Digital Re-print March | April 2013

Importance of trace minerals for nutrient stability in feed and optimized trace element supply of animals
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FEATURE

Importance of trace minerals for nutrient stability in feed and optimized trace element supply of animals
by Dr Detlef Kampf, Orffa Additives, The Netherlands

race element supplementation element availability is dependent on health legal limits inevitably raises the question of to maintain optimal health and and also on the presence of stress. The trace trace elements with high bioavailability, and performance in livestock is often element bioavailability, however, depends to understand even at lower concentrations underestimated. This is partly due to the further on a number of factors such as in the feed the supply to the animals and fact that trace elements perform very performance stage, trace element status, also the possible additional effects at least complex functions in the metabolism and form of the chemical bonds, trace element partially. Important for absorption of, for example, deficiencies can lead to general disorders in dosage and antagonists which inhibit absorpanimals and due to the important physiolog- tion (Flachowsky 2000). The lowering of the zinc, manganese and copper are the mutual interactions as well as the dieical functions it is therefore tary amounts of iron, calcium, necessary to provide them to Table 1: Legal limits for trace elements in animal compound feed phosphorus, potassium and the animal through the feed. Max. content in sulphur and further antagoOn the other hand, higher Trace compound feed Species nists. Unbalanced or high levels allowances for example of element (mg/kg of some of these elements zinc and copper have also compound feed) lead to shortages of the other specific effects on intestinal elements. For example, a zinc health. To address the difficult Piglets until 12 weeks of age 170 surplus will cause copper transdiscussion about physiology, port across the enterocytes intestinal health and finally Bovine before the start of rumination 15 (intestinal epithelial cells) to be environmental pollution too, Other bovines 35 blocked due to the formation the supply of trace elements Copper Ovines 15 of intestinal metallothionein. in the EU is regulated by law This is also recognised as a (EU Regulation 1334/2003). Crustaceans 50 secondary copper deficiency. Several years ago, the Other animals 25 Other factors affecting the maximum concentrations Cobalt All species 2 availability of trace elements in the feed were significantare, for example, mycotoxins, ly lowered again to reduce Equines 4 crude fibre, tannins and phytic the heavy metal output in Dairy cows / Laying hens 5 acid (Schenkel and Flachowsky the environment (Table 1). Iodine Fish 20 2002).

Impact on bioavailability
It is known that the bioavailability of trace elements is difficult to compare due to the anatomy of the digestive tract between the different species. In addition, the trace element uptake capacity of the intestine decreases with increasing age of the animals in general. Furthermore, recent studies show that the trace
40 | march - april 2013

Other animals Piglets until 1 wee before weaning Iron Ovines Pet Other animals Manganese Selenium Zinc Fish Other animals All species Pet Fish / Milk replacer Other animals

10 250 500 1250 750 100 150 0,5 250 200 150

Characterisation and differentiation

The various feed additives approved as trace element sources can be distinguished in terms of their availability for the animal. The best-known and largely used inorganic trace mineral sources of sulphates and oxides vary mainly due to their solubility. The main task of these trace mineral sources is to dissolve in the aqueous
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FEATURE FEATURE medium of the digestivemotors tract and is sensitive machinery, orsulphates anything are attributed to a higher valueby than oxides. electric and adversely affected water. A product with very low issolubility, The technology, which the first for of example, should its kind incopper the UK,oxide, uses atherefore continuous flow not be used longer) in feeding heating coil (any system to heat waterlivestock. to such a high degree that it becomes extremely hot vapour. The emitted dry steam contains minimal moisture and efficient cleaning capability is produced from the steam pressure made on the surface area. (degradation and damage of sensitive As well as being applicable to a ingrewide dients such as settings, vitamins steam or fatcan as be well as range of work used forming harmfulinnumerable free radicals and peroxides to undertake cleaning tasks. and palatability (Miles et The reducing system can be used of on feed) feeding, mixing al . 1998; Lu et vessels, al. 2010;machinery, Pang and Applegate and blending conveyor belts, rollers, pipelines and also general floor areas, storage spaces and much more. As it is applied to the surface, dry steam leaves very little residue and can almost touch dry, especially when compared in isolation from solubility inorganic includes the fully the auditable dryofsteam belt trace elements, but which also in reducing the sanitation unit (BSU) cleans conveyor absorption-inhibitory responses the digesbelts to allergen level, saving upin to 3 million tive These are mostly antagonistic litres tract. of water per annum. interactions with feed that The organisation has components also developed a central steam system for food production and packaging areas. This is much like a central vacuum, which facilitates cleaning by simply plugging the steam hoses into central steam pipes without the need for handling cleaning machines. The sophisticated equipment can be used for the cleaning of heavy parts and for plastic parts cleaning. The machines start from a 3kW single phase unit and reach up to 144kW units available in electric, oil or gas heated coils.

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So steam is simply steam? Well actually, no. Steam can be produced in a range of different grades, each matching different industry applications. Picking the cleaning method best suited to your operation depends upon a number of options including the nature of the surface to be cleaned and the type of material or residue found on crushing or milling appato any ratus, conveyors and elevator pits and silos. Graph 2: Impact of increasing dosages of various copper other cleanTo date,Graph conventional CIPof systems have 1: Impact various copper sources on the sources on the phytate phosphorus hydrolysis by phytase tended to rely on traditional boiler systems concentration of vitamin E in feeding (Lumethod. et al. 2010) (Pang and Applegate 2006) No additional which are only required to heat the water to a maximum of 75 degrees and rely on high ingredients are required in water flow and minimal pressure, using a lot the steam to improve cleaning compete for the same absorption capabiliShurson et al. cleaning 2011). capacity The good of sulphates, however, 2006; power, as efficient of water in solubility the process. contrast to inorganic, organically bound ties. The positive effects of organically bound provides with the disadvantage that for is In produced from the steam pressure Most us food related sites use hot water element are to inorganic trace elements were confirmed example dissociated ions arehoses, very trace madeelements on the (trace surface to be chelates) cleaned and that comes off the copper boiler through in the diet of and absorption the in numerous scientific studies (Kincaid et al. reactive (strong pro-oxidant that initiate and stable the solvent power micro drops atby a high using foamers, liquid chemicals and other is improved due to their chemical speed up oxidation) and therefore temperature, with minimal moisture present. 1997, Nockels et al. 1993, Wedekind et al. sanitation agents. They can use promote between animal adverse reactions with feed components However, Their advantage is thus superior 1992). Nevertheless, an adequate assess200-1,000 litres of water per hour to blast a structure. surface clean. They can also have the nega- where specific tive side effect of sending dangerous bacteria tasks or locaairborne, spreading them through the plant tions demand without killing them. This wet steam system it, ingredients can be added does not use a vapour process. to improve the solidificaBenefits of dry steam cleaning Efficient cleaning capacity is produced tion of specific from the steam pressure made on the substances, for surface to be cleaned and the solvent power instance within of micro drops at a high temperature, with liquid fat application devices minimal moisture present. could The continuous steam system provides which constant steam quality which can be adjusted congeal without free the use of by volume and dryness. Water flow and for See our previous editions online heating power can be controlled and adapt- additional ingredients. ed by an electronic control system. The amount of water saved depends upon the flow rate of the water system and the Dry steam pressure employed, but it can save up to 90 machines percent of water used. OspreyDeepcleans dry for different SECTORS S & OILSEEDS OUR, CEREAL steam technology will typically use between applications THE RICE, FL R FO CE EN A CONFER 10-30 litres of water per hour, whereas a The techconventional system will use between 200- nology Osprey @ GRAPAS & VICTAM ASIA 1,000 litres per hour. Deepclean has BANGKOK,THAILAND Conventional cleaning leaves the risk of developed is potentially dangerous residues contaminating available in a Bangkok International Trade & Exhibition Centre (BITEC) food and raw materials. Then you also have range of dry Are you social? the issue of getting into difficult spaces, such steam machines up in to date areas with or us complex in-between by as tightKeep crevices storage forissues different following us on any of our social platforms shaped equipment. applications, a look at our newly re-vamped page, DryTake steam sanitises surfaces, penetrating Facebook based on many now covers updates from GFMT well as all of cracks, that crevices and other hard-to-reach areas asyears experithe very best of Thecleaning Globalmethods, Millers news where manual and traditional ence of creating Conference delegates should pre-register on the VICTAM or which http://www.facebook.com/GrainFeedMillingTechnology mainly rely on potentially hazardous bespoke steam GRAPAS websites (available from December 1, 2013 onwards) Conference patron: chemicals, fail to achieve the required standards. solutions. This

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October

2011

In this issue:
Mycotoxins an overview

Assessing cereal quality parameters

Bulk storage & handling

African advances

In this issue:
Increasing storage capacity

Animal feed milling is one of the most buoyant activities in the agri related field

Database for animal diet formulation techniques:

A glance to last decade

Producing Flaked breakfast Cereals

In this issue:
Sample preparation of feeds and forage for NIR analysis 15-Year Celebration: Fortifying with folic acid prevents 22,000 birth defects annually Global Feed Markets: Wheat supply grows and grows as corn crop shrinks

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NIR in practice

Grinding by a proven concept makes your choice simple

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Process analysis solutions open new opportunities for improved profit and quality

Food safety in the grain milling industry Recent advances in rapid grain testing

Milling Technology Redefined

Controlling Insects
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Preservatives

Preservatives are a recurring topic in public discussions

Global grain & feed markets

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Optical sorting has come of age and should be considered as a serious option for inclusion in any modern wheat cleaning plant

Direct Cold Plasma:

The innovative answer to odour control in the food and feed industry

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FEATURE

Graph 3: Impact of increasing dosages of various copper sources on the oxidative stability of soybean oil (Kampf 2012)

Graph 4: Relative bioavailability of copper from hydroxy copper compared to copper sulphate in cattle (Spears et al. 2004)

Graph 5: Relative bioavailability of zinc from hydroxy zinc compared or zinc sulphate in cattle (Schaeffer 2006)

Graph 6: Solubility of zinc from hydroxy zinc and zinc sulphate and impact on production of volatile fatty acids in the rumen (Schaeffer 2006)

ment of the quality of organically bound trace elements must be taken. It should be noted at this point that the products on the market significantly differ in quality that can be checked by simple analytical methods (Helle and Kampf 2008). Traditionally, minerals have been categorised as either organic or inorganic. In 2012 a new category of trace minerals, known as hydroxy trace minerals, obtained EU approval as a feed additive for all animal species. These new products (Di copper chloride tri hydroxide Cu2(OH)3Cl and Zinc chloride hydroxide monohydrate - Zn5Cl2(OH)8(H2O) brand name: IntelliBond) belong in the group of inorganic trace mineral sources, but have similar chemically stable structures such as organically bound trace elements. Covalent bonds and a unique crystalline matrix structure provide a reliable stability, which differentiates hydroxy trace minerals from other organic or inorganic minerals. In addition, there are major advantages from a nutritional point of view. In comparison to copper sulphate, these products are virtually insoluble at neutral pH, which provides increased trace mineral stability in the intestine. Less reactive trace element ions occur in the upper digestive tract, which
42 | march - april 2013

is associated with fewer interactions with other feed components. There are already numerous studies that demonstrate in comparison to sulphates the better protection of feed components (Lu et al. 2010; Miles et al. 1998; Pang and Applegate 2006). Due to the crystalline structure the trace elements are slowly released over the full length of the small intestine resulting in more efficient trace element absorption and a very good effect on intestinal health. Trial results in all animal species confirm the superior effects compared to sulphate (Allee et al. 2011; Luo et al. 2005; Miles et al. 1998; Spears et al. 2004, Shao et al. 2010).

Effects of various trace element sources in feed

Improved stability of sensitive feed ingredients by using stable trace element sources e.g. chelates or hydroxy trace minerals in comparison to sulphates was already demonstrated in many trials (Miles et al. 1998; Lu et al. 2010; Luo et al. 2005; Banks et al. 2004; Liu et al. 2005; Pang and Applegate 2006; Shurson et al. 2011; Kampf 2012). All these results are based on the non-hygroscopic and nonreactive (non-pro oxidative) characteristics of these trace element sources. In one example copper from copper sulphate at a high dosage

level showed a negative impact on vitamin E stability in feed and in contrast, hydroxy copper was not negatively affecting the stability of vitamin E and showed comparable results as by using lower levels of copper sulphate (Lu et al. 2010; graph 1). In another trial increasing dosage levels of copper sulphate were tested in comparison to other trace mineral sources on the phytate phosphorus hydrolysis by phytase In vitro. In this study copper sulphate has shown due to the high solubility and hence a high reactivity (formation of insoluble complexes with phytate) a strong negative impact on phytate phosphorus hydrolysis. In contrast, as well as the copper lysine complex and the hydroxy copper did not influence the phosphorus hydrolysis (Pang and Applegate 2006; Graph 2). A recent trial was conducted to test the direct negative impact of copper from various copper sources and different dosages on the oxidative stability of soybean oil under Rancimat test conditions. In this study a strong negative effect of the copper dosage was observed. Beside this copper sulphate reduced the oxidative stability relatively by 9 and 46 percent, in contrast hydroxy copper only by 5 and 36 percent respectively (Kampf 2012; Graph 3).
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FEATURE

Effects in animals
Much trial work has been carried out in monogastrics and in ruminants where stable trace element sources for example chelates or hydroxy trace minerals confirmed better effects when compared to sulphates with regards to an improved bioavailability, intestinal efficacy and gut health (Allee et al. 2011; Kidd et al. 1996; Luo et al. 2005; Miles et al. 1998; Nollet et al. 2008; Spears et al. 2004; Wedekind et al. 1992). This is based on the fact that stable trace element sources are, in contrast to sulphates, insoluble at neutral pH and will due to the covalent bond structure only partially dissolve in the acidic environment of the stomach. As a consequence more intact molecules will be available and effective in the lower parts of the digestive tract, which results also in improved gut health. In one example in broilers a 13 to 16 percent higher bioavailability (expressed as tendon copper, 10 d deficient model, 0 - 6 ppm Cu) of hydroxy copper was measured in contrast to copper sulphate. In a second trial (same trial conditions) a 25 percent higher bioavailability for hydroxy copper and 35 percent for copper chelate was measured (Klasing and Naziripour 2010). Other research groups figured out a better relative biological value of organic zinc chelate by 1.64 (measured as tibia zinc content) compared with zinc sulphate as a reference zinc source (1.00) in broiler (Star et al. 2012). Not statistically proven but nevertheless numerically higher broiler tibia zinc concentrations especially in combination with a phytase supplementation was examined by Schlegel et al. (2010). In a recent meta-analysis the same authors reported that broiler bone Zn responded slightly better (not at significant value) to organic zinc than inorganic zinc with increasing zinc levels (Schlegel et al. 2013). Noteworthy is the fact that in all these experiments in advance of the measurements no zinc deficiency situation has been created, whereby the positive effect of a more readily available source of zinc would have manifested better. In another example Allee et al. (2011) showed that increasing dosage levels of hydroxy copper from 15 to 200 ppm in piglets resulted in significant linear increases in average daily gain (ADG) and average daily feed intake (ADFI) at 7, 21, and 42 days on test. Feed conversion ratio (FCR) was improved linearly by addition of hydroxy copper over the 42-day trial. In this trial the dose/response relationship of hydroxy copper on daily gain and feed conversion in piglets (0-42 days) resulted in a breakpoint of the maximum copper effect already at a dosage of 130-140 ppm (in comparison maximum copper effect of copper sulphate is at around 200-250 ppm) which indicates that hydroxy copper has a higher intestinal efficacy and is more valuable on gut health as copper sulphate (Allee et al. 2011). In ruminants the positive effects of organically bound to inorganic trace elements were confirmed in numerous scientific studies and the major advantage was a better bioavailability compared to sulphates under the presence
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of stress or antagonists (Kincaid et al. 1997, Nockels et al. 1993, Wedekind et al. 1992). In diets containing copper antagonists like molybdenum and sulphur a higher relative bioavailability of copper (based on plasma copper, plasma ceruloplasmin and liver copper) from hydroxy copper compared to copper sulphate was measured, too (Spears et al. 2004; graph 4). In another trial of the same research group the relative bioavailability of zinc from hydroxy zinc compared to zinc sulphate based on plasma zinc, and retained zinc, respectively, was also determined as better (Schaeffer 2006; Graph 5). In an additional trial the amount of soluble zinc was measured and compared with the production of volatile fatty acids in the rumen (Schaeffer 2006; Graph 6). Zinc sulphate delivered higher concentrations of rumen soluble zinc and showed a negative impact on the microbial fermentation (expressed as production of volatile fatty acids). In contrast zinc from hydroxy zinc was less soluble in the rumen and therefore not influencing the rumen microflora (Schaeffer 2006; Graph 6). This fact could be the explanation for a direct effect of trace elements on milk yield improvement in dairy cows.

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Summary
The supplementation of trace elements plays an essential role in maintaining optimal health and performance of livestock. When considering the supply of trace elements not primarily the absolutely fed, but the usable amount of trace elements for the animal is crucial. This requires accurate knowledge of the composition of the feed and if possible, the diminishing availability of trace elements and interactions with other feed ingredients. The trace element supply can be improved by the use of high-quality trace mineral sources such as organic chelates, however, the assessment of the used quality is essential. Another new form of high-quality trace elements are hydroxy trace elements, which recently received EU approval and which are characterised by excellent stability and processing properties together with a high physiological significance. The positive effects of chelates and hydroxy trace elements in feed (better stability of sensitive feed components and ingredients) as well as in animals (higher bioavailability) have been already confirmed in numerous publications. Literature is available upon request from the author. More inforMation:
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