Journal of Archaeological Science (2002) 29, 13491365 doi:10.1006/jasc.2001.0796, available online at http://www.idealibrary.

com on

Last Meals: Recovering Abdominal Contents From Skeletonized Remains

Gregory E. Berg
310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853-5530, U.S.A. (Received 12 September 2001, revised manuscript accepted 15 November 2001)
Excavation and analysis of human remains is becoming a polarized eld in anthropology; it is therefore necessary to consider alternate avenues of data collection from these features to maximize their potential. The analysis of abdominal soils for digestive tract contents is consistently overlooked in research designs. Two previous studies have attempted to recover abdominal contents through systematic sampling methods using multiple inhumations and two others have recovered colon contents in isolated instances. This research briey familiarizes the reader with current state of investigation, and then proposes and tests a dierent method to recover abdominal contents in skeletonized inhumations. Using this method, more than 70% of the sampled inhumations yielded data on ingested botanical products. Though recovered, faunal remains were rare. The implications of recovery, some interpretations for each population, and avenues of future research are considered.  2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: PALAEODIET, PALAEOETHNOBOTANY, ABDOMINAL CONTENTS, PALYNOLOGY.

Introduction and Background

hysical anthropologists and bioarchaeologists need to develop new methods for extracting information from burial contexts (Reinhard & Hevly, 1991). One such methodthe analysis of abdominal cavity sediments from skeletonized burialshas been overlooked. Sampling techniques to recover stomach and intestinal contents are not adequately developed or tested, though several initial studies have been conducted (Reinhard, 1986; Reinhard et al., 1992; Tuross et al., 1994). This paper describes the development and testing of a systematic strategy for sampling the abdominal cavity of skeletonized inhumations after reviewing the current state of published research. Two skeletal series were used, a medieval Danish population ( 1100 to 1250) and a Classic Period Salado series from central Arizona ( 1250 to 1350). The sediments from the abdominal cavities were examined using a tripartite combination of palynological, macrobotanical, and faunal analyses. Reinhard (1986) rst attempted sampling of the abdominal region using two prehistoric Hohokam burials from the Grand Canal site, Arizona. Sediment samples from the sacral region of each skeleton and control samples from the burial ll were analysed. No macrobotanical remains were recovered, though pollen microfossils were abundant. Because the sacral pollen spectrum was similar to the controls, he was unable to demonstrate the presence of abdominal contents. The Windover site, Florida, was located in a small pond and contained more than 160 Holocene

inhumations (Doran & Dickel, 1988; Tuross et al., 1994). The bodies originally were placed in a peat matrix, which the researchers extensively sampled to determine its palynological and macrobotanical constituents. Sediment samples were extracted from multiple burials, apparently from the abdominal area, potentially near the sacrum. Archaeobotanical data from otation/sediment samples from six burials were reported. Five did not yield evidence of abdominal contents but the sixth contained the remnants of ingested foods (Tuross et al., 1994: 287289). Another burial containing a suspected coprolite was subjected to palynological analysis. Even though the pollen assemblage was identical to the control sample, the possible faecal samples pollen concentration was half that of the control, potentially arguing for a human origin (Holloway, in press). During eldwork on a Kayenta Anasazi site ( 12501300), Reinhard et al. (1992) sampled a burial for colon contents. Samples were collected from the anterior portion of the pelvic girdle near the pubic symphysis and from the centre of the pelvic girdle. Other samples were taken from the pit base and the associated room oor. Laboratory examination of the skeleton revealed insect frass and seeds adhering inside the sacral foramina. Comparisons between the sacral and control samples conclusively showed that the macrobotanical and palynological ecofacts originated from the digestive tract, whereas the pelvic samples did not. The authors proposed a sampling strategy focusing on the collection of a vertical sediment column from
 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

1349
03054403/02/$-see front matter

1350 G. E. Berg
Burial fill pollen sample #2 (control) and flotation sample #2

Pelvic pollen sample #4

Sacral pollen sample #3

Pelvic flotation sample #1

Key Bone contact control pollen sample #1

Pollen sample #1: Control sample collected from the sediment in direct contact with bone, either the arms or legs (30 cc.). Pollen sample #2: Control sample collected from burial fill (30 cc.). Pollen sample #3: Sacral sample collected from sediments in direct contact with the sacrum (+ 12 cm above) and from within the sacral foramina. Pollen sample #4: Pelvic sample collected from in direct contact with an iliac blade. Flotation sample #1: Pelvic sample collected as the sediments in the pelvic girdle, up to the 3rd lumbar vertebrae. Flotation sample #2: Control sample collected from burial fill (2 litres).

Pit edge

Figure 1. Sampling strategy for a typical extended supine inhumation.

the pelvic cavity and a control sample adjacent to the pelvic girdle (Reinhard et al., 1992: 702703). The vertical column would be collected in three sections: the upper two sections (controls) beginning at the level of the pelvis, and the lowest sample from the sacral surface and foramina. Control samples from the burial pit should also be collected. A test of this method has yet to be published.

Strategy and Sample

Since the preceding investigators used dierent sampling methods, the ecacy of any one strategy has yet to be determined, and none of the results are directly comparable. The proposed strategy reects certain assumptions of archaeological deposits, decomposed human remains, and the nature of the human digestive tract. If, at the time of death, the digestive tract contents were not expelled from the body, the possibility for their recovery exists. Furthermore, even if the colon contents were expelled, pollen grains are trapped in the intestinal folds (Sobolik, 1988: 207; Williams-Dean, 1978), thereby increasing their chances for recovery from the decay and liquidation of these organs. It is hypothesized that in extended supine burials, the pelvic basin and sacrum act as a natural bowl, collecting the

abdominal contents (Reinhard et al., 1992: 703). Depending on the angle of the body, some materials may be outside this bowl, coming to rest next to the lower lumbar vertebra (Berg, 1997). These assumptions predict that abdominal contents can be located within the pelvic girdle and adjacent to it. Sediments associated with the sacrum and pelvic girdle must be sampled. Since the digestive tract could have settled anatomically higher, the sediments slightly outside the girdle should also be included. Control samples from the burial pit sediments must be analysed. All samples should be collected in the eld to prevent modern contamination and degradation; also, the sacrum tends to fracture upon extraction, which would mix the sampling locations. For this study, four samples (three pollen and one otation) were initially obtained from each burial. Sampling localities are listed in opposite stratigraphic order from their appearance in the eld. One pollen sample was collected directly from the anterior sacral surface and within the foramina12 cm of matrix above the sacrum (sacral sample). A second pollen sample was collected from the pelvic girdle ll in direct contact with one of the iliac blades (pelvic sample). The remainder of the sediment from the pelvis up to the third lumbar vertebra was collected as a otation sample. The nal pollen sample (control sample) was

Last Meals: Recovering Abdominal Contents from Skeletons 1351

Table 1. Sample proveniences and volumes processed* Burial letter and sample number Burial letter and sample number M-1 M-2 M-3 M-P N-1 N-2 N-3 N-4 N-P O-1 O-2 O-3 O-P P-1 P-2 P-3 P-4 P-P Q-P

Field burial and sample numbers

Sample type

Volume in CC

Field burial and sample numbers EX#1 EX#2 EX#3 EX FE#1 FE#2 FE#3 FE#4 FE FF#1 FF#2 FF#3 FF DR#1 DR#2 DR#3 DR#4 DR EW

Sample type Pollen Pollen Pollen Flotation-P Pollen Pollen Pollen Pollen Flotation-P Pollen Pollen Pollen Flotation-P Pollen Pollen Pollen Pollen Flotation-P Flotation-P

Volume in CC 30 30 15 150 30 30 16 30 750 30 30 2 100 30 30 3 30 650 725

Arizona sites, AZ:U:3:5, U:3:297, and U:3:298 A-1 Feature 87#1 Pollen A-3 Feature 87#3 Pollen A-4 Feature 87#4 Pollen A-P Feature 87 Flotation-P A-S Feature 87 Flotation-S B-1 Feature 84#1 Pollen B-3 Feature 84#3 Pollen B-4 Feature 84#4 Pollen B-P Feature 84 Flotation-P B-S Feature 84 Flotation-S C-1 Feature 26#1 Pollen C-3 Feature 26#3 Pollen C-4 Feature 26#4 Pollen C-P Feature 26 Flotation-P C-S Feature 26 Flotation-S D-1 Feature 150#1 Pollen D-1b Feature 150#1b Pollen D-2 Feature 150#2 Pollen D-3 Feature 150#3 Pollen D-4 Feature 150#4 Pollen D-P Feature 150 Flotation-P D-S Feature 150 Flotation-S E-3 Feature 114#3 Pollen E-4 Feature 114#4 Pollen E-P Feature 114 Flotation-P Danish site, FHM 3970 F-1 EK#1 F-2 EK#2 F-3 EK#3 F-4 EK#4 F-P EK G-1 DG#1 G-2 DG#2 G-3 DG#3 G-4 DG#4 G-P DG H-1 EQ#1 H-2 EQ#2 H-3 EQ#3 H-4 EQ#4 H-P EQ I-1 EM#1 I-2 EM#2 I-3 EM#3 I-4 EM#4 I-P EM J-1 EZ#1 J-2 EZ#2 J-3 EZ#3 J-4 EZ#4 J-P EZ K-1 ES#1 K-2 ES#2 K-3 ES#3 K-4 ES#4 K-P ES L-1 DA#1 L-2 DA#2 L-3a DA#3a L-3b DA#3b L-P DA Pollen Pollen Pollen Pollen Flotation-P Pollen Pollen Pollen Pollen Flotation-P Pollen Pollen Pollen Pollen Flotation-P Pollen Pollen Pollen Pollen Flotation-P Pollen Pollen Pollen Pollen Flotation-P Pollen Pollen Pollen Pollen Flotation-P Pollen Pollen Pollen Pollen Flotation-P

30 30 30 450 118 30 30 30 630 265 30 30 30 550 151 30 30 30 30 30 605 95 30 30 680 30 30 15 30 1100 30 30 3 30 650 30 30 16 30 800 30 30 10 30 950 30 30 30 30 150 30 30 17 30 500 30 30 28 21 675

*Burials were supplied analysis letters for ease of referal in the text. Pollen sample types are as follows: #1 and #2 are control samples, #3 is the sacral sample, and #4 is the pelvic sample. Abbreviations: Pelvic (P), Sacral (S).

collected from general burial ll. After several burials were sampled and analysed (Berg, 1997), the strategy was modied. A fourth pollen sample (control) was collected from in direct contact with either the arms or legs of each individual (Figure 1). Two burial populations (17 inhumations) from different ecozones were selected for study. A contract archaeological rm excavating in south central Arizona recovered a large burial population. Five burials were chosen from three of the Salado hamlets (AZ:U:3:5, U:3:297, and U:3:289 [ASM]) that were located in the upper Tonto Basin, within the Upper Sonoran biotic community (Clark & Vint, 1998; Vint et al., 1994). The individuals were inhumed in compact silty-clays with gravel and calcium carbonate inclusions. The inhumations followed a typical burial programme: extended supine, often with grave accompaniments and several were covered with wooden cribbing (Dufoe-Minturn, in press). The second burial population originated from a cemetery excavation project conducted at site FHM 3970 Viby Tommerhandel, in Nordby, Denmark. The depositional matrix was loose sand with shell, limestone, and gravel inclusions. Burial modes were relatively simple and the deceased were inhumed extended supine, sometimes with the hands over the pelvis. Several were aorded simple cons while others had rocks supporting wooden planking over the body (Hans Skov, 1998, personal communication). Twelve intact burials were selected for analysis.

1352 G. E. Berg

Sixty-one pollen and 22 otation samples were collected and analysed. Table 1 lists the relevant provenience information. The Arizona burials were sampled in accordance with the initial sampling program, and all Danish inhumations had the additional pollen control sample collected.

Extraction, Identication, and Analytical Protocols for the Palynological Remains

Extraction and analysis methods are critical to understanding the methodology employed in every study. The following details the criteria, judgements, and methods used in this analysis. The pollen samples were extracted and analysed in the Palynology Laboratory of the Anthropology Department at ASU by the author. All extraction procedures were conducted under a fume hood with pollen-free equipment to avoid modern contaminants. The laboratory uses the following heavy-liquid separation extraction procedure to recover fossil pollen (after Schoenwetter, 1996). Thirty cm3 of sediment was taken from each sample. If less than 30 cm3 was available, the entire sample was used, and its volume was measured to the nearest cm3. Two Lycopodium tracer tablets (13,500 each) were added to the sample to allow pollen concentration calculations. Dilute hydrochloric acid was used to dissolve the calcium carbonates, and distilled water was added to bring the volume to 150 ml. The sample was then passed through an 80-micron mesh screen using a swirl separation technique (a strong vortex is created with a stirring rod; the mixture is allowed to rest for three to ve seconds, then it is passed through the screen; the volume is returned to 150 ml with distilled water, and this processes is repeated between one and four times) that removed the unwanted heavy fraction (sands, gravels etc.). Reagent grade hydrouoric acid was added to reduce the remaining inorganic matrix. The solution sat overnight, was then rinsed with distilled water, and the procedure was repeated. After the inorganic fraction was removed, the polleniferous extract was subjected to a heavy liquid separation. A zinc bromide solution with a specic gravity of 20 was added to the extract, isolating the pollen from any remaining heavy particles. The organic fraction of each sample was further reduced using concentrated HCl and a 10% solution of NaOH in boiling water baths. The remaining material was transferred to one-dram vials and stored in glycerin. During slide preparation, extracts were stained with basic fucsin to facilitate pollen identication. Large otation samples were processed using the bucket method, yielding a heavy fraction (sands, gravels, and dense organic materials) and a light fraction (buoyant organics). Small sample volumes were wet screened through graduated sieves. Each fraction was analysed under a stereomicroscope with a magnication range of 18 to 100 . Identications were

made by Lisa Huckell, M.A., Research Aliate to the Maxwell Museum. Surface sculpture and aperture patterns on the pollen grains were identied using a Ziess microscope with a magnication range of 100 to 630 . Grains that were dicult to distinguish were identied using oil microscopy (1000 ). The comparative pollen collection at ASU, as well as keys with illustrations such as Faegri et al. (1989), Kapp (1969), and Moore et al. (1991) aided in taxonomic identication. Dr James Schoenwetter was consulted on several identications. When possible, pollen grains were identied to genus and species; otherwise they were grouped by family (see Table 2 for common and scientic names). Unknown grains were included in the pollen sum. Pollen aggregates were counted as single occurrences, and the estimated number of grains was recorded separately. Asteraceae pollen was assigned to the high spine category if observed surface spines were greater than two microns ( m) in length (Bryant, 1975; Kapp, 1969). A benchmark of 200 grains per sample was counted, which is considered statistically valid and normally obtains 95% of the taxonomic variety present in each sample (Barkley, 1934) (Tables 3 and 4). Pollen preservation was tracked by recording the number of broken, crumpled, and corroded/eroded grains per sample. Grass (Poacea) pollen is dicult to identify to species; however, size has been used to dierentiate certain species (Kapp, 1969: 7475; Moore et al., 1991: 100). All grains less than 40 m in size were labelled Poaceae and categorized as natural grasses. Grains with diameters between 40 and 60 m were placed in the Cerealia category without further specication. Grains larger than 60 m were identied as Zea mays. Many grass grains in the Danish series ranged between 35 and 39 m; therefore, elevated levels of Poaceae may be due to this conservative approach, resulting in an under-representation of Cerealia. The Danish series was characterized by low pollen concentrations (avg. 400 grains/cm3) and lengthy count times (6+h). These concentration values were not surprising given the sandy depositional environment. Low concentration values can be symptomatic of dierential pollen preservation, which, for this study, would indicate that the data did not represent the abdominal contents at the time of death, rather it would represent a diluted or inaccurate representation thereof. Sobolik (1988: 206) considered faecal samples that could not reach a 200-grain count and had less than 1000 grains/cc3 concentration as statistically invalid. Bryant & Hall (1993: 283) stated that a low concentration value (less than 2500 grains/cc3), in conjunction with poor taxonomic representation and high percentages of indeterminable grains, produced suspect data (for non-faecal samples from archaeological sites). The last two factors are indicators of dierential pollen preservation. Here, demonstrable dierential preservation of one or more pollen types,

Last Meals: Recovering Abdominal Contents from Skeletons 1353

Table 2. Listing of the scientifc and common names of the recovered pollen types, and usage, as applied to this analysis Scientic name Abies Pinus Picea Pinus Edulis Tsuga Juniperus Quercus Salix Alnus Frangula alnus Ulmus Tilia Populus Ilex Juglans Fraxinus Betula Corylus Carya Prosopis Cercidium Cheno-Am Euphorbia Rumex Fouquieria Larrea Ephedra Artemisia Leguminosae Type Liguliorae High Spine Asteraceae Low Spine Asteraceae Poaceae Urtica Trifolium Calluna Cerealia Brassicaceae Umbeliferae Ribes Cylindropuntia Gossypium Phaseolus Zea mays Cucurbita Agave Hypernicum Acorus Prunella Typha Potamogeton Tidestromia Common name Fir Pine Spruce Pinyon Pine Hemlock Juniper Oak Willow Alder Buckthorn Elm Basswood Aspen/Cottonwood Holly Walnut Ash Birch Hazel Hickory Mesquite Paloverde Goosefoot, Amaranth, Pigweed Spurge Dock/Sorrel Ocotillo Creosote Ephedra, Mormon Tea Desert Sage Pea Family Dandelion-type Sunowers, Aster Bursage Grasses Nettle Clover Heather Barely, Wheat, Rye Mustards, Brocolli Parsley/Carrot Family Currant Cholla Cotton Beans Corn Squash, Pumpkin Century Plant, Agave St. Johns Wort Sweet Flag Selfheal/Healall Cattail Pondweed Tidestromia x x x x? x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Dietary Medicinal References*

x? x?

Castetter and Bell, 1951; Polunin, 1969 Castetter and Bell, 1951; Cummings, 1994

Castetter and Bell, 1951; Moerman, 1986; Polunin, 1969; Reinhard et al., 1991; Shafer et al., 1989

x x? x? x x

x?

Bisset, 1994; Polunin, 1969 Polunin, 1969 Polunin, 1969 Castetter and Opler, 1936; Castetter and Bell, 1951

Castetter, 1935; Castetter and Bell, 1951; Reinhard et al., 1985; Reinhard, 1990

x x

Holloway, 1983; Kearney and Peebles, 1960; Reinhard et al., 1991; Sobolik and Gerick, 1992 Cummings, 1994; Holloway, 1983; Moerman, 1986; Moore, 1979; Niethammer, 1974 Polunin, 1969 Castetter and Opler, 1936; Castetter and Bell, 1951; Polunin, 1969; Reinhard et al., 1988 Polunin, 1969; Holloway, 1983; Sobolik, 1994 Bisset, 1994; Kenner and Requena, 1996 Polunin, 1969 Polunin, 1969; Shafer et al., 1989; Sobolik, 1994 Bryant, 1975; Cummings, 1994; Polunin, 1969 Cummings, 1994; Polunin, 1969 Castetter and Bell, 1951, 1942; Kearney and Peebles, 1960 Castetter and Bell, 1951; Minnis 1989 Castetter and Bell, 1951; Cummings, 1994; Polunin, 1969 Castetter and Bell, 1951; Cummings, 1994; Reinhard et al., 1988 Castetter and Bell, 1951; Cummings, 1994; Reinhard et al., 1988 Bryant, 1975; Castetter and Bell, 1951; Sobolik, 1994 Polunin, 1969; Kenner and Requena, 1996 Polunin, 1969; Bisset, 1994 Polunin, 1969 Castetter and Bell, 1951; Cummings, 1994; Fry and Hall, 1986 Kearney and Peebles, 1960 Kearney and Peebles, 1960; Smith, 1995

x x

*Not an exhaustive listing.

1354 G. E. Berg

Table 3. Pollen count data from the Arizona burial population*

Taxon

A-1 (control)

A-3 (sacral)

A-4 (pelvic)

B-1 (control)

B-3 (sacral)

B-4 (pelvic)

C-1 (control)

C-3 (sacral)

C-4 (pelvic)

D-1 (control)

D-1b (control)

D-3 (sacral)

D-4 (pelvic)

1 2 1 25 4 7 3 5 2 2 4 5 6 1 2 15 7 16 5 2 4 3 10 8 1 10 2 2 4 2 12 1 2 3 1 1 4 1 1 2 3 2

2 1 8 4 2 8 15 4 2 3 1 2 2 3 1 4 3 2 1

23 6 1

7 20 1 1 8 7 1 4 10

1 8 5

13 3 1

2 11 7

2 10 2 6 4 1 3 1 118 13 13 9 202 11,475 204 20,200 104 33 18 18 49 28 41 41 16 203 30,450 51 43 53 32 5 201 15,000 112 32 14 10 1 200 12,921 128 13 22 12 202 60,600 1

1 2 7 1 91 21 19 29 6 204 25,714 114 30 22 11 3 200 22,950 61 27 36 17 16 201 180,900 59 39 30 25 4 202 4248 2 1

Background Abies Picea Pinus Edulis Juniperus Quercus Prosopis Cercidium Artemisia Water/Medicine Salix Fouquieria Larrea Ephedra Typha Potamogeton Tidestromia Dietary Cylindropuntia Gossypium Phaseolus Zea mays Cucurbita Agave Excluded Cheno/Am Low Spine Asteraceae High Spine Asteraceae Poaceae (Minute presence) Total Pollen: Concentration (gr/CC):

110 25 18 10 8 205 61,500

60 14 63 13 3 202 1171

63 18 39 26 6 199 3788

*Burial and sample designations (1 and 2 are controls, 3 is sacral, 4 is pelvic). Contains pollen aggregates.

Table 4. Pollen count data from the Denmark burial population*

Taxon

F-1 F-3 F-4 G-2 G-4 H-2 H-3 I-2 I-3 I-4 J-1 J-3 J-4 K-2 K-3 K-4 L-2 L-3 L-4 M-1 M-3 (control) (sacral) (pelvic) (control) (pelvic) (control) (sacral) (control) (sacral) (pelvic) (control) (sacral) (pelvic) (control) (sacral) (pelvic) (control) (sacral) (pelvic) (control) (sacral)

3 3 6 3 8 1 2 3 5 6 1 3 4 2 2 1 9 3 5 2 4 4 4 10 18 1 2 1 4 2 3 4 15 47 8 5 41 27 12 17 13 66 2 200 1139 1 5 201 236 4 201 297 7 200 396 7 7 12 205 762 1 4 200 547 2 201 613 2 200 389 14 50 14 14 52 9 19 42 10 13 56 11 4 16 15 12 18 39 16 13 36 22 29 35 18 4 1 48 39 9 11 29 15 1 15 53 8 13 45 31 21 52 8 9 45 18 5 3 201 331 4 1 1 1 1 1 20 14 19 15 47 11 9 2 201 439 10 97 3 8 28 9 2 203 397 1 1 1 1 1 6 22 39 14 10 35 38 1 14 8 13 18 62 22 1 2 3 194 827 1 200 283 2 11 64 8 4 33 21 4 1 202 5143 1 32 3 17 6 32 1 19 2 1 3 5 6 6 4 5 5 6 1 4 2 6 4 7 1 11 8 2 2 2 3 5 3 5 7 5 11 1 5 1 43 3 1 4 10 1 11 5 5 6 1 3 1 2 3 4 2 1 2 4 4 3 3 2 6 2 5 3 4 9 4 3 6 8 4 6

1 27 4 4 2 1 4 2 2 5 1 3 6 1 1 3 6 3 5 1 4 9 1 4 2

1 1 4 2 3 2 1 1 5 1 7 1 3 1 4 15 1 1

11 6

1 3 2 3 8 2 2 3 9 1 5

1 3 1 4

3 6 1 6

1 5 5

1 1 9

1 3 3

10 2 2 1 4

6 3 2 9

2 1

1 4 6 1

1 3 4 3 6 1 17 1 3 3

4 2 2 5

3 3 2 6 15

26

1 1 2 2

5 3 1 2 10 4 35 5 10 62 13 5 5 200 699

3 1

Background Abies Pinus Tsunga Juniperus Quercus Salix Alnus Frangula alnus Ulmus Tilia Populus Ilex Fraxinus Carya Cheno-Am Euphorbia Rumex Leguminosae Type Medicine Hypernicum Acorus Prunella Ephedra Dietary Cerealia Brassicaceae Umbeliferae Ribes Excluded Betula Corylus Liguliorae High Spine Asteraceae Low Spine Asteraceae Poaceae Urtica Trifolium Calluna (Minute Presence) Total Pollen: Concentration (Gr/CC) 17 21 21 10 10 41 1 2 2 2 200 589

19 55 7 30 30 3 2

36 34 18 17 41

19 52 13 14 41 20 1 200 698

2 10 25 23 16 40 39 2 200 824

7 200 415

2 3 200 4580

6 3 32 11 13 50 21 4 3 2 200 3782

*Burial and sample numbers (#1 and #2 are controls, #3 is sacral, #4 is pelvic). Contains pollen aggregates.

1356 G. E. Berg

in conjunction with the low concentration values, would render an interpretation of suspect data. Several lines of evidence were evaluated to determine if the Danish data set was corrupt. Palynological data from two other sites in Denmark were examined (Andersen, 1990; Odgaard, 1985). Though the sites were older than FHM 3970, similar taxa were represented in the assemblages. For the ancient sites, taxonomic variety ranged between 17 and 26, which was consistent with FHM 3970 (mean=22, range=1826). Next, a wide distribution of pollen grains with dierent surface sculpturing patterns, shapes, and pollination modes was found in the current series. No single pollen type was obviously discriminated against. Finally, indeterminate pollen grains were tracked and the Danish series exhibited better preservation than the Arizona population (see Berg, 1999). This series contains intact data since dierential pollen preservation cannot be adequately or condently diagnosed. Also, the data argues that low concentration values can be independent of pollen preservation, and an arbitrary concentration level should not mandate suspect data.

unknowns), are listed in Tables 3 and 4 and the justications are as follows (see also Table 2): (1) Background pollen rain. This is composed of anemophilous (wind pollinated) plant types that typically travel long distances. Others include trees and shrubs that are present in low frequencies in a variety of cultural contexts (e.g., middens). (2) Medicinal/water plants. Pollen from plants that line waterways can become incorporated into drinking water, but many of these species also exhibit curative properties. They are predominantly zoophilous (insect pollinated) or are hydrophilous (water pollinated). A composite category of medicinal and water plants was created for the Arizona series, of which several are noted medicinals in ethnographic literature and other studies (Castetter, 1935; Castetter & Bell, 1951; Castetter & Opler, 1936; Cummings, 1994; Kearney & Peebles, 1960; Moerman, 1986; Moore, 1979; Niethammer, 1974; Reinhard, 1990; Reinhard et al., 1985; Reinhard et al., 1991; Shafer et al., 1989; Smith, 1995). The Danish series contained only those with listed curative properties (Bisset, 1994; Kenner & Requena, 1996; Polunin, 1969). Frequently, individual plant use is not as important as the suite of medicinal plants, per burial. Since Ephedra is not normally found in northern European pollen rain, a cultural explanation (use as a medicinal) was accepted to most logically explain its presence in the assemblage. (3) Dietary plants. The plants placed into this category are documented food sources (Castetter, 1935; Castetter & Bell, 1942; Castetter & Bell, 1951; Cummings, 1994; Kearney & Peebles, 1960; Minnis, 1989; Niethammer, 1974; Polunin, 1969; Reinhard et al., 1988; Smith, 1995; Sobolik, 1990; Sobolik, 1994; Williams-Dean, 1986). (4) Excluded taxa. Taxa were removed from statistical analysis for multiple reasons: many were abundant pollen producers (anemophilous) and if included in a statistical analysis, would overwhelm or produce erroneous data patterning; several showed possible cultural use, but also appeared in quantities indicative of pollen rain; some taxa were only present in minute quantities. Undoubtedly, several listed taxa are part of the natural pollen rain but were removed from statistical consideration under the rst criterion. Those found in minute presence do not signicantly aect the statistical or relative frequency outcomes. Though included in this category, some taxa are discussed in specic instances when the quantity of the pollen was sucient to posit intentional ingestion. Hypothesis testing was conducted using both statistical and relative frequency analyses. Relative frequency data (raw count data converted to percentages)

Palynological Analyses
Twelve of the 17 inhumations (four of ve Arizona and eight of 12 Danish) were included in the palynological analysis. Five burials, E, N, O, P, and Q and a control sample from burial D, were eliminated from consideration due to an extraction error, bioturbation, and an initial statistical evaluation of the inhumations (see Berg, 1999: 1518). Palynological justications, particularly those derived from coprolite analysis, and criteria used to determine the presence or absence of digestive tract contents follow. Since the pollen concentration and taxonomic variety analyses are presented elsewhere (Berg, 1999), this paper will concentrate on taxonomic proportions. To demonstrate that abdominal contents are recovered, statistical or relative frequency dierences must exist in either taxonomic variety, proportions of taxa, or possibly concentration values between the control and abdominal samples (Berg, 1997; Reinhard et al., 1992). Samples from the pelvic girdle, especially the sacrum, should show increased percentages of dietary or medicinal plants, or plants found in drinking water. Furthermore, they should exhibit lower percentages of taxa found in background pollen rain. The null hypothesis states that no dierences exist between these categories. For analytic purposes, the pollen records were divided into four categories: three of taxa included in the analyses, and the fourth was excluded types. To eliminate investigator bias, the constituents in each category were selected for an entire population rather than per burial. Individual taxa, excluding those found in minute presence (individual taxa that were found as single or few occurrences per sample, as well as

Last Meals: Recovering Abdominal Contents from Skeletons 1357

are often used for plants that are known to be economic (dietary) in origin (Cummings, 1994; Faegri et al., 1989; Fish, 1989; Gish, 1982; Schoenwetter and Smith, 1986). These plants are usually zoophilous, and produce substantially less pollen per anther (1000 grains/ anther) than anemophilous plants (10,00070,000 grains/anther) (Bryant & Holloway, 1983). Their pollen grains typically are covered in lipids and adhere to developing seeds or leaves (Reinhard et al., 1991: 122), becoming introduced into the human digestive tract through ingestion of plant parts other than the owers. Several are anemophilous (i.e., Zea mays), but the pollen grains are extremely large, do not travel far from their source, and are rarely seen in background pollen rain (Martin & Sharrock, 1964; Williams-Dean, 1986: 198). Bryant (1975: 9091) demonstrated that for some zoophilous plants (dietary), relative frequency in a coprolite exceeding 2% strongly suggests ingestion. For frequencies greater than 10%, intentional ingestion was indicated. Pollen contaminants from drinking water or from pollen rain settling out on prepared food in levels greater than 2% was highly improbable. Since zoophilous plant pollen is rarely found in greater than 4% levels in the natural background pollen rain, Reinhard and co-workers (1991: 122) have accepted this cuto in coprolites as indicative of intentional consumption. It is necessary to consider that lower frequencies of insect pollinated types may indicate intentional ingestion, especially in skeletonized remains, since the decomposition and dilution of the digestive tract contents with burial ll may reduce their frequencies. Therefore, if a zoophilous or dietary type was not found in the control samples but was present in the abdominal samples, it might have been intentionally ingested. To be conservative, a 2% threshold was accepted as highly suggestive and a frequency of 5% was accepted for intentional ingestion. Further, if the taxon was present in control samples, its presence in the abdominal sample must be elevated by 50% to be considered ingested. High frequencies of anemophilous plants in coprolites may not represent ingested plants (Bryant, 1975; Sobolik, 1988), rather they may be introduced from respiration, and contaminated food or water supplies. Determining the dietary use of an anemophilous taxon depends upon its relationship to other members of the sampling universe. Dietary use of an anemophilous plant with a relative frequency as low as 2030% above background levels in a coprolite has been proposed (Shafer et al., 1989: 2223; Sobolik & Gerick, 1992: 208209) and Bryant (1975: 95) has accepted a 15% elevation. As with the zoophilous plants, lower frequencies may indicate ingestion; anemophilous pollen types (of known dietary or medicinal use) elevated 75% above the control samples and in relative frequencies greater than 5% were conservatively considered intentionally ingested. This standard shows an increase over the

natural background pollen rain than is most easily explained through human agency rather than an aberration in pollen rain depositional rates of one pollen type in a limited space. Statistical analysis of taxonomic proportions of the dened categories and examination of the relative frequency distributions of select taxa were undertaken for each population. Statistical analyses of pollen data used Chi-square tests to detect dierences between the samples. Monte Carlo estimates of the Chi-square probabilities were employed to determine if signicant results were due to small expected values (Table 5).

Results
Palynological evidence of digestive tract contents was recovered in 12 of 17 cases. In each instance, either a statistically signicant dierence between the samples was detected, or relative frequencies of selected taxa met the above requirements to posit intentional ingestion. Each burial is detailed below, starting with the Arizona series. Burial A (Arizona) The abdominal samples from this burial exhibited a marked decrease in pollen rain and strong increases in both the water/medicinal and dietary categories. Statistical comparisons showed signicant dierences among all three samples (P< 005). The pelvic and sacral samples were statistically similar. In this burial, both abdominal samples contained a portion of the digestive tract. Five primary taxa, Phaseolus, Zea mays, Cucurbita, Agave, and Gossypium, were ingested prior to death. The elevated presence of Larrea in the sacral sample indicated its medicinal use. Burial B (Arizona) The sacral record had a substantial decrease in background pollen and an increase in dietary and water/ medicinal taxa. The dierences stemmed from four types, Cylindropuntia, Zea mays, Fouquieria, and Larrea. Only a suggestion of this pattern was present in the pelvic sample. Chi-square analysis conrmed these observations, showing the sacral sample to be signicantly dierent from the control sample (P =0003), while the pelvic and control samples were similar (P =026). The relative frequency data supported the inclusion of grass pollen, Poaceae, as an ingested item. The Poaceae frequency in the sacral sample was elevated 200% above the control and pelvic samples, totalling 14%. Burial C (Arizona) This burial exhibited a decrease in background pollen rain and an increase in dietary plants in both abdominal samples compared to the control sample. These

1358 G. E. Berg
Table 5. Statistical comparisons between control and digestive tract pollen samples Monte Carlo estimate at 1000 trials

Burial

Comparison*

Chi-square value

Chi-square probability

Degrees of freedom

Arizona burial population A C vs. P & S A C vs. P A C vs. S A S vs. P B C vs. P & S B C vs. P B C vs. S B S vs. P C C vs. P & S C C vs. P C C vs. S C S vs. P D C vs. C D C vs. P D C vs. S Danish burial population F C vs. P & S F S vs. P G C vs. P H C vs. S I C vs. P & S I C vs. P I C vs. S J C vs. P & S J S vs. P K C vs. P & S K S vs. P L C vs. P & S L S vs. P M C vs. S

1267 563 942 215 1898 1154 976 875 1244 267 1175 318 106 319 2493 5135 1456 136 2567 1895 246 1696 3102 239 5016 888 4171 25 2243

0013 006 0009 0342 0001 0003 0008 0013 0014 0263 0003 0204 059 0527 <0001 <0001 0001 0001 <0001 0001 0293 <0001 <0001 0302 <0001 0012 <0001 0286 <0001

4 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 4 6 4 2 2 2 4 2 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 2

0006 057 0005 0343 <0001 <0001 0004 <0001 0009 0262 0006 <0001 0735 0565 0002 <0001 0001 <0001 <0001 0001 0318 <0001 <0001 0289 <0001 0009 <0001 0294 <0001

*Sample types are control (C), pelvic (P), sacral (S).

dierences were highly signicant (P =0001). The pelvic and sacral samples were statistically dierent from each other (P =0013). Zea mays and Cylindropuntia were found in the sacral and pelvic samples, respectively. The relative frequency of Cheno-Am was elevated in the pelvic sample. It constituted 56% of the pelvic sample, compared to 24% of the control. The increase met the minimum requirement for a windpollinated species to be interpreted as digestive tract contents. The pelvic sample recovered the bulk of the abdominal contents of this inhumation. Before death, meals containing Cylindropuntia, Cheno-Am, and Zea mays were ingested. Burial D (Arizona) Two control samples were analysed from the burial ll of this inhumation. Chi-square comparisons show statistical similarity between the control and pelvic samples, but the sacral sample was signicantly dierent (Pc0001). Tidestromia, Larrea, Potamogeton, and Zea mays were the primary components of the statisti-

cal dierence. A member of the zoophilous plant family High Spine Asteraceae was also intentionally ingested prior to death. It constituted over 31% of the sacral pollen, and was elevated 60% over the control samples. Burial F (Denmark) This inhumation showed a highly signicant dierence between the control and abdominal samples (Pc0001). Acorus, in both the pelvic and sacral samples, was the prime contributing taxa. The sacral sample separated from the pelvic sample by an increase in dietary plants and a drop in the background pollen rain (P =0001). The relative frequencies of Corylus and High Spine Asteraceae in the sacral sample demonstrated ingestion. This individual consumed plants from the Brassicaceae, Umbeliferae, Ribes, Cerealia, and High Spine Asteraceae families, but the strongest signatures were from Acorus, a medicinal, and Corylus, which may have been ingested as food item (cf. Polunin, 1969).

Last Meals: Recovering Abdominal Contents from Skeletons 1359

Burial G (Denmark) Statistical analysis revealed a signicant dierence between the control and pelvic samples, primarily a product of medicinal taxa and, less so, a decrease in background pollen rain. The medicinal plant Hypericum, totalling 5% of the pelvic sample, created the dierence. Pinus pollen was unusually elevated in the pelvic sample, at 13%, which was the highest percentage found in the Danish assemblage. The Pinus pollen satised the requirements for intentional ingestion. Three other pollen types bear noting: Juglans and Ilex were present in small quantities (less than 4%), but they did not occur in the remainder of the Danish population, nor were they present in the control sample. Calluna constituted 4% of the pelvic pollen recovered. These taxa did not reach the 5% threshold and are not denitively ingested, but are highly suggestive of such (see Discussion below). Burials H, I, J, and M (Denmark) These inhumations were remarkably similar, with each having signicant dierences between the abdominal and control samples (Table 5). In burial I, the pelvic and control samples were statistically similar, and were statistically dierent from the sacral sample. In burial J, both the pelvic and sacral samples were similar, but diered from the control sample. Both burials H and M had sacral samples statistically dierent from their respective controls. All four burials contained increased levels of medicinal plant pollen, and most contained some increase in the pollen of dietary taxa. Medicinal taxa in these inhumations were Acorus, Hypericum, and possibly Ephedra. Dietary taxa included Ribes, Umbeliferae, Cerealia, and Brassicaceae. Dierences in the relative frequency distribution of several taxa between control and abdominal samples were found. Urtica was elevated in burial M above the control sample by 95%, totalling 20% of the pollen count. Folklore remedies recorded the medicinal use of this taxon (Bisset, 1994). High Spine Asteraceae frequencies were elevated above those in the control samples in burials M, I, and J. In each case, they were elevated by 50% or more and constituted between 7% and 12% of the total pollen. Burial K (Denmark) This burial had signicant dierences between the sacral, pelvic, and control samples. The Chi-square results showed that the probability these derive from the same population was Pc0001. Acorus drove the distinctions, as well as a decrease in background pollen rain. Cerealia, Brassicaceae, and Ribes were present in the abdominal samples and were lacking in the control sample. The sacral sample had a greater presence of Acorus compared to the pelvic sample (P =0012). Two other trends were noted. Based on the criteria presented above, Betula and Corylus were present in the

abdominal samples in quantities indicative of intentional consumption, as was Urtica in the pelvic sample. Though unusual, each taxa has some consumption use, including alcoholic beverages distilled from the sap of Betula, edible nuts from Corylus, and medicines such as an anti-anaemic or for treating weakness/stomach pain are documented from Urtica (Bisset, 1994; Kenner & Requena, 1996; Polunin, 1969). Harvesting or collection techniques may have introduced the pollen from the plants into the nal products. Burial L (Denmark) These samples produced the greatest taxonomic variety and the highest values for the dietary category in the Danish series. Food taxa were present in 6% of the sacral sample, compared to 3% in the pelvic sample and none in the control sample. Statistically, the pelvic and sacral samples were similar (P =0294) and were dierent from the control sample (P = <0001). Chisquare cell contribution data indicated that three analytical categories were driving factors, though medicinal taxa were the chief inuence. As with many other burials, Acorus was the primary medicinal taxon, though Prunella was represented. The sacral sample contained the highest values of Cerealia found, at 3%, and the pelvic sample contained 2%. A large aggregate of Cerealia, numbering >75 grains, was also observed in the sacral sample. Brassicaceae was present in both the pelvic and sacral samples at 2%, and Ribes and Umbeliferae were present in the sacral sample. The relative frequency of Poaceae and Betula pollen in the sacral sample indicated ingestion. The digestive tract contents of this individual were diverse, including two medicinals, Acorus and Prunella, and many dietary plants.

Macrobotanical Analyses
Where possible, a otation sample from the pelvic cavity of each burial was analysed. In addition, the sacral pollen samples were examined for macrobotanical remains. Macrobotanical analysis of the Danish sacral samples could not be undertaken due to extremely low sample volumes. Though the pelvic samples oered the distinct possibility of recovering abdominal contents, otation control samples were not collected. Lacking control samples, the pelvic samples were not assessed for digestive tract contents, except for one Danish burial (see below). Therefore, the pelvic samples were used as controls for the macrobotanical remains recovered from the sacral pollen samples. Recovery of intentionally ingested macro-remains from two Arizona burials and one Danish inhumation is reported. Like pollen samples, macrobotanical remains from the abdominal cavity should be dierent in quantity and type from those recovered in control samples. They should exhibit plants that were used for dietary

1360 G. E. Berg
Table 6. Parts-per-litre data for the Arizona control (pelvic) and sacral otation samples Taxon (carbonized remains) Total Zea maysincludes cupules, cf. cupules, and glumes(corn) Total Agaveincludes tissue, bers, cf. bers, and leaves(century plant) cf. Phaseoluscotyledon(bean) Echinocereusseed coat(hedgehog cactus) Gossypiumseed coat(cotton) Chenopodiumseed(goosefoot) Carnegieacallus(sagauro cactus) Cucurbitarind(squash) Mammillariaseed coat(cactus) Epidermis Total Burial A Control 30 5 2 2 3 2 2 44 678 13 54 264 1321 3 17 0 6 26 140 1 8 2 75 302 4 2 105 Sacral 254 424 Burial B Control 11 17 Sacral 189 491 Burial C Control 6 6 Sacral Burial D Control 13 3 35 Sacral

Table 7. Macrobotanical remains (principally seeds) recovered from the Danish pelvic samples Burial L M N O P Q 11&4 1&1 3 1 1&1 1 1 1&2 20&8

Taxon cf. Chenopodium/Atriplexseed(goosefoot, lambs quarters, etc.) Sambucusseed(elderberry) Brassicaceaeseed coat(mustard family) Umbelliferaeseed(carrot family) Caryophyllaceaeseed(pink family) Unidentied nutlet Unidentied fruit Unidentied seed Total

J K

1* 2 0 0

*Carbonized. Number following the & is the number of additional identiable framents of that taxon.

and medicinal reasons, as seen from coprolite studies (Holloway, 1983; Reinhard et al., 1985; Reinhard et al., 1991; Shafer et al., 1989; Sobolik & Gerick, 1992). Other items such as hair, bone, and bre may be present, as they are frequently encountered in coprolites (Cummings, 1994; Faulkner, 1991; Minnis, 1989; Reinhard & Hevly, 1991; Sutton, 1998). The macrobotanical remains may correspond to the observed pollen spectra from the host burial, although some variation between data sets should be expected (Reinhard et al., 1992). A generalization about the nature of the macrobotanical remains should be considered. Plant materials that represent digestive tract contents would be expected to be uncarbonized, as most remains from coprolites are typically not burned. This is contrary to what is the expected in macrobotanical analyses (carbonized remains). The ingestion of carbonized remains is unusual, though coprolites often contain them along with charcoal fragments (Fry, 1977; Fry & Hall, 1986; Shafer et al., 1989). Many food preparation techniques can produce carbonized materials (e.g., parching, roasting, baking).

The macrobotanical results for the sacral and pelvic samples are expressed in units per litre in order to standardize between sample volumes (Tables 6 and 7). This is designed to calibrate each sample to the sample population. For example, four occurrences of Zea mays in a sacral sample with a volume of 60 cm3 is a dramatic increase in presence compared to a 600 cm3 pelvic sample with four occurrences. Without standardization, the apparent occurrence level between samples would be similar, potentially obscuring data patterning. Granted, a dierence stemming from a single occurrence should be treated with caution, as the occurrence may easily represent a chance inclusion. Recovered plant parts were typically seeds and seed coats; bres, leaves, and tissue represented Agave while cupules and glumes predominantly were identied for Zea mays. Data evaluation showed pronounced dierences between the sacral and control (pelvic) samples. All recovered macrobotanical remains were carbonized, except for one seed from burial H and the whole of burial L. Burials A and B produced convincing results suggestive of digestive tract contents. Four taxa in the sacral

Last Meals: Recovering Abdominal Contents from Skeletons 1361

sample from burial B (Zea mays, Agave, Echinocereus, and Gossypium) were represented an average of 28 greater (range 17 75 ) than the control sample. The sacral sample from burial A also produced larger quantities of two taxa, Zea mays (8 ) and Agave (85 ). The macrobotanical and pollen records from burials A and B overlap in Zea mays; Agave was dually present for burial A. The pollen and otation samples for burial B both contained Phaseolus and Gossypium, but it was not possible to determine if these were ingested or from the burial ll. The macrobotanical signature from burial D was equivocal. Though quantities of Agave and Gossypium were 35 and 105 those seen in the control sample, the values were based on one occurrence. These remains were judged not to represent abdominal contents. Nine of 11 pelvic otation samples (81%) from the Danish series produced no macrobotanical remains (Table 7). Burial H produced one Brassicaceae seed (uncarbonized), possibly a modern inclusion. Burial L contained 23 uncarbonized seeds from ve taxa as well as an unidentied nutlet, fruit, and three unknown seeds. Compared to the other burials, these macroremains represented a substantial increase in both quantity and variety. Each taxon was recognized as a food source or medicinal properties (Levey, 1966; Polunin, 1969). Corroborating evidence was found in the burials pollen record, which contained Brassicaceae and Umbellifereae. The evidence indicates that the otation sample recovered macro-remains from this individuals digestive tract. As noted, uncarbonized remains from the digestive tract in any population should be expected; the likelihood of carbonized materials should increase in populations that prepare foods in less controlled situations, such as pit baking/open re cooking, and that do not exhibit a cultural disdain for burned food items. Here, carbonized remains were found to be population specic; the Arizona series contained carbonized materials, while the Danish series did not. The Danish technologic and cultural cooking practices of the time probably generated less carbonized materials for each meal, since pots, stoves, and ovens, which can produce ner temperature control, were used. An aversion to carbonized materials may have existed, as with many modern Western populations. The food preparation techniques typical in the Arizona population, such as parching, may lend themselves to the production of carbonized foods. Coprolite evidence from the American southwest supports the notion that carbonized foods were not completely shunned (Fry, 1977; Fry & Hall, 1986). Thus, the observed pattern was not unexpected and may represent the norm.

1989; Sobolik, 1994; Sutton, 1998; Tuross et al., 1994). Of 20 abdominal samples examined (otation and pollen), only three Arizona pelvic samples contained faunal remains, totalling four elements. Burial A contained a modern unidentied faunal element, possibly rodent. Burial B contained two modern elements, a right scapula from either Thomomys or Dipodomys (pocket gopher or kangaroo rat), and a calcaneus from either Peromyscus or Perognathbus (mouse or pocket mouse). One element, a Sylvilagus audubonii (desert cottontail) upper premolar, was recovered from burial C. The badly eroded and scarred tooth displayed evidence of passing through the digestive tract. Even though this study failed to yield sizeable quantities of faunal remains, examination of the pelvic and sacral samples is still recommended. First, the possibility of recovering faunal remains from the abdominal cavity should not be overlooked. Second, if newer remains are recovered, they should be included in an evaluation of burial integrity (see Berg, 1999).

Discussion
As illustrated in Berg (1997, 1999), Reinhard (1986), Reinhard et al. (1992), and Shafer et al. (1989), control samples are essential for analyses focused on the recovery of prehistoric pollen or macrobotanical remains from inhumations. Control samples (two pollen and one otation) from each burial ensure reliable results. The proposed sampling procedure provides ease of sample collection while maintaining necessary strict controls. Abdominal contents can consistently be identied in sacral samples, and only one sacral pollen sample failed to yield digestive tract contents. This conrms the hypothesis of Reinhard et al. (1992), who proposed that the most productive area to sample is the sacral foramina and the sediment directly above. Additionally, the palynological data demonstrated recovery of digestive tract contents from dierent portions of the pelvic girdle. Macrobotanical remnants of ingested materials were present in only three of 17 inhumations, or 18%; the Arizona burials produced the best recovery rate at 40%. In future studies, higher returns may come from sacral pollen samples since those produced the most macrobotanical remains per unit volume. The pollen samples should be analysed for macrobotanical remains through salvage of discarded sediment from the swirl separation stage and any unused materials. In both study populations, the recovered macrobotanical remains partially matched the pollen records, though each also recovered dierent plants. Faunal remains were poorly represented with only one recovered tooth displaying evidence of passing through a digestive tract. A brief discussion of pollen concentration can be addressed from the data. Intuitively, pollen concentration values should be higher in those samples

Faunal Remains
Numerous coprolite and several pelvic sediment studies have recovered faunal remains (Fry, 1977; Minnis,

1362 G. E. Berg

representing the abdominal contents, since coprolites tend to have average pollen concentrations higher than soil samples, often above 50,000 grains/cm3 (Reinhard & Hevly, 1991; Schoenwetter, 1998; Sobolik, 1988). Coprolites contain pollen from ingested sources that ood the intestinal tract with massive quantities of pollen and eventually become concentrated into small, excreted units. If the sacral and pelvic samples are the decomposed remains of a coprolite or the digestive tract, then, on average, they should have higher concentration values than the surrounding sediments (control samples). The null hypothesis states the pollen concentration from control sediment samples would be equal to or greater than abdominal samples. The Arizona series had a resulting averaged concentration of the control samples three times greater than the combined abdominal content samples (control mean=53,664 grains/cm3, abdominal mean=16,007 grains/cm3). The opposite trend was present in the Danish series (control mean=420 grains/cm3, abdominal mean=1,356 grains/cm3). These results are equivocal. Seven of 12 burials conform to the expected pattern, increasing in pollen concentration in the abdominal samples. All of the Arizona inhumations and one Danish burial supported the null the hypothesis. The nearly even split along population lines may indicate population specicity. Additional studies are needed to validate or refute this hypothesis. Medicines and evidence of such use are dicult to determine and reconstruct for past populations. Burial soils and coprology can shed a brighter light on this and related issues. In particular, plant species ingested near the time of death may often have been used for their curative properties. The limitation of employing coprolite studies in this arena is that the typical coprolite reects the dietary habits/food groups of healthy individuals, rarely the ill. Linking medicinal use to population data can illuminate social and health issues, or gauge economic status. The medicinal plant frequencies encountered in the Danish burials are not surprising considering the medical knowledge of the time (research specializing in English history will be used as comparative nearby populations). The medieval medical practitioners and peasantry used a huge pharmacopoeia. Plants were so commonly employed to treat disease that a doctor was the last resort:
Among the Irish peasantry, there is a more or less fervent belief in the ecacy of plants to produce curesin some cases to such an extent that until all plants fail, a medical man will not be called in. (Bonser, 1963: 47)

Comprehensive listings of drugs, potions, and herbal remedies were available to the English physician before the 12th century (Kealey, 1981). Most drugs were compound substances that included animal, mineral, and vegetal ingredients. However, such drugs were prohibitively expensive to the average individual (Rawclie, 1988). A better indication of the remedy

types for the layman can be found in recipes that called for plants commonly grown in period herb gardens. A brew often concocted to ease the pain of wounds and bruises contained a mixture of comfrey, marigold, knapweed, yarrow, wood avens, root of wallwort, baynwor, clover herb Robert, wild sage, black harehound, mouse-ear hawkweed, dock, common polipody, greater celandine, and madder (Rawclie, 1995). Examining the ancient medicinal recipes may provide the researcher a better concept of what may be expected from pollen remains, as may plants listed in these concoctions are not typically viewed as medicinal in nature. In this study, the most outstanding medicinals were Acorus, which was present in seven burials, and Hypericum, which was found in four. An extract made from Acorus was Oil of Calamus, used in perfumery and medicine (Polunin, 1969), but also known for its tranquillizing eects and as a cure for stomach ailments (Bisset, 1994). Hypericum has been used for centuries as an antidepressant, and to quickly heal wounds and burns (Bisset, 1994; Kenner & Requena, 1996; Polunin, 1969). In modern times, both are still accepted medicines; Hypericum can be found in most health food stores, sold to treat depression, and Acorus is referenced as a wonder drug in popular literature (Bisset, 1994). The ubiquity of Acorus in this assemblage might reect an application as a base ingredient in a compound drug or alternately, perhaps it was a medication given to the dying (i.e., for its tranquillizing eects). Other medicinals, Ephedra and Prunella, were found in frequencies below 1%, perhaps indicating minimal use in the pharmacopoeia. Burial L was noteworthy in regard to medicinal plant use, containing the highest levels of Hypericum, Pinus, Ilex, and Juglans in the study. Ilex could be used as a diuretic and a stimulant, Juglans has bloodpurifying and anti-fungal agents, as well as producing an edible nut, and Pinus could be used as turpentine or as a source of nuts (Bisset, 1994; Polunin, 1969). The combination of these plants can be interpreted several ways: the pollen spectrum represents foods; the spectrum is explained as an aberration in the pollen rain; the pollen record reects the ingestion of a compound substance used for medical treatment prior to death. Given their history as medicinal plants, the later interpretation was accepted for this inhumation. For medicinals in the Arizona series, Larrea was the most frequent medicinal plant in the assemblage, often co-occurring with other species, possibly as compound drugs. In a tea form, Larrea can treat diarrhoea and bladder ailments (Holloway, 1983; Kearney & Peebles, 1960; Reinhard et al., 1991). Kearney & Pebbles (1960) note that the Apache used Fouquieria to reduce painful swellings and fatigue. Fouquieria and Larrea were both present in high frequencies in burial A and may have been used together. As with Fouquieria, Tidestromia is not a well-documented medicinal in the literature (Smith, 1995). In burial D, both Larrea and

Last Meals: Recovering Abdominal Contents from Skeletons 1363

Tidestromia were present as well as a member from the High Spine Asteraceae family. These, along with Potamogeton, may have been brewed together and ingested as a liquid medication. The successful recovery of digestive tract contents opens several avenues of exploration. In nine inhumations, statistical variations were detected in the pollen spectra between the abdominal samples (three inhumations lacked both abdominal samples). Three patterns were identied. Four burials had control and pelvic samples that were similar, and both were dierent from the sacral sample. In this group, the pelvic samples did not contain abdominal contents. In three burials, the sacral and pelvic samples were dierent from each other and the control samples. Here, sacral and pelvic samples apparently recovered mutually exclusive portions of the abdominal contents. Uneven decomposition and settling of the digestive tract allows for archaeological recovery of dierent portions or meals ingested prior to death in dierent areas of the pelvic basin (see Williams-Dean, 1978, for a discussion on the time intervals between ingestion and expulsion of pollen from the digestive tract). Finally, in two burials, both the pelvic and sacral samples were similar to each other but were dierent from the control samples. In these burials, there was apparently little dierentiation in the settling of the digestive tract or of meals ingested. Digestive tract analyses are particularly important because coprolites are rare in the archaeological record, pollen is very durable, and standard research designs are not always practical. Issues of diet, mortuary practices, seasonality, and taphonomy are not fully addressed here. Diet, even though it can be approached through a series of interrelated research designs and methodologies, can be directly evaluated by establishing digestive tract contents. The inference between what is found in a midden or as waste products (e.g., bone and plant debris) and what was consumed is avoided. Products found in the digestive tract at the time of death were ingested, and the cautious investigator can separate intentional versus unintentional ingestion. Parasite analyses from prehistoric human populations can be conducted in conjunction with digestive tract studies. The extraction procedures for parasitology and palynology are similar, and the sacral sample would be an ideal context for the potential recovery of parasites (see Warnock & Reinhard, 1992). Given the results of abdominal content recovery, parasite analyses may also yield positive results.

than the combined total of all previous studies (Reinhard, 1986; Reinhard et al., 1992; Tuross et al., 1994). Palynological recovery of the digestive tract remains was especially successful, utilizing both statistical and relative frequency comparisons. Abdominal contents can consistently be identied within the sacral samples; only one sacral sample (where possible) failed to yield digestive tract contents. The study conrmed the hypothesis that the most productive area to sample is the sacral foramina and the sediment directly above. The palynological data also demonstrated the recovery of abdominal contents from dierent portions of the pelvic girdle. Finally, since the study utilized populations buried in diverse matrices, future studies might also attain high success rates. In an atmosphere of changing attitudes toward the excavation and analysis of human remains, less invasive procedures of burial analysis need to be developed. The use of comprehensive analyses of burial sediments to locate digestive tract contents is one such method. As stated by Reinhard et al. (1992), this form of study is an important technique to add to skeletal analyses. Macro and microscopic remains can provide information on a wide variety of topics relevant to the anthropologist, not only for the recent dead but also potentially to those investigating archaic humans. The samples can be quickly and easily collected in the eld and, if need be, stored for long periods of time if appropriate precautionary/curation measures are taken. It is urged that this form of analysis be routinely implemented for the collection, interpretation, and curation of biological information. Given its nondestructive nature, political groups may be more amenable to this form of analysis over more destructive alternatives.

Acknowledgements
I owe special thanks to my committee (Dr James Schoenwetter, Dr Christopher Carr, and Dr Donald Morris) for their valuable insights and assistance throughout the research project. Additional thanks to Lisa Huckell, Judy Cameron, Amy and Bruce Phillips, Penny Dufoe-Minturn, Jim Pokines, Desert Archaeology, Archaeological Consulting Services, Inc., and Hans Skov for a variety of analyses, access, comments, and editing. The manuscript also beneted from the comments of three anonymous reviewers. This research has been funded by grants from Sigma Xi, The Arizona Archaeological and Historical Society, and The Graduate Research Support Program at ASU. All errors are the sole responsibility of the author.

Conclusions
The primary focus has been to develop a systematic sampling programme to recover evidence of the digestive tract contents of skeletonized inhumations through palynological, macrobotanical, and faunal analyses. A success rate of 70% was achieved, which is 48% higher

References
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1364 G. E. Berg
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