Slide 1

Sociology in Modules
Richard T. Schaefer
two

1st Edition

chapter

Sociological Research

2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 2

Sociological Research
Module 5: What is the Scientific Method? Module 6: Major Research Designs Module 7: Ethics of Research Module 8: Developments of Methodology

2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 3

A Look Ahead

How do sociologists go about setting up a research project?

How do they ensure that their results are reliable and accurate? Can they avoid violating the rights of those they study?

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Module 5

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What is the Scientific Method?

Systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem

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Module 5

Slide 5

Figure 5-1: The Scientific Method

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Module 5

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Scientific Method

Defining the Problem

Operational definition: Explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow researchers to assess the concept

Reviewing the Literature

Refines problem under study

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Module 5

Slide 7

Scientific Method

Formulating the Hypothesis

Hypothesis: Speculative statement about the relationship between two or more factors known as variables Variable: Measurable trait or characteristic subject to change under different conditions
Independent variable: Variable hypothesized to cause or influence another Dependent variable: Action depends on the influence of the independent variable
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Module 5

Slide 8

Scientific Method

Formulating the Hypothesis

Causal logic: Involves relationships between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one event leading to the other Correlation: Exists when change in one variable coincides with change in another
Correlation does not necessarily indicate causation
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Module 5

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Figure 5-2: Educational Level and Household Income in the United States

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Module 5

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Figure 5-3: Causal Logic

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Module 5

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Collecting and Analyzing Data

Selecting the Sample

Sample: Selection from a larger population that is statistically typical of that population Random sample: When every member of a population has the same chance of being selected Snowball samples participants recruited through word of mouth or by posting notices on the Internet
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Module 5

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Collecting and Analyzing Data

Ensuring Validity and Reliability

Validity: Degree to which the measure reflects the phenomenon being studied Reliability: Extent to which the measure provides consistent results

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Module 5

Slide 13

Developing the Conclusion

Supporting the Hypothesis

Sociological studies do not always generate data that support original hypothesis Controlling for other factors Control variable: Factor held constant to test the impact of the independent variable
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Module 5

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Figure 5-4: Impact of a College Education on Income

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Module 6

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Major Research Designs

Research design: Detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically

Surveys Observation Experiments Existing sources

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Module 6

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Surveys

Study that provides sociologists with information about how people act or think
Questionnaire: Researcher uses printed or written form to obtain information from respondent

Interview: Researcher obtains information through face-to-face or telephone questioning

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Module 6

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Surveys

Quantitative research: Collects and reports data primarily in numerical form

Qualitative research: Relies on what is seen in field and naturalistic settings; often focuses on small groups and communities
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Module 6

Slide 18

Research Today

Surveying Cell Phone Users

Are you a cell phone-only user? If so, do you generally accept calls from unknown numbers? Which of the problems that arise during telephone surveys might also arise during Internet surveys? Might Internet surveys involve some unique problems?

2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Module 6

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Observation

Collecting information through direct participation and/or by closely watching a group or community
Observation: Sociologist joins group to get accurate sense of how it operates Ethnography: Efforts to describe an entire social setting through extended systematic observation

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Module 6

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Experiments

Artificially created situation that allows researcher to manipulate variables

Experimental group: Exposed to independent variable Control group: Not exposed to independent variable Hawthorne Effect: Unintended influence of observers or experiments on subjects

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Module 6

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Use of Existing Sources

Secondary analysis: Research techniques that make use of previously collected and publicly accessible information and data
Content analysis: Systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale

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Module 6

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Research Today

Whats In a Name?
According to www.babynamewizard.com, how popular is your first name? Is it becoming more or less fashionable over time? Using the Name Mapper feature at www.babynamewizard.com, find out how popular your name is in the state where you were born.
2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Module 7

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Ethics of Research

Code of Ethics (ASA, 1997)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Maintain objectivity and integrity in research Respect subjects right to privacy and dignity Protect subjects from personal harm Preserve confidentiality Seek informed consent Acknowledge collaboration and assistance Disclose sources of financial support

2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Module 7

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Ethics of Research

Confidentiality

Conflict of Interest Value Neutrality

Investigators have ethical obligation to accept research findings even when the data run counter to their personal views, to theoretically based explanations, or to widely accepted beliefs
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Module 8

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Feminist Methodology

Feminist perspective had greatest impact on current generation of researchers

See work and family as closely integrated Noted that studies tend to overlook women Questioned commonly accepted methodological techniques Tend to involve and consult subjects more than other researchers More oriented toward seeking change, raising public consciousness, and influencing policy
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Module 8

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Technology and Sociological Research

Extends range and capability to conduct research

Allows researchers to store and analyze large amounts of information Web-based surveys in early stages, but have basic limitation

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Module 8

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Studying Human Sexuality

Understanding the Issue

Kaiser Family Foundation found more than two-thirds of TV shows include some sexual content How does one carry out scientific research on such a controversial and personal topic?

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Module 8

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Studying Human Sexuality

Applying Sociology
Little reliable national data on patterns of sexual behavior in U.S. Government funding for studies of sexual behavior is controversial

2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Module 8

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Studying Human Sexuality

Applying Sociology
Federal government is major source of funding for sociological research ASAs Code of Ethics does not address whether sociologists who accept funding from a particular agency or corporation may also accept the agencys perspective on what needs to be studied

2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Module 8

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Studying Human Sexuality

Initiating Policy
In 1991, U.S. Senate forbid funding any survey on adult sexual practices Laumann, Gagnon, Michaels, and Michael developed NHSLS to better understand sexual practices of adults in U.S. Used $1.6 million of private funding to fund research

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Module 8

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Figure 8-1: Percentage of Television Shows that Contain Sexual Content

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Module 8

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Figure 8-2: Median Age of First Sex

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Appendix I

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Using Statistics

Percentage: Shows portion of 100

Mean: Average; sum of a series of values divided by the number of values Mode: Single most common value in a series of values Median: Midpoint that divides a series of values into two groups with equal numbers of values
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Appendix I

Slide 34

Reading Graphs

Tables allow social scientists to display data and make it easier to develop conclusions
Cross-tabulation: Shows relationship between two or more variables Graphs are often easier for the general public to understand

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Appendix I

Slide 35

Figure A-3: Changing Attitudes Toward the Legalization of Marijuana

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Appendix I

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Figure A-4: People Who Favor Legalization of Marijuana by Gender and Age, 2009

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Appendix II

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Writing a Research Report

Finding Information
Check textbooks Use library catalog Use computerized periodical indexes Examine government documents Use newspapers Ask people, organizations, and agencies Consult instructor
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Appendix II

Slide 38

Writing a Research Report

Writing the Report

Focus on topic Develop an outline Work ahead of deadline Read paper aloud

Including Citations and References

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