

In the 1950s, American television networks introduced broadcasts in color. (The Federal Communications Commission approved the world's first monochromecompatible color television standard in Dec., 1953. The first network colorcast followed on January 1, 1954, with NBC transmitting the annual Tournament of Roses Parade in Pasadena, Calif. to over 20 stations across the country.) An educational television network, National Educational Television (NET), predecessor to PBS, was founded.

Shortwave broadcasting played an important part of fighting the cold war with Voice of America and the BBC World Service argumented with Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty transmitting through the "Iron Curtain", and Radio Moscow and others broadcasting back, as well as jamming (transmitting to cause intentional interference) the western voices.

Radio Luxembourg remained popular during the 1950s but saw its audience decline as commercial television and pirate radio, combined with a switch to a less clear frequency, began to erode its influence.

BBC television resumed on June 7, 1946, and commercial television began on September 22, 1955. Both used the pre-war 405-line standard.

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BBC2 came on the air on April 20, 1964, using the 625-line standard, and began PAL colour transmissions on July 1, 1967, the first in Europe. The two older networks transmitted in 625-line colour from 1969.

During the 1960s there was still no UK-based commercial radio. A number of 'pirate' radio ships, located in international waters just outside the jurisdiction of English law, came on the air between 1964 and 1967. The most famous of these was Radio Caroline, which was the only station to continue broadcasting after the offshore pirates were effectively outlawed on August 14, 1967 by the Marine Broadcasting Offences Act. It was finally forced off air due to a dispute over tendering payments, but returned in 1972 and continued on and off until 1990. The station still broadcasts, nowadays using satellite carriers and internet.

When the Federal Republic of Germany was organized in 1949, its Enabling Act established strong state government powers. Broadcasting was organized on a state, rather than a national, basis. Nine regional radio networks were established. A technical coordinating organization, the Arbeitsgemeinschaft der offentlich-rechtlichen

Rundfunkanstalten der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (ARD), came into being in 1950 to lessen technical conflicts.

The Allied forces in Europe developed their own radio networks, including the U.S. American Forces Network (AFN). Inside Berlin, Radio in the American Sector (RIAS) became a key source of news in the German Democratic Republic.
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Germany began developing a network of VHF FM broadcast stations in 1955 because of the excessive crowding of the mediumwave and shortwave broadcast bands.

Radio Ceylon ruled the airwaves in the 1950s and 1960s in the Indian subcontinent.[12] The station developed into the most popular radio network in South Asia. Millions of listeners in India for example tuned into Radio Ceylon.

Announcers like Livy Wijemanne, Vernon Corea,[13] Pearl Ondaatje, Tim Horshington, Greg Roskowski, Jimmy Bharucha, Mil Sansoni, Eardley Peiris, Shirley Perera, Bob Harvie, Christopher Greet, Prosper Fernando, Ameen Sayani (of Binaca Geetmala fame),[14]Karunaratne Abeysekera, S.P.Mylvaganam (the first Tamil Announcer on the Commercial Service) were hugely popular across South Asia.

The Hindi Service also helped build Radio Ceylon's reputation as the market leader in the Indian sub-continent. Gopal Sharma, Sunil Dutt Ameen Sayani, Hamid Sayani, were among the Indian announcers of the station.

The Commercial Service of Radio Ceylon was hugely successful under the leadership of Clifford Dodd, the Australian administrator and broadcasting expert who was sent to Ceylon under the Colombo Plan. Dodd hand picked some of the most talented radio presenters in South Asia.[15] They went on to enjoy star status in the Indian subcontinent. This was Radio Ceylon's golden era.

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The rise of FM changed the listening habits of younger Americans. Many stations such as WNEW-FM in New York City began to play whole sides of record albums, as opposed to the "Top 40" model of two decades earlier.

In the 1980s, the Federal Communications Commission, under Reagan Administration and Congressional pressure, changed the rules limiting the number of radio and television stations a business entity could own in one metropolitan area. This deregulation led to several groups, such as Infinity Broadcasting and Clear Channel to buy many stations in major cities. The cost of these stations' purchases led to a conservative approach to broadcasting, including limited playlists and avoiding controversial subjects to not offend listeners, and increased commercials to increase revenue.

AM Radio declined throughout the 1970s and 1980s due to various reasons including: Lower cost of FM receivers, narrow AM audio bandwidth, and poor sound in the AM section of automobile receivers (to combat the crowding of stations in the AM band and a "loudness war" conducted by AM broadcasters), and increased radio noise in homes caused by fluorescent lighting and introduction of electronic devices in homes. AM radio's decline flattened out in the mid-1990s due to the introduction of niche formats and over commercialization of many FM stations.

A new Pirate station, Swiss-owned Radio Nordsee International, broadcast to Britain and the Netherlands from 1970 until outlawed by Dutch legislation in 1974
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(which meant it could no longer be supplied from the European mainland). The English service was heavily jammed by both Labour and Conservative Governments in 1970 amid suggestions that the ship was actually being used for espionage. Radio Caroline returned in 1972 and continued until its ship sank in 1980 (the crew were rescued). A Belgian station, Radio Atlantis, operated an English service for a few months before the Dutch act came into force in 1974.

Land-based commercial radio finally came on air in 1973 with London's LBC and Capital Radio.

Channel 4 television started in November 1982. Britain's UHF system was originally designed to carry only four networks.

Pirate radio enjoyed another brief resurgence with a literal re-launch of Radio Caroline in 1983, and the arrival of American-owned Laser 558 in 1985. Both stations were harassed by the British authorities; Laser closed in 1987 and Caroline in 1989, since then it has pursued legal methods of broadcasting, such as temporary FM licences and satellite.

Two rival satellite television systems came on the air at the end of the 1980s: Sky Television and British Satellite Broadcasting. Huge losses forced a rapid merger, although in many respects it was a takeover of BSB (Britain's official, Governmentsanctioned satellite company) by Sky.

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Radio Luxembourg launched a 24-hour English channel on satellite, but closed its AM service in 1989 and its satellite service in 1991.

The Broadcasting Act 1990 in UK law marked the establishment of two licencing authorities - the Radio Authority and the Independent Television Commission - to facilitate the licencing of non-BBC broadcast services, especially short-term broadcasts.

Channel 5 went on the air on March 30, 1997, using "spare" frequencies between the existing channels.

The Government of Sri Lanka opened up the market in the late 1970s and 1980s allowing private companies to set up radio and television stations.

Sri Lanka's public services broadcasters are the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation (SLBC), Independent Television Net Work (ITN) and the affiliated radio station called Lak-handa. They had stiff competition on their hands with the private sector.

Broadcasting in Sri Lanka went through a transformation resulting in private broadcasting institutions being set up on the island among them Telshan Network (Pvt) Ltd, (TNL, Maharaja Television -TV, Sirasa TV and Shakthi TV, and EAP Network (Pvt) Ltd - known as Swarnawahini - these private channels all have radio stations as well.

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The 1990s saw a new generation of radio stations being established in Sri Lanka among them the 'Hiru' radio station. In the 1980s public service broadcasters like the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation set up their own FM arm.

Sri Lanka celebrated 80 years of broadcasting in December 2005. In January 2007 the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation celebrated 40 years as a public corporation.

In 1987, stations in the European Broadcasting Union began offering Radio Data System (RDS), which provides written text information about programs that were being broadcast, as well as traffic alerts, accurate time, and other teletext services.

Digital radio services, except in the United States, were allocated a new frequency band in the range of 1,400 MHz. In the United States, this band was deemed to be vital to national defense, so an alternate band in the range of 2,300 MHz was introduced for satellite broadcasting. Two American companies, XM and Sirius, introduced DBS systems, which are funded by direct subscription, as in cable television. The XM and Sirius systems provide approximately 100 channels each, in exchange for monthly payments.

In addition, a consortium of companies received FCC approval for In-Band OnChannel digital broadcasts in the United States, which use the existing mediumwave and FM bands to provide CD-quality sound. However, early IBOC tests showed interference problems with adjacent channels, which has slowed adoption of the system.

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In Canada, the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission plans to move all Canadian broadcasting to the digital band and close all mediumwave and FM stations.[citation needed]

European and Australian stations have begun digital broadcasting (DAB). Digital radios began to be sold in the United Kingdom in 1998.

Regular Shortwave broadcasts using Digital Radio Mondiale (DRM), a digital broadcasting scheme for short and medium wave broadcasts have begun. This system makes the normally scratchy international broadcasts clear and nearly FM quality, and much lower transmitter power. This is much better to listen to and has more languages.

In Sri Lanka in 2005 when Sri Lanka celebrated 80 years in Broadcasting, the former Director-General of the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation, Eric Fernando called for the station to take full advantage of the digital age - this included looking at the archives of Radio Ceylon. Ivan Corea asked the President of Sri Lanka, Mahinda Rajapakse to invest in the future of the SLBC. Transmitter

In electronics and telecommunications a transmitter or radio transmitter is an electronic device which, with the aid of an antenna, produces radio waves. The transmitter itself generates a radio frequency alternating current, which is applied to the
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antenna. When excited by this alternating current, the antenna radiates radio waves. In addition to their use in broadcasting, transmitters are necessary component parts of many electronic devices that communicate by radio, such as cell phones, wireless computer networks, Bluetooth enabled devices, garage door openers, two-way radios in aircraft, ships, and spacecraft, radar sets, and navigational beacons. The term transmitter is usually limited to equipment that generates radio waves for communication purposes; or radiolocation, such as radar and navigational transmitters. Generators of radio waves for heating or industrial purposes, such as microwave ovens or diathermy equipment, are not usually called transmitters even though they often have similar circuits.

The term is popularly used more specifically to refer to a broadcast transmitter, a transmitter used in broadcasting, as in FM radio transmitter or television transmitter. This usage usually includes both the transmitter proper, the antenna, and often the building it is housed in. An unrelated use of the term is in industrial process control, where a "transmitter" is a telemetry device which converts measurements from a sensor into a signal, and sends it, usually via wires, to be received by some display or control device located a distance away.

A transmitter can be a separate piece of electronic equipment, or an electrical circuit within another electronic device. A transmitter and receiver combined in one unit is called a transceiver. The term transmitter is often abbreviated "XMTR" or "TX" in
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technical documents. The purpose of most transmitters is radio communication of information over a distance. The information is provided to the transmitter in the form of an electronic signal, such as an audio (sound) signal from a microphone, a video (TV) signal from a video camera, or in wireless networking devices a digital signal from a computer. The transmitter combines the information signal to be carried with the radio frequency signal which generates the radio waves, which is often called the carrier. This process is called modulation. The information can be added to the carrier in several different ways, in different types of transmitter. In an amplitude modulation (AM) transmitter, the information is added to the radio signal by varying its amplitude. In a frequency modulation (FM) transmitter, it is added by varying the radio signal's frequency slightly. Many other types of modulation are used. The antenna may be enclosed inside the case or attached to the outside of the transmitter, as in portable devices such as cell phones, walkie-talkies, and garage door openers. In more powerful transmitters, the antenna may be located on top of a building or on a separate tower, and connected to the transmitter by a feed line, that is a transmission line.

Legal restrictions

In most parts of the world, use of transmitters is strictly controlled by law because of the potential for dangerous interference with other radio transmissions (for example to emergency communications). Transmitters must be licensed by governments, under a
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variety of license classes depending on use: (broadcast, marine radio, Airband, Amateur etc.), and are restricted to certain frequencies and power levels. In some classes each transmitter is given a unique call sign consisting of a string of letters and numbers which must be used as an identifier in transmissions. The operator of the transmitter usually must hold a government license, such as a general radiotelephone operator license, which is obtained by passing a test demonstrating adequate technical and legal knowledge of safe radio operation. An exception is made allowing the unlicensed use of low-power short-range transmitters in devices such as cell phones, cordless telephones, wireless microphones, walkie-talkies, Wifi and Bluetooth devices, garage door openers, and baby monitors. In the US, these fall under Part 15 of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulations. Although they can be operated without a license, these devices still generally must be type-approved before sale.

How it works

A radio transmitter is an electronic circuit which transforms electric power from a battery or electrical mains into a radio frequency alternating current, which reverses direction millions to billions of times per second. The energy in such a rapidly-reversing current can radiate off a conductor (the antenna) as electromagnetic waves (radio waves). The transmitter also "piggybacks" information, such as an audio or video signal, onto the radio frequency current to be carried by the radio waves. When they strike the antenna of
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a radio receiver, the waves excite similar (but less powerful) radio frequency currents in it. The radio receiver extracts the information from the received waves. A practical radio transmitter usually consists of these parts:

A power supply circuit to transform the input electrical power to the higher voltages needed to produce the required power output.

An electronic oscillator circuit to generate the radio frequency signal. This usually generates a sine wave of constant amplitude often called the carrier wave, because it serves to "carry" the information through space. In most modern transmitters this is a crystal oscillator in which the frequency is precisely controlled by the vibrations of a quartz crystal.

A modulator circuit to add the information to be transmitted to the carrier wave produced by the oscillator. This is done by varying some aspect of the carrier wave. The information is provided to the transmitter either in the form of an audio signal, which represents sound, a video signal, or for data in the form of a binary digital signal.

In an AM (amplitude modulation) transmitter the amplitude (strength) of the carrier wave is varied in proportion to the modulation signal.

In an FM (frequency modulation) transmitter the frequency of the carrier is varied by the modulation signal.

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In an FSK (frequency-shift keying) transmitter, which transmits digital data, the frequency of the carrier is shifted between two frequencies which represent the two binary digits, 0 and 1.

Many other types of modulation are also used. In large transmitters the oscillator and modulator together are often referred to as the exciter.

An RF power amplifier to increase the power of the signal, to increase the range of the radio waves.

An impedance matching (antenna tuner) circuit to match the impedance of the transmitter to the impedance of the antenna (or the transmission line to the antenna), to transfer power efficiently to the antenna. If these impedances are not equal, it causes a condition called standing waves, in which the power is reflected back from the antenna toward the transmitter, wasting power and sometimes overheating the transmitter. In higher frequency transmitters, in the UHF and microwave range, oscillators that operate stably at the output frequency cannot be built. In these transmitters the oscillator usually operates at a lower frequency, and is multiplied by frequency multipliers to get a signal at the desired frequency.

History The first primitive radio transmitters (called Hertzian oscillators) were built by German physicist Heinrich Hertz in 1887 during his pioneering investigations of radio
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waves. These generated radio waves by a high voltage spark between two conductors. These spark-gap transmitters were used during the first three decades of radio (18871917), called the wireless telegraphy era. They couldn't transmit audio and instead transmitted information by telegraphy, the operator spelling out text messages in Morse code. Short-lived competing techniques came into use after the turn of the century, such as the Alexanderson alternator and Poulsen Arc transmitters. But all these early technologies were replaced by vacuum tube transmitters in the 1920s, because they were inexpensive and produced continuous waves, which could be modulated to transmit audio (sound) using amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM). This made possible commercial AM radio broadcasting, which began in about 1920. The current form of FM transmission was invented by Edwin Armstrong in 1933, and the first FM radio station was licensed in 1937. The development of radar during World War II was a great stimulus to the evolution of high frequency transmitters in the UHF and microwave ranges, using new devices such as the magnetron, klystron, and traveling wave tube. In recent years, the need to conserve crowded radio spectrum bandwidth has driven the development of new types of transmitters such as spread spectrum.

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Chapter 3 Research Methodology

This chapter explain the method to be used to compare two system and convince the company for its equipment transition from analog to digital. The data gathered to convince the company in terms of financial and technological terms. Data Gathering The Information gathered mainly from the internet based on the information learned by the researcher during the practicum. Information is carefully analyze to differentiate the two technologies their advantage and disadvantage. Personal observation during the immersion also proved valuable to the research. The proposed monitoring system may a good use to further monitor critical equipment and reduce the chance of failure. During operation. The discussion of the technologies may help the researchers to gain knowledge on actual condition and be of use in the future application aside from monitoring transmitter in broadcasting.

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Chapter 4 Presentation of Data

In this chapter discuss the technology of vacuum tube and solid-state transmitter their advantage and disadvantage Vacuum Tubes vacuum tube, electron tube thermionic valve, tube, or valve is a device

controlling electric current through a vacuum in a sealed container. The container is often thin transparent glass in a roughly cylindrical shape. The simplest vacuum tube, the diode, is essentially an incandescent light bulb with an added electrode inside. When the bulb's filament is heated white-hot, electrons are "boiled" off its surface and into the vacuum inside the bulb. If the electrode -- called a "plate" or "anode" -- is made more positive than the hot filament, a direct current flows through the vacuum to the electrode (a demonstration of the Edison effect). As the current only flows in one direction, it makes it possible to convert an alternating current applied to the filament to direct current.

The introduction of a third electrode, a grid between the filament and the plate, yields another function. A voltage applied to the grid controls the current flowing from the filament to the plate. Thus, it allows the device to be used as an electronic amplifier. Vacuum tubes are thus used for rectification, amplification, switching, or similar processing or creation of electrical signals.
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The vast majority of modern day tubes consist of a sealed container with a vacuum inside, and essentially rely on thermionic emission of electrons from a hot filament or a cathode heated by the filament. Some exceptions to this are dealt with in the section about gas-filled tubes below.

Vacuum tubes were critical to the development of electronic technology, which drove the expansion and commercialization of radio broadcasting, television, radar, sound reinforcement, sound recording and reproduction, large telephone networks, analog and digital computers, and industrial process control. Although some applications had counterparts using earlier technologies such as the spark gap

transmitter or mechanical computers, it was the invention of the vacuum tube with three electrodes (called a triode) and its capability of electronic amplification that made these technologies widespread and practical. Solid State Devices

Solid-state electronics are those circuits or devices built entirely from solid materials and in which the electrons, or other charge carriers, are confined entirely within the solid material. The term is often used to contrast with the earlier technologies of vacuum andgas-discharge tube devices and it is also conventional to exclude electromechanical devices (relays, switches, hard drives and other devices with moving parts) from the term solid state. While and solid-state refer can

include crystalline, polycrystalline and amorphous solids

to electrical

conductors, insulators and semiconductors, the building material is most often a

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crystalline

semiconductor.

Common

solid-state

devices

include transistors, microprocessor chips, and RAM. A specialized type of RAM called flash RAM is used in flash drives and more recently, solid state drives to replace mechanically rotating magnetic disc hard drives. A considerable amount

of electromagnetic and quantum-mechanical action takes place within the device. The expression became prevalent in the 1950s and the 1960s, during the transition from vacuum tube technology to semiconductor diodes and transistors. More recently, the integrated circuit (IC), the light-emitting diode (LED), and the liquid-crystal

display (LCD) have evolved as further examples of solid-state devices.

In a solid-state component, the current is confined to solid elements and compounds engineered specifically to switch and amplify it. Current flow can be understood in two forms: as negatively charged electrons, and as positively charged electron deficiencies called holes.

The first solid-state device was the "cat's whisker" detector, first used in 1930s radio receivers. A whisker-like wire is placed lightly in contact with a solid crystal (such as a germanium crystal) in order to detect a radio signal by the contact junction effect. The solid-state device came into its own with the invention of the transistor in 1947.

SOLID-STATE TRANSMITTERS Technological advances in bipolar and eld effect transistors (FET) have made the development of solid-state high power, linear amplier modules for TV applications both practical and cost effective. By combining RF modules, it is practical to create
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transmitters at any power range up to 75 kW. Solid-state transmitters maintain their performance over extended periods of time due primarily to the fact that they have no tuning controls nor lament emission degradation with time. No warm up time is requiredsolid-state transmitters produce full rated power within seconds of activation.

Solid State Devices Both bipolar and FET technology exist today as suitable RF amplication devices. Power amps are operated in class AB for the best trade-off of efficiency and linearity. Driver stages usually contain Class A ampliers. Although both device types have merit, FETs have some advantages over bipolar devices. FETs have a higher amplication factor than bipolar transistors, helping to reduce the number of driver stages. Higher supply voltages help to reduce the current capacity of the power supply. Simpler bias circuitry minimizes. RF Ampliers

Combining several RF power modules to achieve the desired transmitter output power increases the parallel redundancy and the on-air availability. Output power of 12 kW per module has been adopted by nearly all manufacturers based on overall cost, practical weight, and size limitations. Self protection of each PA module against various fault conditions is good engineering practice. By using self protecting modules, the cabinet control logic and overall transmitter control logic can be kept simple, thus improving overall reliability. Self diagnostics for the module aid in minimizing time to repair. Protection from over-voltage, overdrive, VSWR, over temperature and ensuring proper load sharing among devices is essential to maintaining ampliers for long life. It is
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desirable that one subassembly failure not cause another subassembly to fail. Modular ampliers which can be removed while hot improve overall on-air availability. If an amplier module fails, the transmitter continues to function indenitely without disrupting transmitter operation. If a spare PA amplier is on hand, it can be used while the failed unit is repaired. Temperature compensated regulated supplies for the ampliers are important. Otherwise, power output varies as temperature or supply voltage changes.

Tube transmitters are more rugged and will take more abuse than a solid state unit. Things like heat, lightning, EMP, mismatched antenna wont phase a well designed, well manufactured tube transmitter. On the other hand, they are less efficient AC to RF, have higher B+ voltages, have hard failure modes, and are more difficult to linearize, if that is required for some reason.

Solid state transmitters are more broadbanded, easier to change frequency, they have soft failure mode due to redundant amplifiers and power supplies. The voltages are lower, thus they are safer to work on.

System monitor

Systems engineering is a process within a distributed system for collecting and storing state data. This is a fundamental principal supporting Application Performance Management.

The argument that system monitoring is just a nice to have, and not really a core requirement for operational readiness, dissipates quickly when a critical application goes down with no warning. The configuration for the system monitor takes two forms:
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1. configuration data for the monitor application itself, and 2. Configuration data for the system being monitored. See: System configurations.

The monitoring application needs information such as log file path and number of threads to run with. Once the application is running, it needs to know what to monitor, and deduce how to monitor. Because the configuration data for what to monitor is needed in other areas of the system, such as deployment the configuration data should not be tailored specifically for use by the system monitor, but should be a generalized system configuration model. The performance of the monitoring system has two aspects:

Impact on system domain or impact on domain functionality: Any element of the monitoring system that prevents the main domain functionality from working is inappropriate. Ideally the monitoring is a tiny fraction of each applications footprint, requiring simplicity. The monitoring function must be highly tunable to allow for such issues as network performance, improvements to applications in the development life-cycle, appropriate levels of detail, etc. Impact on the systems' primary function must be considered.

Efficient monitoring or ability to monitor efficiently: Monitoring must be efficient, able to handle all monitoring goals in a timely manner, within the desired period. This is most related to scalability. Various monitoring modes are discussed below.

There are many issues involved with designing and implementing a system monitor. Here are a few issues to be dealt with:

configuration
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protocol performance data access

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Chapter 5 Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation

Summary Based on the discussion of the two technology, the vacuum tube and solid state transmitter.

Here is a complete list of advantages and disadvantages of each type:

Attribute Ruggedness

Tube Very rugged, able to take heat, EMP, lightning, mistuned antenna, poor operating environment, etc Less efficient

Solid State Not heat tolerant, lightning and EMP can damage MOSFETS, switching power supplies sensitive to AC mains issues More efficient

Comment Advantage: Tube

Electrical Efficiency

Advantage: Solid State, however efficiency gain can be wiped out due to larger air conditioning requirement Advantage: Solid State, failure of a single module or power supply generally will not take unit off the air Advantage: FM Solid state transmitters can easily be moved. AM transmitters still require extensive retuning.
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Failure mode

Hard, most often

Soft, most often

Frequency agility

Difficult

Easy

Reoccurring cost Maintenance Servicing

More

Less

Advantage: Solid State, as tube changes are required every two to three years Advantage: neither Advantage: Solid State, however either type requires occasional measurements with specialized test equipment Advantage: Solid State Advantage: Solid State, multiple power amps and power supplies give solid state units more redundancy Advantage: Dependant on TPO, Higher powered solid state transmitters are much more expensive than there tube type counterparts Advantage: Tube

Same Requires skilled engineers to service and trouble shoot

Same Modules and power supplies are often hot swappable and returned to manufacture for repair

Servicing safety Redundancy

High voltages, contact will be fatal Low

Lower voltages, but can still be fatal High

Cost

Less

More

Availability

Good used market, some new FM transmitters still being built Dependent brand on

Good new and used

Reliability

Dependent on brand

Advantage: neither

Conclusion

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Based on the objective the researchers were able to discuss the two technology, the vacuum tube and solid state transmitter and were able to discuss the following. 1. The researchers were able to provide basic knowledge of solid state broadcasting amplifier. 2. The researchers were able to differentiate the vacuum tube and solid state transmitter. 3. A system monitoring is proposed for monitoring the transmitter.

Recommendation Based on the conclusion the researchers recommend the following.

1. More detail on what type of monitoring system should be used to monitor the equipments in the transmitter department. 2. Future researchers should consult professional people that has more experience in the field to further discuss the differences of each technologies. 3. A simple flow chart on how a system monitoring and data acquisition should flow to strengthen the argument in favor of the system monitoring.

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REFERENCES

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube http://www.effectrode.com/signal-tubes/vacuum-tubes-and-transistors-compared/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC_Development_Corporation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmitter

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_broadcasting

http://www.mediaknowall.com/Year9/Broadcast/9broadhist.html

http://www.ambisonic.net/articles.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapatid_TV5 http://www.engineeringradio.us/blog/2011/08/tube-transmitters-vs-solid-statetransmitters/ http://www.um.edu.ar/catedras/claroline/backends/download.php?url=L0NhcO10dWxvX zMvVHJhbnNtaXNp825fZGVfVFYucGRm&cidReset=true&cidReq=1051

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