Axial Flux Permanent Magnet Brushless Machines

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Axial Flux Permanent Magnet Brushless Machines

by JACEK F. GIERAS
United Te chnologies Research Cente4 East Harford, Connecticut, U.S.A.
RONG-JIEWANG
University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch,Western Cape, South Africa and
MAARTEN J. KAMPER
Univ ersity of Stellenbo sch, Stellenbosch,Westem Cape, South Africa
ww
W&
KLUWERACADEMICPUBLISHERS
DORDRECHT / BOSTON/ LONDON
Contents
Preface
xi I 1 I
a J
1 . INTRODUCTION
1.1 Scope I.2 I.3 I.4 Features Development of AFPM machines Types of axial flux PM machines
4 6 10 t3 I6 t9 I9 27 27 27 27 29 3l
)L 3Z
aa JJ aa JJ
1.5 Topologiesand geometries 1.6 Axial magneticfield excitedby PMs I.1 PM eddy-currentbrake as the simplest AFPM brushlessmachine Power limitation of AFPM machines
1.8 AFPM machinesversusRFPM machines I.9 Numerical examples
2 . PRINCIPLES OF AFPM MACHINES

2.I Magnetic circuits 2.I.1 Single-sidedmachines 2.I.2 Double-sided machineswith internalPM disc rotor 2.1.3 Double-sided machineswith internalring-shaped core stator 2.I.4 Double-sided machineswith internal slotted stator 2.1.5 Double-sided machineswith internal corelessstator 2.I.6 Multidiscmachines Windings 2.2.1 Three-phasewindings distributed in slots 2.2.2 Drum-type winding
2.2
35
Vi 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.3 2.4 2.5
MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT Coreless statorwinding Salientpole windings
Torque production Magnetic flux Electromagnetictorque and EMF
35 37 37 39 40 42 42 44 45 45 4l 48 49 50 50 51 54 57 61 6l 62 65 65 66 68 79 79 79 83 84 87 90 90 95 99 103
2.6 Losses and efficiency 2.6.1 Statorwinding losses 2.6.2 Statorcore losses 2.6.3 Core loss finite elementmodel magnets 2.6.4 Lossesin permanent 2.6.5 Rotor core losses 2.6.6 Eddy currentlossesin statorconductors 2.6.7 Rotationallosses current 2.6.8 Lossesfor nonsinusoidal 2.6.9 Efficiency
2.1 Phasordiagrams 2.8 Sizing equations 2.9 Armature reaction
2 . r 0AFPM
motor motor 2.10.1 Sine-wave motor 2.10.2 Square-wave
2 . l l AFPM synchronousgenerator of a standalone 2.IIl Performance characteristics generator with utility grid 2.II.2 Synchronization Numerical examples 3. MATERIALS AND FABRICATION 3.1 Statorcores 3.1.1 Nonorientedelectricalsteels alloys 3.1.2 Amorphousferromagnetic 3.1.3 Soft magneticpowder composites 3.L4 Fabricationof statorcores 3.2 Rotor magneticcircuits 3.2.1 PM materials of PM materials 3.2.2 Characteristics 3.2.3 Operatingdiagram for main and leakagefluxes 3.2.4 Permeances
Contents
vll
3.2.5 3.2.6 3.3
Calculationof magneticcircuits with PMs Fabrication of rotor masnetic circuits
Windings 3.3.I Conductors 3.3.2 Fabricationof slottedwindings 3.3.3 Fabricationof coreless windines
Numerical examples 4. AFPM MACHINES WITH IRON CORES 4.I 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Geometries Commercial AFPM machineswith stator ferromagnetic cores Some featuresof iron-cored AFPM machines Magnetic flux density distribution in the air gap Calculationof reactances 4.5.I Synchronous and armaturereactionreactances 4.5.2 Stator leakagereactance Performancecharacteristics Performancecalculation 4.7.I Sine-wave AFPM machine generator 4.7.2 Synchronous 4.7.3 Square-wave AFPM machine Finite elementcalculations
107 109 It2 l12 I12 tt4 116

125 I25 126 127 I28 130 130 I3I I34 136 136 138 l4I I4l 144
4.6 4.7
4.8
Numerical examples 5. AFPM MACHINES WITHOUT STATOR CORES 5.1 5.2 5.3 Advantagesand disadvantages Commercial corelessstator AFPM machines Performancecalculation performance 5.3.1 Steady-state 5.3.2 Dynamicperformance Calculation of corelesswinding inductances 5.4.1 Classicalapproach 5.4.2 FEM approach Performancecharacteristics Eddy current lossesin the stator windings 5.6.1 Eddy currentloss resistance 5-6.2 Reductionof eddy currentlosses 5.6.3 Reductionof circulatins currentlosses
153
r53 r53
155 155
5.4
r57 r59
159 160 162
5.5 5.6
r63 r63 r67

168
vllt
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES 5.6.4 5.7 5.8 Measurement of eddy currentlosses
170
Armature Reaction Mechanicaldesignfeatures 5.8.1 Mechanicalstrengthanalysis 5.8.2 Imbalanced axial force on the stator Thermal problems
n0
173 174 t77 179
5.9
Numerical examples 6. AFPM MACHINES WITHOUT STA|OR AND ROTOR CORES 6.I 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 Advantages and disadvantages Topology and construction Air gap magnetic flux density Electromagnetictorque and EMF Commercial corelessAFPM motors brushless motor Casestudy: low-speedAFPM coreless 6.6.1 Performancecharacteristics 6.6.2 Cost analysis 6.6.3 Comparison with cylindrical motor with laminated stator and rotor cores generator AFPM brushless Casestudy: low-speedcoreless of coreless AFPM machines Characteristics
n9
189 189 189 I92 I93 I94 197 197 198 199 200 20I 204
6.7 6.8
Numerical examples 7. CONTROL 7 .I Control of trapezoidalAFPM machine 7.1.I Voltageequations 7.1.2 Solid-stateconverter 7.I.3 Currentcontrol 7.1.4 Speed control 7.1.5 High speedoperation Control of sinusoidal AFPM machine 7.2.I Mathematical model and dq equivalent circuits 7.2.2 Currentcontrol 1.2.3 Speedcontrol 7.2.4 Hardwareof sinusoidalAFPM machinedrive position control Sensorless
7.2
2t3 2t3 214 216 219 222 222 223 224 229 230 234
LJI
âa
7.3
Numerical examples
239
Contents
IX
8 . COOLING AND HEAT TRANSFER

8.1 8.2 Importance of thermal analysis Heat transfermodes 8.2.1 Conduction 8.2.2 Radiation 8.2.3 Convection Cooling of AFPM machines 8.3.1 AFPM machineswith self-ventilation 8.3.2 AFPM machineswith external ventilation Lumped parameterthermal model 8.4.1 Thermal equivalentcircuit of energy 8.4.2 Conservation Machine duties 8.5.1 Continuousduty 8.5.2 Short-timeduty 8.5.3 Intermittentdutv
249 249 249 250 250
25r
255 255 264 267 268 269 270 270 27r 272 272 281 281 28r 282 285 287 289 291 291 292 292 295 297 299 302 304 306 307
8.3
8.4
8.5
Numerical examples
9 . APPLICATIONS
9.1 Power generation 9.I.1 High speedgenerators 9.I.2 Low speedgenerators Electric vehicles 9.2.1 Hybrid electricvehicles 9.2.2 Battery electric vehicles Ship propulsion 9.3.1 Large AFPM motors 9.3.2 Propulsion of unmannedsubmarines 9.3.3 Counterrotatingrotor marine propulsion system Elecffomagnetic aircraft launch system Mobile drill rigs Elevators Miniature AFPM brushlessmotors Vibration motors Computer hard disc drives
9.2
9.3
9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9
Numerical examples
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES Symbols and Abbreviations References Index
3II
32r
JJI
Preface
The drop in prices of rare-earthpermanentmagnet (PM) materials and progressin power electronicshave played an important role in the developmentof PM brushlessmachinesin the last threedecades.Thesemachineshaverecently becomemature and their high efficiency, power density and reliability has led to PM brushlessmachines successfully replacing d.c. commutator machines and cage induction machinesin many areas. The axial flux PM (AFPM) brushlessmachine,also called the disc-type machine, is an attractivealternativeto its cylindrical radial flux counterpartdue to the pancakeshape,compact construction and high torque density. AFPM motors are particulady suitable for electrical vehicles, pumps, valve control, centrifuges, fans, machine tools, hoists, robots and manufacturing. They have become widely used for low-torque servo and speedcontrol systems.The application of AFPM machinesas generatorsis justified in wind turbines, portable generator sets and road vehicles. The power range of AFPM brushlessmachines is now from a fraction of a watt to sub-MW. Disc-type rotors can be embeddedin power-transmissioncomponents or flywheels to optimize the volume, mass, number of parts, power transfer and assemblytime. For electric vehicles with builfin wheel motors the payoff is a simpler power train, higher effrciency and lower cost. Dual-function rotors may also appear in pumps, elevators, energy storagesand other machinery, bringing addedvalues and new levels ofperfonnance to theseproducts. The authorsbelieve that this first book in English devotedentirely to AFPM brushlessmachineswill serveas a textbook, useful referenceand designhandbook of AFPM machinesand will stimulate innovationsin this field. J.F. Grpnas, R. WRIrtcAND M.J. Kavppn
Chapter1 INTRODUCTION
1.1
Scope
The term axialfl.ux permanent magnel (AFPM) machine in this book relates only to permanentmagnet (PM) machineswith disc type rotors. Other AFPM machine topologies, e.g. transverse flux machines,have not been considered. In principle, the electromagneticdesign of AFPM machines is similar to its radial flux PM (RFPM) counterpartswith cylindrical rotors. However,the mechanical design,thermal analysisand assemblyprocessare more complex.
1,2
Features
The AFPM machine, also called the disc-type machine, is an attractive a1ternative to the cylindrical RFPM machine due to its pancakeshape,compact construction and high power density. AFPM motors are particularly suitable for electrical vehicles, pumps, fans, valve control, centrifuges,machine tools, robots and industrial equipment. The large diameter rotor with its high moment of inertia can be utilised as a flywheel. AFPM machinescan also operate as small to medium power generators. Since a large number of poles can be accommodated,these machines are ideal for low speed applications, as for traction drives, hoists or wind generators. example,electromechanical The unique disc-type profile of the rotor and stator of AFPM machines designs.AFPM mamakes it possibleto generatediverse and interchangeable gaps machines,with air gap or multiple air chines can be designedas single slotted, slotlessor eventotally ironless armature.Low power AFPM machines are frequently designedas machineswith slotlesswindings and surfacePMs. As the output power of the AFPM machines increases,the contact surface between the rotor and the shaft in proportion to the power becomes smaller.
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES
Table 1.1. Specifications of double-sided disc type AFPM brushless servo motors manufactured by E Bautz GmbH, Weiterstadt,Germany
Quantity
Rated power, W Rated torque, Nm Maximum torque, Nm Standstill torque, Nm Rated current, A Maximum current, A Standstill current. A Rated speed,rpm Maximum speed,rpm Armature constant, V/l000 rpm Torque constant, Nm/A Resistance, Q Inductance,mH Moment of inertia, kgm2 x 10-3 Mass,kg Diameter of frame, mm Length of frame, mm Power density, Wkg Torque density, Nmlkg
S632D 680 1.3 7 t.7 4.0 2l 5.3 5000 6000 23 0.35 2.5
-) -L
S634D 940 t.8

o
S712F 910 2.9 I4 3.5 4.9 24 5.9 3000 6000

â
5714F r260 4.0 t8 4.7 6.6 30 7.8 3000 6000 42 0.64 1.5 4.2 0.3
o.o
S8O2F 18s0 5.9 28 7.0 9.9 47 1t.7 3000 6000 42 0.64 0.76 3.0 0.6 9.7 210 103 t90.7 0.608
S8O4F 2670 8.5 40 10.0 I 1.9 56 14.0 3000 6000 50 0.77 0.62 3.0 1.0 10.5 210 103 254.3 0.809
2.3 4.9 25 6.3 5000 6000 25 0.39 t.8 2.8 0.12 5.0 150 82 188.0 0.16
0.64 2.4 5.4 0.21 6.2 174 89 146.8 0.468
0.08 4.5 150 82 151.1 0.289
t74 89 190.9 0.606
Careful attentionmust be given to the design of the rotor-shaftmechanical joint as this is usuallythe causeof failuresof disc type machines. In some cases, rotors are embeddedin power-transmission components to optimisethe numberof parts,volume,mass,powertransferand assembly time. For electric vehicles (EVs) with built-in wheel motors the payoff is a simpler electromechanical drive system,higher efficiency and lower cost. Dualfunction rotors may also appear in pumps, elevators, fans and other types of machinery bringing new levelsof performance to theseproducts.
Introduction
Most applicationsuse the AFPM machine as a d.c. brushlessmotor' Encoders,resolversor other rotor position sensofsare thus a vital part of brushless disc motors. servomotorsratedup to of AFPM brushless Table 1.1 showsspecifications 2.7 kW, manufacturedby E. Bautz GmbH, Weiterstadt,Germany.
1.3
of AFPM machines Development
The history of electrical machines reveals that the earliest machines were inventorwith initials P.M., 1831,anonymous axial flux machines(M. Faraday, 1832.W. Ritchie, 1833,B. Jacobi,1834).However,shortly after T. Davenport (1837) claimedthe first patent [66] for a radial flux machine,conventionaltadial flux machineshave been widely acceptedas the mainstreamconfiguration for electricalmachines[30, 49]. The first primitive working prototype of an axial flux machine ever recorded was M. Faraday'sdisc (1831) - seeNumerical Example l.l. The disc type e.g. U.S. in N. Tesla'spatents, of electricalmachinesalsoappears construction patent No. 405 858 12251entitledElectro-Magnetic Motor and published in for shelvingthe axial flux machinewere multi1889 (Fig. l.l). The reasons fold and mav be summarisedas follows: strongaxial (normal) magneticattractionforce betweenthe statorand rotor; fabrication difficulties, such as cutting slots in laminated cores and other methodsof making slotted stator cores; high costsinvolved in manufacturingthe laminated stator cores; difficulties in assemblingthe machine and keeping the uniform aft gapAlthough, the first PM excitation systemwas applied to electrical machinesas early as the 1830s,the poor quality of hard magnetic materials soon discouragedtheir use. The invention of Alnico in I 93 1, barium ferrite in the 1950s and especiallythe rare-earthneodymium-iron-boron(NdFeB) material (announced of the PM excitationsystempossible. in 1983)havemadea comeback It is generally believed that the availability of high energy PM materials (especially rare earth PMs) is the main driving force for exploitation of novel PM machine topologies and has thus revived AFPM machines. Prices of rareearth PMs have been following a descendingcurve in the last decade of the 20th century with a sharp decline in the last three years. A recent market survey shows that the NdFeB PMs can now be purchasedin the Far East for less than U.S.$ 20 per kilogram. With the availability of more affordable PM materials,AFPM machinesmay play a more important role in the near future.
AXTAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES
Intvf:Tnn
Figure l.l. Electro-magnetic motor with disc rotor according to N. Tesla's patent No. 405 8 5 8 , 1 8 8 9[ 2 2 5 ] .
1.4
Types of axial flux PM machines
In principle, each type of a radial flux machine should have its corresponding axial flux (disc type) version.In practice,disc type machines are limited to the following three types: r PM d.c. commutatormachines; r PM brushless d.c. and synchronous machines; r inductionmachines Similar to its RFPM counterpart, the AFPM d.c. commutator machine uses PMs to replace the electromagneticfield excitation system. The rotor (armature) can be designedas a wound rotor or printed winding rotor.
Introduction
Figure1.2. AFMPM 8-poled.c. commutator motorwith printedrotorwinding:(a) stator with PMs, (b) crosssection, (c) rotor (armature) (d) construction windingsandbrushes, of 2p : g windingwith 145bars. I - rotorwith double-sided printedwinding,2 - pMs, 3 - brushes.
In the wound rotor, the almature winding is made of copper wires and moulded with resin. The commutator is similar to that of the conventional type, i.e. it can be either a cylindrical or radial commutator. The disc-fiipe printed armature winding motor is shown in Fig. 1.2. The rotor (armature)does not have a ferromagnetic core and its winding is similar to the wave winding of conventional d.c. commutator machines. The coils are stamped from pieces of sheet copper and then welded, forming a wave winding. When this motor was inventedby J. Henry Baudot [16], the armature was made using a similar method to that by which printed circuit boards are fabricated. Hence, this is called the printed winding motor. The magnetic flux of a d.c. printed winding commutator motor with a large air gap can be produced using cost effective Alnico magnetswith high remanence. AFPM d.c. commutator motors are still a versatile and economical choice for certain industrial, automotiveand domesticapplicationssuchas fans, blowers, small EVs, power tools, appliances,etc. Practically, d.c. brushlessand a.c. synchronousmachineshave almost the samestructure,though their theory and operationprinciples are somewhatdifferent [96, 112, 172]. The main difference is in the shape of the operation currentwaveform(Fig. 1.3),i.e.:
r the d.c. brushlessmachine generatesa trapezoidalEMF waveform and is operatedwith a rectangular line current waveform (also called a squarewqve mzchine):
MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHTNES ANAL FLUX PERMANENT
?1 PhnseA
PlusE B
130 t80 240 300 16f

{B}
t20 240 (b)
Figtre 1.3. Cunent waveforms for AFPM brushlessmachines: (a) square-wavemachine, (b) sinewavemachine.
r the a.c. synchronous machinegenerates a sinusoidalEMF waveformand is operatedwith sinewavecurrents(also called a sinewavemachine). It is difficult to manufacturea laminatedrotor with cagewinding for a disc-type If the cagewinding is replacedwith a non-magnetic inductionmachine11481. disc or steeldisc coatedwith copper high conductivity(Cu or Al) homogenous layer, the performanceof the machinedrastically deteriorates.Therefore,there is little interestin disc type inductionmachinesso far 1148,238].
1.5
Topologies and geometries
From a consfiuctionpoint of view, brushlessAFPM machinescan be dewith or without armatureslots, with signed as single-sidedor double-sided, or without armature core, with intemal or external PM rotors, with surface mounted or interior PMs and as single stageor multi-stage machines. In the case of double-sidedconfigurations, either the external stator or external rotor affangementcan be adopted.The first choice has the advantageof of poor winding utilisation while the second using fewer PMs at the expense machinetopology [34]. The as a particularly advantageous one is considered machinesmay be classifiedas follows: diversetopologiesof AFPM brushless r single-sided AFPM machines with slottedstator(Fig. 1.4a) with slotlessstator with salient-pole stator
Introduction
double-sided AFPM machines (Fig. l.ab) with internal stator x with slottedstator x with slotless stator . with iron corestator
. with coreless stator(Fig. l.4d) . without both rotor and stator cores
Figure 1.4. Basic topologies of AFPM machines: (a) single-sidedslotted machine, (b) doublesided slotless machines with internal stator and twin PM rotor, (c) double sided machine with slotted stator and internal PM rotor, (d) double-sided corelessmotor with intemal stator. I 5 -frame, 6-bearing, 7 shaft. statorcore,2 - statorwinding, 3 -rotor, 4-PM,
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHII,{ES * x x x with salientpole stator(Fig. 1.5) with slotted stator with slotlessstator with salientpole stator(Fig. L6)
with internalrotor (Fig. 1.ac)
multi-stage(multidisc)AFPM machines(Fig. 1.7)
Figure 1.5. Double-sided AFPM brushlessmachine with internal salient-pole stator and twin extemal rotor [170]: (a) construction;(b) stator; (c) rotor. 1 PM,2 rotor backing steel disc, 3 - statorpole, 4 - statorcoi1.
The air gap of the slotted armatureAFPM machineis relatively small. The mean magnetic flux density in the air gap decreases under each slot opening due to increasein the reluctance.The changein the meanmagneticflux density caused to a fictitious increase in the air gap I I I 1]. by slot openings corresponds The relation between fictitious g' and physical air gapg is expressed with the aid of Cartercoefficient kc ) I,i.e.
g' : gkc
(1.1)
,t1 4*79
(r.2)
(*) +l*arc,an
(1.3)
Introduction
Figure 1.6. Double-sided AFPM brushlessmachine with three-phase,9-coil extemal salientpole stator and 8-pole intemal rotor. 1 - PM ,2 - statorbacking ferromagnetic disc, 3 stator pole,4-statorcoil.
where 11is the averageslot pitch and b1ais the width of slot opening. For AFPM machines with slotless windings the air gap is much larger and equal to the mechanical clearanceplus the thickness of all non-magneticmaterials (winding, insulation, potting, suppofting structure) that is passedby the main magnetic flux. Since there are no slots, Carter coefficient kc : I. Comparedto a conventionalslotted winding, the slotlessarrnaturewinding has advantages such as simple stator assembly,elimination of the cogging torque and reduction of rotor surface losses,magnetic safurationand acoustic noise. The disadvantages include the use of more PM material, lower winding inductancessometimescausingproblems for inverter-fed motors and significant eddy current lossesin slotlessconductors[45]. In the double-sided, salient-pole AFPM brushlessmachine shown in Fig. 1.5, the stator coils with concentratedparametersare wound on axially laminated poles. To obtain a three-phaseself-starting motor, the number of the statorpoles should be different from the number of the rotor poles, e.g. 12 statorpolesand 8 rotor poles [60, 161, 170]. Fig. 1.6 showsa double-sided AFPM machine with external salient pole statorsand internal PM rotor. There are nine stator coils and eight rotor poles for a three-phase AFPM machine. Depending on the application and operating environment, slotless stators may have ferromagnetic coresor be completely coreless.Corelessstator con-
l0
figurations eliminate any fenomagnetic material from the stator (armature) system,thus making the associated eddy cuffent and hysteresiscore losses nonexisting.This type of configurationalso eliminatesaxial magneticattraction forces between the stator and rotor at zero-currentstate. It is interesting that slotlessAFPM machinesare often classifiedaccordingto their winding alrangementsand coil shapes,namely, toroidal, trapezoidal and rhomboidal forms [34, 45,79J.
Figure I .7. Coreless multidisc AFPM machine with three corelessstators and four PM rotor uaits: 1 statorwinding, 2 rotorunit, 4-PM, 3 -frame, 4 bearing,5 shaft.
1.6
Axial magnetic field excited by PMs
A double-sided AFPM machinewith twin PM rotor in ryz rectangular coordinatesystemis shown in Fig. l.B. Assuming that the radius of curvature is higher than the pole pitch and the centre axes of the oppositerotor poles are shiftedby a linear distance16, the normal componentof the magneticflux densityon the surfaceofthe rotor can be described in the stationary rAz cootdinatesystemby the following equations: . atz :0.Ysd ^\-Bo\,b,cos(";"!, d,r - ;) u-l "'2
oo
B-,t(r.t) -
(1.4)
at z:
-0.5d
Introduction
ll
pole Pole pitch Pitch
Figure1.8. Twin-stator double-sided AFPM machine in Cartesian coordinate system.
oo
: Bo\U"cosl.,.,tT A,@ ,o) B,n,z(r,t)

I
; |
l -l J
(1.5)
where .86 is the value of the nornal componentin the center axis of the North pole, and
lJu - I/*
^17
(1.6)
er:
]uu - BrrrDn
(r.7)
A_ u u--
.4
- t (t)^ .o.r, t (*)' :o".,h *] fr ". l*sinha

x sin@[) "rn(r&)
.:l#"*'
(1.8) (p,b1) *"i,(,;) cos (;)' h -#] *,n
12
(a)
0.9
0.3
B m z t( x , r ) B mzz( x.i)
i \i\ / ,n \ \r/ t . l l i \ \ l','\'r llitli:llililifrLli r l--ll-i UJ-t lJ

l li
I ---.---.L
: l
ll ii I iil l, I lli i lril r:

I I ll I ril , l
i i i l
0.1
0.l5
0.2
0.25
0.1
x
(b)
0.9 09
z/r
(x,t) B mz1 :B- 0

nrarx't)
0.3
-0.1
iffl ft* fft'l ' ,j \ \ l l \ \i/i\ r lir\l iliilillil

llilirlr,ltlll,rll,
r.Ylrl N,4ri iM,i
M,1
'0 9 -0.9 0
.i trr{-u, rtj i[i]'i [il

0.05 0.1 0.r5 0.2 0.25 0.3
zpr
Figure 1.9. Distribution of the normal components of the magnetic flux density according to e q n s( 1 . 4 ) ,( 1 . 5 )a n d ( 1 . 8 )f o r r - 0 . 0 4 , m , b , : 0 . 0 3 m , B o : 0 . 6 T , t : 0 , r o : 0 . 5 2 : ( a ) a : 0. (b) cv- 0.8.
, "2
T*b,
o 4;
Q.
on
In the aboveeqns(1.4),(1.5),(1.6),(1.7),and (1.8) u : ?rris the linearspeed of the rotor in the z-direction, n - n D lu is the rotational speedin rev/s and the parametera dependson the shapeof the distribution of the normal component of the magneticflux density (Fig. 1.9). Forthe flat-toppedcurve a : 0 and for the concave curve (armature or eddy-current reaction) 0 < <-v < 1. The coefficientb, accordingto eqn (1.8) hasbeenderivedin [93]. The averagediameter D of the PM excitation system and corresponding averagepole pitch are:
D :0.5(Dout * Din)
rD
)tt
( l e)
Introduction
t3
whereDin is theinnerdiameter of PMs,Do6 is theouterdiameter of PMsand 2p is thenumber of poles. The electromagnetic field analysis in AFPM brushless machines hasbeen in e.g.190, discussed 91,250,251).
1.7
PM eddy-currentbrake asthe simplest AFPM brushless machine
A double-sided,PM excited eddy-currentbrake with high conductivity non(Fig. magneticdisc-typerotor is one of the simplestbrushless AFPM machines 1.8). In an eddy-currentbrake the PM excitation system is stationary and the conductiverotor rotatesat the speedn. Eqns (l.a) to (1.9) are valid since the stationary PM excitation systemand rotating electric circuit (armature)are equivalentto the rotating PMs and the stationary electric circuit. It is assumedthat the eddy currents in the non-magnetic conductive disc (Fig. 1.8). Thus, the flow only in the radial direction, i.e., in the gr-direction magnetic vector potential ,4 in the disc is described by the following scalar equation(2D analysis):
o, A^0, * o, A^0, = ^ : ()'AmY' t aFar,

where a, - t/ ja,Fo4ro : (I + j)k"
(1.10)
(1.11)
(1.12)
on the disc temIn eqns(1.11) and (1.12) the electric conductivityo depends perature. The relative magnetic permeability of paramagnetic(A1) or diamagnetic (Cu) materialsFr x I. The angularfrequencyforhigher spaceharmonics is accordingto eqn (1.7) or
u,:Ztrf,;
f"--uf;
u:I,3,5,...
(1. l 3)
as solutionto eqn( I .l0) canbe written,for example, General
:i A,na
sio(ur,t * A',exp(n,z))(1.14) * g,r - T)lOr,exp(-n,z)
l4 where
az"+03:(an,*ax,)k,
(l . l s )
utlu
(1. I6 )
(1.17)
Since the curents in the disc flow only in the radial direction U, E*, : 0 Ern" : 0 and Brno 0 for *0.5d I z ( 0.5d. Using the magneticvector _: potentialY x A : E andthe secondMaxwell's equationi E : *08 lAt, " the remaining electric and magnetic componentsin the disc can be found as E^y: -jarA*u
co ti-
I
u:1
jt"sin(-u,1 I 3,r
[)lot"
exp(-n,z) * Az, exp(n,z')l( 1.18)
12 - - flAma urnr 0,
rc
\,2
u:l
[)l^r"
exp(- n,z) - Az, exp(n,z))
(1.19)
Brn":9+* OT
: I
uI
p, rlos(a,t n,z) I Az, exp(n,z)) (1.20) * p,r * I)(Or, exp(.*
The integrationconstants 41, and 42, canbe found on the basisof equality of normal components of the magneticflux densityin the air and in the disc at z - A.Sdandz : -0.5d. i.e.
Introduction r a tz : 0 . 5 d p, cos(u,t * g,r - I)Vr, zexp(-n,d,f 2) -t Az, exp(n,d,l2))
15
fr\ : Bobrcos(wrt * 0rr -
t)
t a tz :
-0.5d
p, coslw,t 2) + 42, exp(n,cll2)l + g,@ - ro) - Xllqr" exp(-n,d,f : Bob, coslu,t + 0,(r - *ol -
[l
field in theair gapof aneddy-current magnetic Thereis onlybackward-rotating * so thatthetermsp,r and0"@ 16) in eqns(1.4)and(1.5)arewith brake, the * sign.Thus,
Atu: 42,:
1-,
1)1 - , sinh(rc,d"12
nBob"?ffi#
z 6,nou,ffiG;I6sinh(rc"d) (r.21)
1) into(1.18),(1.19) and eqn(1.2 r. Putting sinh(2e): 2 sinhr cosh because (1.20),the particular solution to eqn(1.10)for E*0, B*, andB^" componentsare
Ems: -2t""TeCiqsin(u,tt
cco)brl,^77
g,r -
(t.22) 7)cosh(rc,2)
B'n':f-""T^#rtrsin(u't
* 0'r- |)'i'n@'") (r'23)

(r.24) * F,r - [) cosh(n,z)
:2uru"^"iOncos(a,t Bn "
16
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGI,{ET BRUSHLESS MACHINES
The surface wave impedancefor the uth spaceharmonic is calculated on the basis of eqns(1.22') and(1.23)
zu - ru* jr,:
-trotirl*,)z oi:rj: *:"ntt,{o,f;)
: l(Bp,Ap, - Bx,Ax,) + j(Bx,Aa, - Po,Ar,)l?

where
tLtTu
Q.25)
a-,
sinh(ap"k"d) prk,d) - cos(ay,k,d) cosh(ct - sin(ay"k"r|) cosh(ap, k, d) - cos(ay
(r.26)
"k "
d)
(t.27)
BR,:G#Te)
The impedance of the disc for the yth spaceharmonic 0.5(Do.t - Dn) , -;Kzu r/u
(r.28)
Lu
au -
a2, t 0.b1D.,,- -D i n ) . d. Kru cotlr\ti,ur)

0 Ku rlu
(r.29)
where Do6 is the outer diameterof PMs, D;n is the inner diameterof pMs, z is the average pole pitch (1.9) and k"r rsthe impedance increase factor due to circumferential cunents (in the r direction). The impedanceincreasefactor for the zth harmonicis [62]
k", :71
I u2 o.b(Dou,- Dm)
(1.30)
1.8
AFPM machinesversusRFPM machines
In pace with the application of new materials, innovation in manufacturing technologyand improvementsin cooling techniques,further increasein the power density(outputpower per massor volume) of the electricalmachinehas been madepossible. There is an inherent limit to this increasefor conventional radialflux PM (RFPM) machines because of 127 , 49,96, 153,l77l:
Introduction
L7
r the bottle-neck feature for the flux path at the root of the rotor tooth in the case of induction and d.c. commutator machines or brushlessmachines with externalrotors (Fig. 1.10); r much of the rotor core around the shaft (rotor yoke) is hardly utilised as a magnetic circuit; r heat from the stator winding is transferredto the stator core and then to the frame - there is poor heat removal through the stator air gap, rotor and shaft without forced cooling arrangements. These limitations are inherently bound with radial flux structuresand cannot be removed easily unless a new topology is adopted. The AFPM machine, recognisedas having a higher power density than the RI'PM machine, is more compactthan its radial flux counterpart L26,49,96, 153].
(a)
Figure 1.10.
0)
Topologies of (a) RFPM machine (b) AFPM machine.
Moreover. since the inner diameterof the core of an AFPM machine is usually much greaterthan the shaft diameter (see Fig. 1.4), better ventilation and cooling can be expected.In general,the specialpropertiesof AIPM machines, which are consideredadvantageous over RFPM machines in certain applications, can be summarisedas follows [48, 96]: r AFPM machines have much larser diameter to lensth ratio than RFPM machines; r AFPM machineshave a planar and somewhatadjustableak gap;
18
MACHINES MAG],{ET BRUSHLESS AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT
r capability of being designedto possess a higher power densitywith some saving in core material; r the topology of an AFPM machineis ideal to design a modular machine in which the number of the same modules is adjusted to power or torque requirements; r the larger the outer diameterof the core, the higher the number of poles that making the AFPM machinesa suitablechoice for can be accommodated, frequency or 1ow speed operations. high Consequently,AFPM type machines are particularly suitable for servo, tracapplicationswhere their proption, distributed generationand special-purpose over their conventionalRFPM countemarts. erties offer distinct advantases
600
? soo
:
.i .i :oo L 200 9 i * roo a 0.25 o ,EEE 2001
1l Odpdpowr, kv
0.25 O IEEE2OOI 9m 80m
ll5 Outd Fwr, kW
500 t 400 7000
I uooo
E 5oo() E i cmo $ rooo
'6 ' 100 ! : ?00 1S
&.*
rm0 0
0.25 o IEEE2001
I Or&u ] pow. kW J ]O
0,25 cJlrEE t00l Odpd powr, kW
Figure I . I I .
Perfomance comparison of RFPM and AFPM machines [2 14].
The quantitativecomparisonbetweentraditional RFPM machineand AFPM machine is always difficult as it may raise the question of this comparison's fairness. Somepublished work dealt with quantitativeinvestigationsof RFPM and AFPM machine configurationsin terms of sizing and power density equabetween tions [8, 49, 121, 2a71. Fig. 1. 1I gives the performancecomparison a conventionalRFPM machine and a number of AFPM machinesof different
Introduction
t9
configurationsat five different power levels [214], which showsthat the AFPM machine has a smaller volume and less active material mass for a given power rating than the RFPM machine.
1.9
Power limitation of AFPM machines
The power range of AFPM disc-type brushlessmachines is now from a fraction of a Watt to sub-MW. As the output power of the AFPM machine increases,the contact surfacebetween the rotor and shaft becomessmaller in comparison with the rated power. It is more difficult to design a high mechanical integrity rotor-shaft mechanicaljoint in the higher range of the output power. A common solution to the improvement of the mechanicalintegrity of joint is to designa multidisc (multi-stage) the rotor-shaft machine(Fig. 1.7). Since the scaling of the torque capability of the AFPM machine as the cube of the diameter (see eqn (2.9\) while the torque of a RFPM machinesscaleas the squareof the diameter times the length, the benefits associatedwith axial flux geometriesmay be lost as the power level or the geometric ratio of the length to diameter of the motor is increasedLlT4l. The transition occurs near the point where the radius equals twice the length of RFPM machine. This may be a limiting design considerationfor the power rating of a single-stage disc machine as the power level can always be increasedby simply stackingof disc machineson the sameshaft and in the sameenclosure.
Numerical example 1.1

A copper disc with its dimensionsas shown in Fig. 1.12 rotateswith the speedof 12 000 rpm betweenU-shapedlaminatedpole shoesof a PM. A sliding contact consisting of two brushesis usedto collect the electric current generatedby this primitive homopolar generator: one brush slides on the external diameter D,tut : 0.232 m and the secondbrush is located directly below one of the poles at the distanceof O.\Din : 0.03 m from the axis of the disc. The remanentmagnetic flux density of the NdFeB PM is B, : 7.25 T, coercivity is H. : 950 000 A/m and height 2hp1 :0.016 m. The thicknessof the disc is d : 0.005 m, one-sided a* gap is 9 : 0.0015 m and the width of the pole : is bo 20 mm. The relative magnetic permeability of the laminated core is : 1000 and the conductivityof the disc is o : 57 x 106 S/m at 20"C. The F, length of the flux path in the laminatedcore is lp" - 0.328 m. Find: (a) the magnetic flux density in the air gap; (b) the EMF betweenbrushes; (c) the current, if the line resistance is El : Rr - 0.02O. is 0.001 f, and load resistance
20
AXIALFLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES
Figure 1,12. Faraday's disc: a nonmagnetic conductive disc rotating in a stationary magnetic field according to Numerical examole I .I .
The magnetic flux fringing effect in the air gap, the variation of magnetic permeability with the magnetic field intensity in the laminated core and brush voltage drop are neglected. Solution This is a homopolartype d.c. generator known as Faraday's disc and canbe usedas a cunent source,e.g. for electrolysis. (a) Magnetic ffux density in the air gap The relative recoil magnetic permeability
IAB
t'rt'e( po LH
1.25-0
0
0.4r x lO-b 950000
r.047
The magnetic flux density in the air gap and saturationfactor of the magnetic circuit can be found on the basis of Kirchhoff's magnetic voltage law, i.e. 'B" '
l-LO Frrec
2 h n t-
B" " e
llollrrec
f? 2hy + 1!2g + Hrrlr"

LtO
u'
Fjllrrec
'ont :
Bn
F}Frrec
2tttt + a 2 g k " o t
P0
where the saturationfactor of the masnetic circuit

I.
k s a t: 7
-T 1T -
2p,(g+ 0.5d)
:7.042 2 x 1 0 0 0 ( 0 . 0 0* 1 i0 . 5x 0 . 0 0 5 )
LF".
Introduction
2l
Thus,the air gapmagnetic flux densityis

k
8,,
" I + (g + 0.5d)k"otH,,",fh.11
t'25, : o" . '8 o 9 T , 1 + ( 0 . 0 0 1 5 * 0 .x 50 . 0 0 5 ) 1 . 0 x41 20 0 0 / 0 . 0 0 8
(b) EMF betweenbrushes Since Elt : ?- x En o, d,E : Bnudr where n : ,ur : Ztrrn is the linear speed,r is the radius ofthe disc and n is the rotationalspeedin rev/s, dE : Bs(2nrn)dr. Thlus
- n?^\ -'ll'!'-e (n7"., n: I Bnl2rrn)d7 *'') Y\ \-our 4 Jo.sD;,,
p0.5Dea1
*-
12
: 4#ry
0.02 0.
_ 0.006,) :6 83v (o.zsz,
(c) Current,if the line resistance is El : 0.001 Q and load resistance is /?1 : Neglecting the current fringing effect in the disc, the resistanceof the disc for induced current at 20oC is n H +:0.0000151 -a x - - - # :odbo x 0.005 x 0.02 57x 106 0 . 5 ( D o d- D " ) - 0.06) 0.5(0.232
Thecurrentis I: :325.\ --: _ : -..,,,,,,6'8,3,, Ra-r RL]- Rt 0.0000151 + 0.001 + 0.02 "'
TheterminalvoltageisV I: x Ry:325 x 0.02:6.5Vandtheline : 0.325 voltage dropis LV : I x R1:325 x 0.001 V.
Numerical example 1.2 Find the impedance of the aluminumdisc of a double-sided eddy cument brakeat ambient temperature 20"C. The innerdiameter of the PMs is Drr, : 0.14m, the outerdiameter of the PMsrs Do6 : 0.242, thickness of the disc : : poles d : 3 mm, number of 2p 16 and speed n 3000rpm. Assume the conductivity of the aluminumo : 30 x 106S/m at2}oC and its relative permeability magnetic Fr = t.
22 Solution
MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES AATAL FLUX PERMANENT
The averagediameter of the disc D : 0 . 5 ( D m* D o , t ) : pole pitch The average rD t:2p: n'0.191 -o'037m t6 0.5(0.14 + 0 . 2 3 2 ) : 0 . 1 9 1m
The frequencyand angular frequencyof the curent in the disc for fundamental
u :7 space harmonic . f ^ 3 0 0 0: 4 0 0 H 2 p, - 8 irr t/s "';: 2r f : 21400: 2513.3
The attenuationfactor for the fundamental spaceharmonic u : I of the electromagneticfield in the disc accordingto eqn ( 1.12) is
t." -
x 0.4r10-6 x 1 . 0x 3 0 x 1 0 6 2513.3 : 277.66 1lm
accordingto eqns (1.6), (1.16), (1.17), (1.26), (1.27) and The coefficients ( 1.28) for u : 1, are respectively
't : #u
:84'865l1lYn
1.038
ux:
Ap
x 0.003) x217.66 sinh(l.038

x277.66 x 0.003) x217.66 x 0.003)- cos(0.964 coslr(1.038 1.699
Aa
- sin(0.964 x 0.003) x 217.66 - cos(O.964 x 277.66 x 0.003) x 0.003) x 277.66 cosh(1.038 -1.369
Introduction . 0.002 2.lo-' 0.0015
L-)
n(v)
tr
o'oo1
s . t oa
00
1 3 5 7 9 1113t517r92r2325n2931333537394r
1v4l
Figure I .I 3. Resistanceand reactanceof the copper disc for higher spaceharmonics z accordingto Numerical example 1.2.
BR:
0.964 - 0.961 0.5(1.0382 + 0.9642)
Bx :
1.038 : 1'035 o'5(10g82 + or9o42)
The surfacewave impedancefor u : I accordingto eqn (1.25)
- 1.0s5 x 1.699 x (-1.869)] r : [0.9G1 ffi
:2.2128 x 10-5 Q
x (-r.369)]H,6:^ :3.2L6 x 10 6 f) x 1.699 r : [1.035 + 0.961 "57 x 10o x 10-5+ j3.216 x 10-6 Q z : 2.2123 (in ther- direccurrents Theimpedance increase factordueto circumferential (1.30) to eqn is tion)according
: 1.233 k,,:r+ I ==,= 9'937 =.r,, -2 0 1 20 . 5 ( 0 . 2 4 14)

per pole for the fundamentalspaceharmonicu : 1 acThe disc impedance to eqn(1.29) cording
L+
1A
MAG],{ET BRUSHLESS MACHII,IES AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT
23 l0 6l93ffit.tou l 0 5* f i . 2 1 6 x z - ( 2 . 2 1x
: 5.231 x 1 0 - 5+ j 7 . 6 0 5x 1 0 - 6o
R : 5.231x 10-5 f)
x 10-6O X : 7.605
The disc resistanceR, andreactanceX, for higher spaceharmonics v ) 1 is plotted in Fig. 1.13.
1.3 Numericalexample
Estimatethe cost of materialsof a 3-phase,250 kW 2300 rpm brushless AFPM machine. The internal stator does not have any ferromagnetic core. The twin-type externalrotor (Fig. L4d) consistsof sinteredNdFeB PMs (40 poles) gluedto two solid steeldiscs.The massof the statorcopperconductors (includingencapsurs'm6u: 18.7kg, massof the statorwinding insulation : massof the twin is rnpy 32.1kg, 1.87 kg, mass of PMs is mirr: lation) rotor core is mr": 50.8 kg (two discs)and massof the shaft is m"h : 48.5 kg. The cost of materialsin U.S. dollars per kilogram is: copper conductor cgu : 5.51, insulatingmaterialsc'irts: 7.00, sinteredNdFeB magnets : 0.65. The cost of frame, end discs cpM :20.00 and carbonsteelc"1""7 : that are in(bells) and bearingsis C1 $164.00. The cost of components terminal leads,terminal board, of the machinegeometry(encoder, dependent is Cs : $140.00. nameplate) Coefficientstaking into accountthe manufacturingand utilisation of steel for the shaftand rotor core (steeldiscs)are as follows: r total volume of the steelbar to the volume of the shaft,ku"h: 1.94
r coefHcient taking into accountthe cost of machiningof the shaft, k-"7, : 2.15 r total volume of the steelplate to the volume of the rotor discs,kr, : !.1 . coefficienttaking into accountthe costof machiningof the rotor steeldiscs, k^, : \.8 Solution The cost of the copperwinding C- : nlgrcC,: 78.7x 5.51: $103.12
Introduction The cost of the insulationand encapsulation Cir" : Trlinsc'in":1.87x 7'00 : $13'10 The cost of PMs Cpt',r: rnpMcpM :32.7 x 20.00: $640.80 The cost of the rotor core (two steel discs) Cr.: kurkrn mr.csteel:2.1 x 1.8 x 50.8 X 0.65 : $tZ4.B5
The cost ofthe shaft C"h - kr"7rk*rnr1"csteel: L.94x 2.I5 x 48.5 x 0.65 : $131.55 Total cost of materials
C : Cf t Co + C. + C,rnr l Cpm * Cr.l Crn : 164.00* 140.00+ 103.12+ 13.10+640.80 7+ 24.85+ 1 3 1 . 5: 5 $t3t7.a5
2 Chapter PRINCIPLES OF AFPM MACHINES
In this chapter the basic principles of the AFPM machine are explained in details. Considerable attention is given to the magnetic circuits, windings, torque production, losses,equivalentcircuits, sizing procedure,armaturereaction and performancecharacteristicsof AFPM machines.
2.1 2.1.1
Magneticcircuits Single-sided machines
The single-sided construction of an axial flux machine is simpler than the double-sidedone, but the torque production capacityis lower. Fig.2.1 shows typical constructionsof single-sidedAFPM brushlessmachines with surface PM rotors and laminated stators wound from electromechanicalsteel strips. The single-sidedmotor according to Fig. 2.lahas a standardframe and shaft. It can be used in industrial, traction and servo electromechanicaldrives. The motor for hoist applications shown in Fig. 2.1b is integrated with a sheave (drum for ropes) and brake (not shown). It is used in gearlesselevators[103].
2.1.2
Double-sidedmachineswith internal PM disc rotor
Inthe double-sidedmachinewith internal PM disc rotor, the armaturewinding is located on two stator cores. The disc with PMs rotates between two stators. An eight-pole configuration is shown in Fig. 2.2. P}ds are embedded or glued in a nonmagnetic rotor skeleton. The nonmagnetic air gap is large, i.e. the total air gap is equal to two mechanical clearancesplus the thickness of a PM with its relative magnetic permeability close to unity. A double-sided machine with parallel connectedstatorscan operateeven if one stator winding
28
MACH]NES MAGNETBRUSHLESS AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT
Figure 2.1. Single sided disc type machines: (a) for industrial and traction electromechanical drives, (b) for hoist applications. I - laminated stator,2 - PM, 3 - rotor, 4 - frame, 5 sheave. shaft,6
ROTOE
STATOR
3 2
/.
Figure 2.2. Configuration of double-sided AFPM brushlessmachine with internal disc rotor rotor, 2 - PM, 3 stator core, 4 - stator winding. 1
is broken. On the other hand, a series connection is preferred becauseit can provide equalbut opposingaxial attractiveforces. AFPM brushless 200 H2,3000 rpm, double-sided A practicalthree-phase, winding motor with built-in brake is shown in Fig. 2.3 [145]. The three-phase
Principles of AFPM machines
29
AFPM brushless servomotorwith built-inbrakeandencoder:1 Figure2.3. Double-sided -left frame,6 right statorwinding,2-statorcore,3 discrotorwithPMs,4-shaft,5 brake,1l 10 elecfromagnetic brakeflange, frame,7 flange,8 brakeshield,9 Electrical Bratislava and Technologt STU, of resolver. Courtesy of SlovakUniversity encoder or and ksting Institute,Nov| Dubnica,Slovakia. Research
is Y-connected,while phase windings of the two stators are in series. This motor is used as a flange-mounted servo motor. The ratio X"alX"q t 1.0 so the motor can be analysed as a cylindrical non-salient rotor synchronous machine [118,143,145].
2.1.3
Double-sidedmachineswith internal ring-shaped core stator
A double-sidedmachine with internal ring-shaped stator core has a polyphaseslotlessarmaturewinding (drum type) wound on the surfaceof the stator ferromagneticcore. 192,160,218, 2451.In this machine the ring-shapedstator core is formed either from a continuous steel tape or sintered powders. The total air gap is equal to the thickness of the stator winding with insulation, mechanical clearanceand the thickness of the PM in the axial direction. The double-sidedrotor simply called twin rotor with PMs is located at two sides of the stator. The configurations with intemal and external rotors are shown in Fig. 2.4. The three phasewinding arrangement,magnet polarities and flux paths in the magnetic circuit are shown in Fig. 2.5.
30
AXIAL FLUX PERMANEIVT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES
Figure 2.4. Double-sidedmachineswith one slotlessstator: (a) internal rotor, (b) external rotor. I -statorcore, 2 statorwinding, 3 -steel rotor, 4 PMs, 5 resin, 6 frame, 7 shaft.
Figure2.5. Three-phase winding,PM polarities flux paths andmagnetic of a double-sided disc machine with one intemalslotiess stator.1 winding,2 PM, 3 - statoryoke,4 rotor yoke.
The AFPM machines designed asshownin Fig. 2.4acanbeusedasa propulsion motor or combustion engine synchronousgenerator. The machine with externalrotor, as shownin Fig. 2.4b,hasbeen designed for hoist applications. A similar machine can be designedas an electric car wheel propulsion motor. Additional magnetson cylindrical parts of the rotor are sometimesadded magnetscan be designed.Suchmagnetsembrace the arma[ 160] or U-shaped
Principlesof AFPM machines
3l
ture winding from three sidesand only the internal portion of the winding does not produce any electromagnetictorque. Owing to the large air gapthe maximum flux density does not exceed0.65 T. To produce this flux density a large volume of PMs is usually required. As the perrneancecomponent of the flux ripple associatedwith the slots is eliminated, the cogging torque is practically absent. The magnetic circuit is unsaturated(slotless stator core). On the other hand, the machine structure robustness lacksthe necessary [218]. Both buried magnetand surfacemagnet rotors can be used. There are a number of applications for medium and large power axial flux motors with external PM rotors, especially in electrical vehicles [92, 245]. Disc-type motors with extemal rotors have a particular advantagein low speed high torque applications,suchasbusesand shuttles,due to their large radius for torque production. For small electric cars the electric motor mounted directly into the wheel is recommendedl92l.
2.I.4
Double-sidedmachineswith internal slotted stator
The ring-type stator core can also be made with slots (Fig. 2.6). For this type of motor, slots ale proglessively notched into the steeltape as it is passed from one mandrel to another and the polyphasewinding is inserted 12451.ln the caseof the slotted stator the air gap is small (g < 1 mm) and the air gap magnetic flux density can increaseto 0.85 T 1921.The magnet volume is less than 50Yothat of the previous design, shown in Figs 2.4 and2.5.
Figure 2.6. Double-sided machine with one intemal slotted stator and buried PMs. I nonmagnetic rotor disc. core with slots, 2 - PM, 3 - mild steel core (pole), 4
stator
)L
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRL|SHLESS MACHINES
Figure 2.7. Double-stator, motor with water cooling system[55] triple-rotorAFPM brushless I -PM,2-statorcore, 3 statorwinding.
2.1.5
Double-sided machines with internalcoreless stator
AFPM machines with corelessstators have the stator winding wound on a non-magnetic and non-conductive supporting structure or mould. The stator core losses,i.e. hysteresis and eddy current lossesdo not exist. The lossesin PMs and rotor solid steeldisc are negligible. This type of designoffers higher level of efficiency at zero cogging torque. In order to maintain a reasonable flux density in the air gap,a much larger volume of PMs in comparisonwith laminatedstatorcore AFPM machineis required.The statorwinding is placed in the air gap magnetic field generatedby the PMs mounted on two opposing rotor discs(Fig. l.ad). When operatingat relativelyhigh frequency, significant eddy current lossesin the stator winding conductorsmay ocun 12341.
2.1,6 Multidiscmachines
There is a limit on the increaseof motor torque that can be achievedby enlargingthe motor diameter.Factorslimiting the singledisc designare: (a) axial force takenby bearings; joint betweenthe disc and shaft; (b) integrity of mechanical (c) disc stiffness. A more reasonablesolution for large torques aredouble or triple disc motors. Thereare several configurations of multidiscmotorsl5-7 , 55,73, 7 41.Large multidisc motors ratedat least300-kW havea water cooling system(Fig.2.7)
of AFPM machines Principles
33
with radiatorsaround the winding end connections[55]. To minimize the winding lossesdue to skin effect, variable cross sectionconductorsmay be used so that the cross sectionof conductorsis bigger in the slot areathan in the in region. Using a variablecrosssectionmeansa gain of 40o/o end connection an means of conductors the rated power [55]. However, variable cross section a titanium increasedcost of manufacturing. Owing to high mechanicalstresses rotors. for disc recommended is alloy
2.2 Windings windingsdistributedin slots 2.2.1 Three-phase

winding, only one coil side is locatedin a single slot. The In a single-layer is numberof all coils s1f 2 andthe numberof coils per phaseis n. : s1I (2m1) where si is the number of stator slots and rn1 is the number of phases. In a double-layer winding two sides of different coils are accommodatedin each slot. The number of all coils is s1 and the number of coils per phaseis n. : stlmt.The numberof slotsper pole is
o'-h
qr:
Sl
(2.r)
where 2p is the number of poles. The number of slots per pole per phaseis 2p*,
(2.2)
The number of conductorsper coil can be calculatedas r for a single-layerwinding

AI-
aoa-N1
-
Lrc
aoa*Nt s1l(2m1)
T1'c
_ aoa-Nt PQt
(2.3)
r for a double-laverwindine
A r --
ara-Nr
TLc
rrc
_ aoa-Nt
stlmt
_ ara*Nt 2pqt
(2.4)
is the number ofturns in seriesper phase,oo is the number of parallel where ,Ay'l current paths and a- is the number of parallel conductors. The number of conductorsper slot is the samefor both single-layerand double-layerwindings, i.e.
J+
1A
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES ALt : ctoa*Nt

PQt
(2.s)
The full coil pitch measured in terms of the numberof slots is y1 : Q1 where (2.1). The shorl coil pitch can be expressed is according to eqn as Q1
at:YPet r\r
)
(2.6)
where tu"(r) is the coil pitch measuredin units of length at a given radius r and r(r) is the pole pitch measured at the sameradius.The coil pitch-to-pole pitch ratio is independenton the radius, i.e.
t'ut"\t') / \ T\7')
(.2.7)
The distribution factor of a polyphasewinding for the fundamentalspaceharmonic u : 1 is defined as the ratio of thephasor sum-to-arithmetic sum of EMFs induced in each coil and expressed by the following equation:
1 . , , --
sin(nl2m)
qlsin}t l(2m1q1)l
tro |
(2.8)
The pitch factor for the fundamental spaceharmonic u : I is defined as the ratio of the phasor sum to-arithmetic sum of the EMFs per coil side and expressed as:
: sin kpr (Utr)
(2.e)
The winding factor for fundamental is the product of the distribution factor (eqn (2.8)) times pitch factor (eqn (2.9)), i.e. kur: katkrt
(2.r0)
The anglein electricaldegrees betweenneighbouringslots is
360"
t--P S1
(2.rt)
Fig. 2.8 showsa single layer winding distributedin s1 : 36 slots of a three2p:6 AFPM machine. Phase,
35
Figure 2.8.
SingleJayer winding of an AIPM machine with rnr :
3' 2p :
6, sr :
36'
At:Qt:6andQt-2.
2.2.2
Drum-typewinding
Drum-type stator windings are used in twin-rotor double-sidedAFPM machines (Fig. 2.q. The drum-type stator winding of a three-phase,six-pole AFPM machine with twin external rotor is shown in Fig. 2.9. Each phase of the winding has an equal number of coils connectedin opposition so as to cancel the possible flux circulation in the stator core. Those coils are evenly distributed along the stator core diametrically opposing each other so the only of the drum-type possiblenumberof poles are2,6,10, . . . etc. The advantages stator winding (sometimescalled toroidal stator winding 146,219]) are short end connection,simple stator core and easydesign of any number of phases'
2.2.3
statorwinding Coreless
Coreless stator windings are used in twin-rotor double-sided AFPM machines (Fig. l. d). For the easeof construction, the stator winding normally consistsof a number of single layer ttapezoidally shapedcoils. The assembly of the statoris madepossibleby bending the endsof the coils by a certainangle, so that the active conductorslie evenly in the sameplane and the end windings nest closely together. The windings are held together in position by using a compositematerial of epoxy resin and hardener.Fig. 2.10 showsthe coreless stator winding of a three-phase,eight-pole AFPM machine. obviously, the relations used in the slotted stator windings can be directly used for coreless
36
AXIAL FL\]X PERMANE]VT MAGNETBRT]SHLESS MACHINES
Figure 2.9. Drum-type winding of a three-phase, six-pole, 18-coil AFpM machinewith fwin extemal rotor.
Figure 2.10. rotor.
Corelesswinding of a three-phase,eight-pole AFPM machine with twin external
trapezoidalstatorwinding with the exceptionthat the term "slot" is replaced by the "coil side". Another coil profi1ethat has been used in corelessstator AFPM machinesis the rhomboidal co1l. It has shorler end connections than
3/
Figure 2.11. machine.
Connection diagram ofa three-phase,nine-coil winding ofan AFPM brushless
the trapezoidalcoils. The inclined arrangementof the coil's active sidesmakes it possible to place water cooling ducts inside the stator. The main drawback of rhomboidal coils is the reduction of the torque.
2.2.4
Salientpolewindings
A salientpole AFPM motor can be of single-sidedor double sided construction (Figs 1.5, 1.6,2.12). The statorwinding consists of a numberof coils with parametersand separate concentrated ferromagneticcores for each of the coil. In general, the number of stator poles (coils) is different than the number of 12-coi1 rotor poles. Fig. 1.5bshowsa three-phase, statorwinding of a doublesided AFPM machineswith 2p : 8 rotor poles. Figures 1.6, 2.ll and 2.12 show a three-phase, 9-coil stator winding. The difference in the number of the poles is necessary to provide the starting torque for motors and stator and rotor the reduction of torque pulsations.
2.3
Torqueproduction
Since the dimensions of AFPM machines are functions of the radius, the electromagnetictorque is produced over a continuum of radii, not just at a constantradius as in cylindrical machines. The pole pitch r(r) andpole width br(r) of an axial flux machine are functions of the radiusr, i.e.
38
MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES AXIAL FLUX PERMANEI{T
nine-coil stator of a single-sidedAFPM brushlessmachine with Figure 2.12. Three-phase, West Lebanon,NH, U.S.A. of Mii Technologies, salientpoles stator.Photo-courtesy
2trr 2pp
(2.r2)
oP ,w ,lrl:0;Tlrl:
();
7f f'
P
(2. 13 )
where a; is the ratio of the averageBorn to peak value B-,n of the magnetic ffux density in the air gap.i.e.
ai: Boun B*, or ai: br ( ' ) r(r)
(2.14)
Both the pole pitch r(r) and pole width br(r) arefunctionsof the radiusr, the of the radius. parameter a; is notmally independent The line current densiQ is also a function of the radius r. Thus the peak value of the line currentdensityis ^ , \
J
mtJ|Nrto
p'r \t' )
mrfiNtlo
7T r
r Lmv
(2.rs)
The tangentialforce acting on the disc can be calculated on the basis of Ampere'sequation
: A(r)(d-s, nn) x En1 dh, - Io(rir
(2.r6)
39
where lod,; : AQ)d,3, AQ) : A*(ilt/2 accordingto eqn (2.15), di is tne radius element, d3 is the surface element and En is the vector of the normal component (perpendicularto the disc surface) of the magnetic flux density in the air gap. An AFPM disc-type machine provides Bn practically independent of the radiusr. Assuming the magnetic flux density in the air gap B,nn is independentof the radius r, dS : 2nrdr and Born : a,iBrns according to eqn (2.I4), the torqueon the basisof eqn (2.16) is electromagnetic
d,T6: rd,F, : rlk6A(r)Bousd,Sl : 2ratk-rA(r)B*nr2dr
(2.17)
The line current density ,4(r) is the electric loading per one stator active surface in the case of a typical stator winding distributed in slots (double-sided stator and internal rotor) or electric loading of the whole stator in the caseof an internal drum type or corelessstator.
2.4
Magnetic flux
For sinusoidal distribution of the magnetic flux density waveform excited by PMs, the averagemagneticflux density is
Baug:
Trlp- 0
: -* u *n *",o",] " " Bnn ''t(pa)d.a lo"'o [i

(2.18)
: -]- B*olcos?r- cosol : ? u*o '71

7f
Since the surface element per pole is 2nrdrl(2p), the magnetic flux excited by PMs per pole for a nonsinusoidalmagnetic flux density waveform Baus : a;B*n is
oJ
: I:-
aiB*n jrdr: - -zp
21
a i B ^np l r - | ltl
t-l
7l
cl
Rout
l'
) no"
- R?.) : onB,.n#@?,,,
(2.re)
where B*n is the peak value of the magneticflux density in the air gap, p is the number of pole pairs, Ro'1 : O.5Doutis the outer radius of the PMs and Rh : 0.5D,;n is the inner radius of the PMs. It is convenientto use the inner-to-outer PM radius or inner-to-outer PM diameter ratio. i.e.
40
MACHINES AX]AL FLUX PERMANE]{TMAGNETBRUSHLESS

, R'in Rn,,t D';, Dr'rt
(2.20)
Thus, - ( 0 . 5 D ; , ): n ! D I , , G- k ' i lQ . 2 l l o '/ : o , B *"o ' ] o ,B * " ![ '2 p(' 0 . 5 D , , , 1 2

6p The sameequation for a cylindrical type machine is [96] Q r : ?rLiB,no '77
"
(2.22)
where r is the pole pitch and Lt, is the effective length of the stack. permeanceof the air gap in the d-axis at the radius r is given by d,G T,he n:
uofiatffdror
,^ r
r c t-r # " , ; l ' r l G"n: * * , ' : I g' PLz)a,, g', pJR,"
fR.ur
tt^
.,lr2lR""'
I n - t t o ) a i * ( n : , ,- R 7 , ) g' tp
- R?,) : ^n*,+@2,,
Q.23)
per unit surface andg' is the equivalentair where \s : lroI g' is the permeance gap'
2.5
Electromagnetictorque and EMF
The average electromagnetictorque developedby AFPM motor according to eqns(2.15)and (2.17)is dr d,Td: 2a im1 I oIY1k.1 B rnnr to r, the If the aboveequationis integratedfrom Dou1f2to Di,f 2 with respect averageelectromagnetictorque may be written as
Ta : :
),nn
rrloNrk-rB^s(D3.r - D?,) - k:i)h
)aimrt{&dB^sD'lut0
(2.24)
where k; is accordingto eqn (2.20). Putting eqn (2.21) into eqn (2.24) the averagetorque is
41
Ta:2L*rN1k*1Q sIo 1T
(2.2s)
To obtain the rms torque for sinusoidal current and sinusoidal magnetic flux = 1.11,i.e. density,eqn(2.25) shouldbe multiplied by the coefficient "rDla
Ta: TlpNtk,te ylo- kTIo v'2

where the torque constant
(2.26)
k, :
ftrNtk*t{_f
(2.27)
In somepublications [84, 218] the electromagneticforce on the rotor is simply calculatedasthe product of the magneticand electric loading BoooA and active surface of PMs S : n(R\,, - R?,),i.e. F, : rBo,,nA(R\., J Rl.),where A is the rms line current density at the inner radius R4n. For a double-sided AFPM machine S : 2tr(R?-",- R?"). Thus, the averageelectromagnetic torque of a double-sidedAFPM machine is
Ta: F*&n:2trBounA(R?""rR?)Rn, :2trBo,gAR2*(ka- tcll 1z.ztl

Taking the first derivative of the electromagnetictorque 7a with respectto k4 and equatingit to zero. the maximum torqueis for ,ka = | I /i. lndustrial practice showsthat the maximum torque is for ka I t lt/9. The EMF at no load can be found by differentiating the first harmonic of the magneticflux waveform iDyr : O/ sinot and multiplying by ly'1k,,1,i.e. ey : Nlk-14*-!,t :2rf
dt
N{c-1Qy cosolt
The magneticflux (D1is expressed by eqns(2.19) and (2.21). The rms value is obtainedby dividing the peak value2n f N1k.tQ f of the EMF by y8,, i.e. Et: nrtf N1k*1Q1: nt[2pNtk-rQfn": kErL" (2.29)
where the EMF constant (armatureconstant)is kB : ntf2pNyk-1Qy
(2.30)
The same form of eqn (2.29) can be obtained on the basis of the developed torqueTa : mrElI"l(2trn") in which 74 is accordingto eqn (2.26). For the drum type winding the winding factor k-1 :1.
42
MAGNET BRUSHLESS MACHINES AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT
2.6 Lossesand efficiency 2.6.1 Stator winding losses

The stator (armature) winding resistanceper phasefor the d.c. current is
R7d.:
Nil.-,.,
a,pauosa
(2.31)
is the averagelength where l/1 is the number of armaturetums per phase,11.,,., of turn, c,ois the numberof parallel currentpaths,a- is the numberof parallel conductors, o1 is the electric conductivityof the armatureconductorat given (for a copper conductorot r= 57 x 106 S/m at 20"C and o1 = temperature 47 x 706 S/m at 75"C), and so is the conductorcross section. The average leneth of the armatureturn is -- 2Lt + lun ! Iuut 11o,,
(2.32)
is the length in which l1;,-, is the length of the inner end connectionand l1ou7 of the outer end connection. core) For a.c. curuent and statorwinding distributedin slots (ferromagnetic of bars (rashouldbe divided into the resistance the statorwinding resistance of the end connectionsfir", dial portions of conductors)R16 and resistance
Rt : Rn *
Rr":
ly't aosa
(2L;ktn I ltn I luut) x k111R14" Q.33)
For where k16 is the skin-effectcoefficientfor the stator(annature)resistance. winding and ur.(r) : ,(r') or 13: 1 [149]: a double-layer
k t r y , : p r ( r )+
where
-(v.'";)'] t4#
vr({r)
sinh 26r * sirr2{r cos2{1
qinhF' - sin F, -''coshq, -cos{r
(2.34)
p r ( d r ): r cosh2{1
i 'l r r ,/ \F \ r,/ \
(2.3s) (2.36) (2.37)
7rI F"ot
011
43
nfid m4 is the number of conductors per slot arranged above each other in two layers (this must be an even number), 7 is the phase angle between the currentsof the two layers, / is the input frequency,bpon is the width of all the conductors in a slot, b11is the slot width andh, is the height of a conductorin the slot. If there artetT"lconductorsside by side at the sameheight of the slot, they are taken as a single conductor carrying n";-times greatercurrent. In general,for a three-phase winding ? : 60o and
:p,(r) krR . (4f
+)vr(6r)
(2.38)
For a chordedwinding (w"(r) < r (r)) and ? : 600
- y'lr)-3,.] t - 3(r k* xer((r) *l*?'-"'l v,re,t lri 3

L [r4el.
e.3sl
The skin-effect coefficient k16 for hollow conductorsis given, for example, in
(a) If m"1: 1 and 1 : 0, the skin-effectcoefficientkyp : pr({r) (the same as for a cagewinding). (b) Ifl : 0, the currentsin all conductorsare equal and
ktn= q\t)
+ -:!'_:Vr(r)
J
-2--1
(2.40)
For small motors with round armatureconductorsfed from power frequencies of 50 or 60H2, Rt x Rta. The armature winding lossesare
(2.4r)
LPw : ruISRr = mlllRla.kyp
(2.42)
Since the skin effect is only in this part of the conductor which is located in the slot - eqn (2.33), the armaturewinding lossesshould be multiplied by the coefficient
kn * lu. I (2Li) * 11"6 I (2L.i) 1-t lu"l(2Li) + tt*t l(2Li)

rather than by k1a.
(2.43)
44
AXIAL FLUX PERMAI{ENT MAG]VET BRUSHLESS MACHINES
2.6.2
Statorcorelosses
The magnetic flux in the stator (armature) core is nonsinusoidal. The rotor PM excitation systemproducesatrapezoidalshapeof the magneticflux density waveform. The statorwindings are fed from switchedd.c. sources with PWM or square wave control. The applied voltage thus contains many harmonics which are seenin the stator flux. The eddy current lossescan be calculatedusing the following classicalformula
"ja 1ztll.n,p.t LP, + *-,,1 ," : "^ 0 PF" n I "''le'-,,

-2 - '; ^_
,m
#f
- B?,,,1q7, d2p,mp"lB2-,,
(2.44)
where oF", dF", pp" andlmlle arethe electricconductivity,thickness,specific density and mass of laminationsrespectively, n are the odd time harmonics, Brnrn and B,nrn arethe harmonic componentsof the magnetic flux density in the r (tangential) and z (normal) directions and
(38*"2)'2 + (3B,nA)2 B2r-r, + Blr,
(58ry!:\2 +(!F-,i)2
DmrT T Dm.z1
Q.451
is the cofficient o.f distortion of the magneticfux density. For qa : 1, eqn (2.44)expresses the eddy currentlosses undersinusoidal magneticflux density. In a similar way, the hysteresis losses can be expressedwith the aid of Richter'sformula, i.e.
rr O O
LPnp" :
r];r,rp"\rr2lal,",
It,t, n_1
+ 82,-",1 (2.46)
{ t-: - trr tr,lb'-,t * IJ'-r1)r1'4 100
wheree,:7.2ro2.0mal(]Hkg) foranisotropic laminations with4o/o Si, e : 3.8 m4l1Hkg) for isotropic laminationswith2o/oSi and e : 4.4to 4.8 m4l(H kg) for isotropicsiliconlesslaminations. Eqns (2.44) and (2.46) exclude the excesslosses(due to magnetic anomaly) and lossesdue to metallurgicaland manufacturing processes. There is a poor correlationbetweenmeasured core lossesand thosecalculatedusing classical methods.The lossescalculatedaccordingto eqns(2.44) and (2.46) are lower than those obtainedfrom measurements.The coefficient of additional core
Principlesof AFPM machtnes
45
lossesko6 ) 7 can help to obtain a better agreementof predicted and measured core losses LPtp": koa(LP"r" * LP1rp") (2.47)
If the speciJiccore lossesare known, the stator core losses LPt p" can be calof teeth and yoke, culatedon the basisof the specificcore lossesand masses i.e.
t r ,,4/3
LPtp"
: ar'z'o(jo)
Bl om 1 B! 1m1 1 -t k o,1, lkoa1 ol
(2.48)
where kad.t ), \ and ko6, ) 1 are the factors accounting for the lncreaseln lossesdue to metallurgical and manufacturingprocesses,L11lso is the specific core loss in Wkg at I T and 50H2,.B11is the magnetic flux density in a tooth, B1o is the magnetic flux density in the yoke, m11is the mass of the teeth, and m1, isthe mass of the yoke. For teeth ko6 : 1.7 to 2.0 and for the yoke k o d ,:s 2 . 4 t o 4 . 0 l l 4 7 l .
2.6.3
Core loss finite element model
The core losseswithin the stator and rotor are calculatedusing a set of finite element method (FEM) models, assuming constant rotor speedand balanced three-phasearmature currents. The eddy current and hysteresislosses,within the cores,in the 2D FEM including distorted flux waveforrnscan be expressed by eqns(2.44) and(2.46). The field distribution at several time intervals in the fundamental current cycle is neededto createthe magneticflux density waveforms. This is obtained of the statorcurrents.From by rotation of the rotor grid and phaseadvancement a field solution, for a particular rotor position, the magneticflux density at each element centroid is calculated. Three flux density componentsin an element can be obtained from a single FEM solution.
2.6.4
Lossesin permanent magnets
The electric conductivity of sinteredNdFeB magnetsis from 0.6 to 0.85 x 106 S/m. The electricconductivityof SmCo magnetsis from 1.1to 1.4 x 106 S/m. Since the electric conductivity of rare earth PMs is only 4 to 9 times lower than that of a copper conductor, the /ossesin conductive PMs due to higher harmonic magneticfields producedby the stator cannot be neglected. The most important losses in PMs are generatedby the fundamental frequency magnetic flux due to the stator slot openings. In practice, those losses
46
are only in AFPM machineswith slotted stator feromagnetic cores. The fundamental frequency of the magnetic flux density component due to the stator slot openingis
fsl: stPn
(2.4e)
where s1 is the number of statorslots,p is the number of pole pairs and n is the rotor speedin rev/s. The magneticflux densitycomponentdue to slot openingis [111]
Bst : ct,11B"1,kgBo,,o
(2.s0)
where Boro is the mean magneticflux density overthe slot pitch - eqn(2.4), kg is Cartercoefficient(l.2\ and
o':*(otn "#*)
,Jrr:05(1 1I\ .
s i n (6 1n r )
(2.51)
/;-, tI vL |ti'/
(2.s2)
l:b
htt
t1
g'
( 2.s3)
In the aboveequations (2.51), (2.52) and (2.53) b1ais the statorslot opening, gt : g * hm I ltrr"" is the equivalentair gap,tt is the slot pitch and h,r,ris the magnetthickness per pole. Assuming that the relative recoil magnetic permeabllity 1.t,.,r,.r 1, the power losses in PMs canbe expressed by the following equationobtainedfrom a 2D electromagnetic field distribution,i.e. tat2( B,t I LPptr -- irn,k-.; t-,
z lJ
\2
/
k ^ -rpn1
oP'\]
\HUHrr''
(2.s4)
whereap, is according to eqn (1.16)for u : 1, a : (t + j)k is according to eqn (l.l 1) for u : I, k is according to eqn (1.12)for u : 7, p ts according to eqn (1.6) for u : 7 and oppl is the electricconductivityof PMs. Eqn(2.5a) can also be usedto estimate the reactivelossesin PMs if ap, is replacedwith uy, according to eqn (1.17). The coefficientfor including the circumferentialcomponentof currentsinducedin PMs can be found as
47
ru2-rt^
I)ou,t
(2.ss)
l)in
where 0.5tr is the inducedcuffent loop spanand0.5(Do"t - Dn) is the radial length of the PM - seeeqn (1.30). The activesurfaceareaof all PMs (singlesidedmachines)is
SpM:
"onQ3,t
- D7")
(2.s6)
pole pitch r is accordingto eqn (1.9). wherethe average
2.6.5
Rotor corelosses
The rotor core losses,i.e. lossesin backing solid steeldiscs supporting PMs are due to the pulsating flux produced by rapid changesin air gap reluctance the stator teeth. as the rotor passes The magneticpermeability of a solid steeldisc varieswith the z axis (normal axis). To take into account the variable magnetic permeability and hysteresis lossesin solid ferromagneticdiscs, coefficientsa1u, axu accordingto eqns (1.16) and (1.17)must be replacedby the following coefficients:
_1
1
&RFe
,/,
l@_.a2p-a2y*
Fl
p'lu
( 2.s7)
axFe
p'l"
....:l
-t
rt
k2 l I
(2.58)
to Neyman[184],k" is L4 to 1.5,ax :0.8 to 0.9 according wherean: accordingto eqn (1.12) and B is accordingto eqn (1.6) for u :1. by a similar The power lossesin solid ferromagneticdiscs can be expressed equationto eqn (2.54),i.e.
: *o*r"*"ry LPzp" ffi)' *t r.
(2.se)
where appu is accordingto eqn (2.57) for u : 1, c is accordingto eqn (1.11) to eqn ( 1.6)for to eqn (1.12) for u : 1, B is according for u : 1, k is according u : l,8"7 is accordingto eqn (2.50),p, is the relativemagneticpermeability
48
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNET BRLTSHLESS MACHINES
and op. is the electric conductivity of the solid ferromagnetic disc. The frequencyin the attenuation coefficientk is accordingto eqn (2.49). Eqn (2.59) can also be usedto estimate the reactivelossesin the solid ferromagnetic disc if o,pp" is replacedwith a;p" accordingto eqn (2.58). The flux density B.r7 is accordingto eqns (2.50) to (2.53). The coefficientk" is accordingto eqn (2.55) and the surfaceof the disc is
sF.:
2.6.6
[{n3,, D?.)
(2.60)
Eddy current losses in stator conductors
For slottedAFPM machinesthe eddycurrent losses in the statorwinding are generally ignored as the magnetic flux penetratesthrough the teeth and yoke and only small leakageflux penetrates through the slot spacewith conductors. In slotless and coreless machines, the statorwinding is exposed to the air gap magneticfield. The motion of PMs relativeto the statorwinding producesan alternating field througheachconductorand induceseddy currents.In the case of a corelessAFPM machinewith a solid ferromagnetic rotor discs, there is also a tangentialfield componentB,n, inaddition to the axial field component Brr". This can lead to seriousadditionaleddy current loss especiallyat high frequency. Neglecting the proximity effect, the eddy current loss in the stator winding may be calculated by using a classicalequationsimilar to eqn (2.44) for calculationof the eddy cunent lossesin laminatedcores,i.e. r for round conductors[43]
Lp":
-2*
oc
+ B?,",] f rr2lB2^*, Titrar-.o,, ' n:7

Q.6l)
: |\ 12a'rn,onlB'^,t + B?,,"rln\t +I)

r for rectangularconductors[43]
) (Y)
AP" = ; ^f',r'^.o, I JP
2^ '1fo
n,2[82,n*, + B?r"r]
n-l
-1 3 p
L-. f'o'*"orlB?rrt
'r."tl'l'o + g?
(.2.62)
49
where d is the diameterof the conductor,a is the width of the conductor(parallel to the statorplane), o is the electric conductiviry p is specific mass density of the conductar, m"on is the mass of the stator conductorswithout end connectionsand insulation, / is the stator current frequency,Brr* andBrn" arcthe peak values of tangential and axial componentsof the magnetic flux density, respectively, andrla is the coefficientof distortionaccordingto eqn (2.45).
2.6.7
Rotational losses
The rotational or mecltanical losses LProt consist of friction lossesAPy, in bearings, windage lossesLP*tnd. and ventilation lossesLPu.nt (if there is a forcedcooling system),i.e.
LPr"t LPr, * LP,ttrd, * LPo"nt
(2.63)
There are many semi-empirical equationsfor calculating the rotational losses giving various degreesof accuracy. The friction losses in bearings of small machinescan be evaluatedusine the followine formula
A,Py,:0.06kya(m, * m"6)n
(2.64)
where kf,, : I to 3 m2ls2,rn, is the massof the rotor inkg, m"6 is the mass of the shaft in kg and n is the speedin rpm. The Reynoldsnumber for a rotating disc with its outer radius Roul is
R": pRou" I,L :
2trnpRf;u,
(2.6s)
where p is the specific density of the cooling medium, u : 1)r - 2trRo",1nis the linear velocity at the outer radius Rout, fr is the rotational speedand p is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid. Most AFPM machines are air cooled. The air density at I atm and 20"C is 1.2 kg/m3. The dynamic viscosity of the air at 1 atm and 20"C is F : 1.8 x 10-5 Pa s. The cofficient of drag for turbulent flow can be found as (2.66) The windage losses for a rotating disc are
: LP-rnd.
)c
ypQnfit @u.,,- R\n)
(2.67)
50
where fi.r7,is the shaft diameter. AFPM machinesare usually designed without a cooling fan so that the ven: tilation lossesAP",unr 0.
2.6.8
Lossesfor nonsinusoidalcurrent
Higher time harmonicsgenerated produce additional by static converters losses.The higher time harmonicfrequencyin the statorwinding is n/ where fr:5,7,1I,.... The armature windinglosses, the corelosses, andthe stray lossesare frequency-dependent. The mechanicallossesdo not dependon the shapeof the input waveform. If the stator winding and stator core losseshave been calculatedfor fundamental frequency, thefrequency-dependentlossesof an invefter-fed motor or generatorloaded with a rectifier can be found as o stator (armature)windins losses:
oc
APr., - \z . LPr*,:
*tD
rt:l
linRy,,x m1R16,1LlZ,ttt*,
n-l
(2.68)
o stator(armature) core losses

co oo
L,P,r;-
Z-z
AP, ,-- : lA,P,.--l--, \" )"-' /J
t_l
/Vt,\2
\V, )
n-B'7
(2.69)
where k16,, is the a.c.armatureresistance skin effect coefficientfor n,f , Io, is the higher harmonic rms armaturecurrent, [r, is the higher harmonic inverter is the ratedvoltage,[APrp.,.]n:l are the statorcore losses outputvoltage,V1r. for n : 1 and rated voltase.
2.6.9
Efficiency
Thetotalpowerlosses of anAFPM machine are AP : LP:.- * APrr'" * LPzp" + LPzM + LP" -f LProt The fficiency is
rD olrt
Q.70)
P,6 * L'P
(2.71)
where Po6 is the mechanicaloutput power for a motor and the electrical output power for a generator.
5l OVER[XCITTD CTNTRATOR RL LOAD
UNDTRIXCITTD GTNERATOR RC LOAD o> Y >-90'
-l-
o<Y <go'
,9 g
il cr
trod:Io sinY
UNDTREXCITID MOTOR RL *gO'>Y >- 180'

Figure 2.13.
OVTRIXCITID MOTOR
pn
9 O ' < Y< 1 8 0 '

coordinate system.
Location of the armature current l" in d-q
2.7
Phasordiagrams
The synchronousreactanceof a synchronousmachine (sine-wavemachine) is defined asthe sum of the armaturereaction (mutual) reactanceXo4, Xon and stator (armature)leakagereactanceX1, i.e.
r in the d-axis
Xsd,: Xo4 I X1
(2.72)
r in the q-axis
X"q: Xon * Xt
(2.13)
When drawingphasor diagrams of synchronousmachines,two arrow systems areused: (a) generatoralrow system,i.e. E.r : Vr i-IoRt * jloaX"a + jloqx"q
52
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES : Vr f I"a(Rt * jX,a) *I"q(R4 * jX"q) (b) consumer(motor) arrow system,i.e. Vr : E/ * Io-Rr * jIo6Xr,1+ jloqxr,l : E / - l T " a ( R t* j X " a ) * l o q ( . R 1 * . i X " q )
(2.74)
(2.7s)
where
Io-Io6,*l6q
(2.76)
and
Ioa: Iosin'U 1oq : 1o cos \!
(2.71)
The angle V is betweenthe q-axis and armaturecurrent 1o. When the current arows are in the oppositedirection,the phasorsIo, l,r,L aadl.aqare reversed by 180". The sameappliesto the voltagedrops. The location of the armature current Io with respect to the d- and q-axis for generatorand motor mode is shownin Fig. 2.13. Phasordiagramsfor synchronousgeneratorsare constructedusing the generator arrow system. The same system can be used for motors, however, the consumerarrow systemis more convenient. An overexcitedgenerator(Fig. 2.I4a) deliversboth active and reactivepower to the load or utility grid. An underexcited motor (Fig. 2.lab) drawsboth activeand reactivepower from the line. For example,the load culrent I" (Fig. 2.14b ) lagsthe voltagephasorV1 by the angle$. An overexcited motol consequently, draws a leadingcurrent from the circuit and delivers reactivepower to it. In the phasordiagramsaccordingto Fig. 2.141116] the statorcore losses have been neglected. This assumptionis justified only for power frequency machineswith unsaturatedarmaturecores. For an underexcited synchronous motor (Fig. 2.lab) the input voltage I projectionson the d andq axesare 7rsin6:IuqX"n-IoaRt -I cos6 E.f t Io6X"4 t IoqRl
(2.78)
)J
jl"X,
Figure2.14. Phasor diagrams (a) overexcited generator ofsalient-pole synchronous machine: (generator (b) underexcited arrowsystem); motor (consumer arrowsystem).
(a) jl"a4o
<_
ill"o
+--
Figure 2. 15. Equivalent circuit per phaseof an AFPM synchronousmachine: (a) for generating mode; (b) for motoring mode. Stator core losseshave been neglected.
where d is the load angle betweenthe voltage V1 andEMF Ep (q-axis). For an overexcitedmotor
V 1s i n S : I o n X " n * I o 6 R 1
I/r cos 6 : Ef - IodX"d, * IoqRt
(2.7e)
AXIAL FLUX PERMAN ENT MAGNETBRUSH LESSMACHI NES The currentsof an overexcitedmotor
',u u
t 1
V r ( X " o c o s d- R r s i nd ) - E I X " ,
xr6x"ns- R'2,
(2.80)
',' t ' l _ V r ( R 1 c o s 6 + X " 6 s i n d ) X"6X"qR21
- EfRt
(2.81)
are obtainedby solving the set of eqns(2.78). The rms armaturecurrentas a functionof V1,81, X"d, X",r, d, and R1 is
Vr I*:ffi+lfu- X"aX"q *
f(X"n cos6
R?
- Rtsind) - Ef X,n1' + l(/?r cosrI * X"4 sin 6) E f Rr]2 (2.82)
The phasordiagram can also be used to find the input electric power. For a motor
Pin : mlVylo cos @ - rnlVy(Io,n cos d - 1"a sin d) Thus, the electromagnetic power for a motor mode is (2.83)
P"Ln ';;;"ff;;;,ff)&",: x"q)t Lprp. eB4)

On the basis of phasor diagrams(Fig. 2.14), equivalentcircuits of a AFPM machinecan be drawn (Fig. 2.15). synchronous
2.8
Sizing equations
The main dimensionsof a double-sided PM brushless motor with internal (a) the electric disc rotor can be determined using the following assumptions: and magnetic loadings are known, (b) the number of tums per phaseper one stator is Nr; (c) the phasearmaturecurrent in one stator winding is 1o; (d) the back EMF per phaseper one statorwinding is 81. The peak line current density at the average radius per one statoris expressed by eqn (2.15) in which the radiusmay be replacedby an average diameter
55
80000
100000 Figure 2.16. Outer diameter D6a1 zs a {tnction of the output power Po,1 and parameter ki7 for e : 0.9, k-1q cosQ : 0.84, n" - 1000 rpm: 16,67rev/s and B*nA^ : 26, 000 TA/m.
D :0.5(D^"t + Din) :0.5D^"t(7 -t ka)
(2.8s)
where Doul is the outer diameter, Dan is the inner diameter of the stator core and ka : DinlD^ft (according to eqn (2.20)). Thus, ^ tant: A{2mtloNr "D^,^r + kd)
(2.86)
The EMF induced in the stator winding by the rotor excitation system, according to eqns (2.29) and(2.21) has the following form
: Ef : nrf2n"pN1k.yQ7 !rtn"Ntk,1B^nD2our$ n3)

The apparent electromagnetic power in two stators is S.r,n :
e.87)
m1(281)1": mtEf (21")

_2
ik-1n"8*sA*DZdG
+ ki\
- k2d)
(2.88)
For series connection the EMF is equal to 2Ey and for parallel connection the current is equal to 2Io. For a multidisc motor the number "2" should be replacedby the number of stators.Putting
56
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRTJSHLESS MACHINES
,tr:
r ( 1+ k , i 1 - k : i )
( 2.8e)
the apparentelectromagneticpower is
S elrn : n2 k 11k*1n rngArnDZut
"B
(2.e0)
The apparentelectromagneticpower expressed in terms of active output power is thus

\ , e etnt -
Pout
f -
,/ cos g
(2.er)
where thephase EMF-to-phase voltage ratio is Ey

I/
(2.e2)
v1
Formotors e < 1 and for generators e ) 1. In connectionwith eqns(2.90) and(2.91), the PM outer diameter(equalto the outer diameter of the stator core) is ,, ,l
ll o,
cPout
UOUI
\l r'2k pk *p, B ^nA -r7 coso
r? q3)
The outer diameterof PMs is the most importantdimensionof disc rotor PM motors. SinceDo,1 o, i/P""t the outer diameterincreases rather slowly with the increaseof the output power (Fig. 2.16). This is why small power disc motors have relatively large diameters.The disc-type construction is preferred for medium and large power motors. Motors with output power over l0 kW have reasonable diameters. Also, disc constructionis recommended for a.c. servomotors fed with high frequencyvoltage. The electromagnetic torqueis proportionalrc D!,r, i.e.
D" t e|m
,S"7- cOSV
)on
"
)--
: T kok -, D3ou, B ^n Arn cosv
(2.e4)
4 tt t Ls
where P"1* is the active electromagneticpower and V is the anglebetweenthe stator current Io and EMF 81.
Prr'nciplesof AFPM nachines
57
2.9
Armature reaction
The magneticfluxes produced by the stator (armature) can be expressedin a similar way as the field excitationflux - eqn (2.19),i.e. r in the d-axis
t
Qod: aBrnod.t"
-n 2 tL o, l ),
2
R?,
7T ""**'p
(2.es)
r in the q axis )
Qoq: }"*on',;'"t ,
aO'r-R?n
(2.e6)
where Bmad1 is the peak value of the first harmonic of the stator (armature reaction) magnetic flux density in the d-axis and Brno4 is the peak value of the first harmonic of the stator magnetic flux density in the q-axis. The stator linkage fluxes are r in the d-axis
*o:
ry #*tk,oteaa: i*rk-t1B-,"ar|
e.s7l
r in the q axis
, I', o : *& \/2
k-te o s: l N rn -,,? o *-- ,!R?' "' iBmaqT--*f v,
- R?'
(2'98)
where l/r is the number of statorturns per phaseand k.,1 is the winding factor for the fundamentalspaceharmonic. Neglecting the magnetic saturation,the first harmonic of the statormagnetic flux density normal componentsare r in the d-axis
Bmailr: kydB,ood,: kya\aFoa: kro#*f
Yr"o
Q.gg)
58
r
MAGNET BRUSHLESS MACHINES AXTAL FLUXPERMANENT in theg-axis
B - o q t - k l a B - o d- k l a A q F o o :t r t u * y Q ! ! ! , . n qaftP
(2.100)
per unit surfacein where rn1 is the number of statorphasesand the perrneance the d- and q-axisare
/\t1
\.-\ -
/\0
-lto
I
/\q
l'o
ea
(2.r0r)
(2.99)and (2.100)theformfactors of armaturereaction In the aboveequations the ratios are defined as of the first harmonic amplitude-to-maximum value of normal componentsof armature reaction magnetic flux density in the rJ- and q-axisrespectively, i.e.
, t'Jd BôdL Bôrl ".lQ B-oql Bn,oq
(2.r02)
The equivalent air gaps in the d- and q-axis for surface configuration of PMs are r for a stator with ferromasnetic core
g' : qkckrot I
nM
(2.1 03)
tt--
g'n: skck"atqlhxll
(2.104)
r for a coreless stator
. * o.tr-; e':2 [{n H)

-t h'vl 9n: 2l(g + 0.51,,)
(2.l os)
Q.ra6)
is the axial height of the PM where f,., is the statorwinding axial thickness,h1,1 andp,rr"" is the relative recoil permeability of the PM. To take into accountthe
Principles oJ'AFPM machines
59
effect of slots, the air gap (mechanical clearance)for a slotted ferromagnetic core is increased by Carter coefficientkc > l accordingto eqn (1.2). The saturation of the magnetic circuit can be included with the aid of saturation factors k"ot ) 1 in the d-axis and k"o4 ) 1 in the g-axis. For a coreless stator the effect of magnetic saturationof the rotor ferromagnetic discs (core) is negligible. The MMFs fo4 and fon in the d-axis and q-axis are
m t t/'l 1\ 1K61 , tad '1T p
Tn1 V Z 1\1K,1tr1 'aq
li rr t
rad-
(2.101)
T u aq -1fp
(2.108)
where Io6 and Ion arethe d- and q-axis stator (armature)currentsrespectively. The armaturereaction (mutual) inductanceis calculatedas r in the d-axis
Lad:
vd.
lad
mrpo-
7f
(Yy)'@58-r,,
(2toe)
r in the o-axis
T"aq
\trq
laQ
TnILLO-
7T
(:F)'
(R3*:, R?,) r,n
(2110)
For p,,ec = 1 and surface configuration of PMs (kf a : kf n : 1), the d- and g-axis armaturereaction inductancesare equal, i.e. l/l/r/c-r\
, /
r d - I L_ r -mtq\i\ r a :_ L La ae
' (n3,, - R?,)
(2.1 l 1)
For surfaceconfigurationof PMs kfa: kfn : I 196]. For other configurations, equations for MMFs in the d- and q-axis will contain reaction factors kya* kfq196l. The armaturereaction EMFs in the d- and q-axis are Ead,: nt/2f Nrk*rQoa
(2.112)
60
AXIALFLUX PERMANENT MAGNET BRUSHLESS MACHINES
Table 2.1.
Armature reaction equations for cvlindrical and disc-tvoe machines
Quantity
Armature reaction magnetic flux in the d-axis Amature reactlon magnetic flux in the q-axis Pemeance ofthe air gap in the d-axis Permeance ofthe air gap in the q-axis Permeanceof the air gap per surface ofone pole in the d-axis Permeanceof the air gap per surface areaof one pole in the q-axis
Cylindrical machine
Disc-typemachine
Qo4 :
1B-o41rLi
oua: lB,noatff(R\,, - R7,,) - R7,,) Qou: ? Bn,unt fi(R|*t
Qo, :
z Brrru,rlrLi
:T E 9 Z r L , A ,' ,g ,
- R?^) ô: #*fi( RZ- ,

1Ls2 r
'
l,o2-r 9;, n
o'r"'"u'
1p2
R?")
\ ,
l/J)
\-
c.9 sit
Armaturereaction feactance in the d-axis

Amature reactlon reactance in the q-axis Armature reaction inductance in the d-axis Armature reactron inductance in the q-axis
\' tr"rt
D",l ta
Y,-
Eoa I a,t
' (Nrk,"t\2 4 , n , t r,n l U # r # tr 'I , ,,
:2mtp,of
Nr Au,r
z R2..
k.ra
X,"r: 1, o q
Y "
-Eaq ,oa
\2
:2mttt,tf({*.t)'Wo,,
r uod
Vo,t I,n-
f"u: H
'
- 2 n r- ' r r , r 0 4 d ' t ' , , k r,t .l r'D
/ A ' rA . , r \ 2 - m.rpo+
\ r, I r '!
R f , , , - R 7 ,t,. ,
ot "ta
n.o
-'2rrrrl,.uJ*{?f
.,,,
: nL1 lr(r+
('' ,,')'Wr,,
61
Eoq : nt/2f N1k*1@,o
(2.rr3)
where the armaturefluxes Qo6 and Qon areaccordingto eqns(2.95) and(2.96). The armature reaction reactances can be calculatedby dividing EMFs .tr"a arrdE aqaccordingto eqns(2.112) and(2.1I 3) by currentsI o4 andI on,i.e. r in the d-axis
Xad.:2trfLoa
Eo,l, I od.
- 2m, u^, ( Ntkn\2 ''""\ p /
- R?,) (R3,, ,d
*Id
(2.1t4)
r in the q-axis
Eon Jas
Xaq:2trfL"n :
:2mr - ' un, -" ( \
Nft-r\2 p /
-.
- R7), (R2,,
-Kfn
g;
(2.rts)
Table 2.1compares the armature reaction equationsbetween conventional cylindrical machinesand disc-type machines.
2.10 AFPM motor motor 2.10.1 Sine-wave

The three-phasestator winding with distributed parametersproduces sinusoidal or quasi-sinusoidaldistribution of the MMF. In the caseof inverter operation all three solid stateswitchesconduct current at any instant of time. The shapeof the stator winding waveforms is shown in Fig. 1.3b. The sine-wave motor works as a PM synchronousmotor. For a sinusoidalexcitation (synchronousmachine) the excitation flux can be found on the basisof eqn (2.19) or (2.21),the EMF per phaseinducedby PM rotor can be found on the basis of eqn (2.29) and the electromagnetictorque on the basis of eqn (2.26). The EMF constant kB and torque constant k7 are by eqns (2.30) and (2.27) respectively. expressed
62
AXIAL FLUX PERMANE]{T MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES
2.10.2
Square-wave motor
PM d.c. brushless motors with square-wave stator current (Fig.. 1..3a) are predominantly designed with largeeflectivepole-arc coefficients, a)"q,, where : *f,"n' br,(r)I r (r) . Sometimes concentrated statorwindings and salientstator poles are used.For the Y-connected windings,as in Fig. 2.17, only two of the threemotor phasewindings conductat the sametime, i.e. i"as (TlT4), ioAC (T1T6), i"s6 (T3T6), i"pn (T3T2), i"sa (T5T2), i,,sB (T5T4), etc. At the on-time interval (120") for the phasewindings A and B, the solid state switchesT1 and T4 conduct(Fig.2.l7a). when Tl switchesoffthe current freewheels through diode D2. For the off-time interval both switchesTl and T4 areturned-offand the diodesD2 and D3 conductthe armaturecurrent which chargesthe capacitorc. If the solid statedevicesare switched at relatively high frequency, the winding inductance keeps the on-off rectangular cunent waveforms smooth. For d.c. currentexcitationur * 0, eqn(2.75) is similar to that describinga steadystatecondition of a d.c. commutatormotor, i.e.
V4.: Elr r ]_2RrIGo)
(2.r16)
where 2fi1 is the sum of two-phase (for Y-connected resistances in series phase windings), and Eyr-t is the sum of two phase EMFs in series,V;" is the d.c. input voltage supplying the invefter and I["q) is the flat-topped value of the square-wavecur:rentequal to the inverter input curent. The solid switch voltage drops have been neglectedin eqn (2.116). The phasoranalysisdoes not apply to this type of operationsincethe armaturecurrentis nonsinusoidal. For a rectangular distribution of Brns : const with the pole shoe width bp { , being included,the excitationflux is
- R?.) *fn): ol"d u,*n#(R3,,
(2.117)
For a square-waveexcitation the EMF induced in a single turn (two conductors) is 2B*nLiu : ApnB,noL;r. Includingbo andfringing flux, the EMF for Nrk*t turns e.1 : 4pnNrk.urc'l"q)B,ns+,(R|,,, - R7) : 4pnN1k-yQt7'q). For the Y-connection of the armaturewindings,as in Fig. 2.l7,two phasesare conductingat the sametime. The line-to,line EMF of a Y-connected squarewave motor is
- n?,)" Eyr-L : 2ef : 8pl/rk.r al'q) B,,n(nl2p)(R3*,

: BpNlk-1Ffn', : k E,t.t t, (2.118)
63
I I IT
C
dc
I I
* o '.t- f r .
f "
I I
I ! I uzl .l
lr"
I
\T
\ I
'4
I o,,
l-.>
__)
\'.1 il]lf ""

(a)
tl tl
y.,'\
F,
Figure 2.17. Inverter currents in the stator winding ofa PM brushlessmotor: (a) currents ln phasesA and B for on*time and off-time intervals, (b) on-offrectangular current waveform.
where the EMF constant or armatureconstantks4" is k*d.: lPN1k-1Q\fq)
(2.rre)
The electromagnetictorque developedby the motor is P"t* 2rn,

,1 ,
Eyur,I["q) 2nn
= lply'r k-rotfn'If"o) : kra"I|"n)

7f
(2.r20)
motor is where the torque constant of a square-wave
kTd":*:lnnlvrt-rofn)
(2.121)
64
and I;"'f is the flat-top value of the phasecurrent. The ratio Ta of a square-wavemotor-to-Ta qf a sinewavemotor is
,:"' :!C!i!['o' z.-;rtaf
I"
r;q) -^cefq) =''o*,

L
(2.t22)
Assuming the same motor (*l"n' : ct6)and, the samevalues of air gap magnetic flux densities,the ratio of the square*wave motor flux to sinewavemotor flux is
5 ^( of r l qtt- (-sa) q i " q )u t ,l |Q d l ( R \ " , J _ - R?,) 1 ,^ . ^^. t t'tzr)
oi-ffi:1t,
where [96]
r, : *.u,(i.)
and
(2.124)
- R?,) Q7 : @yr: aikSB,nn*rrO3,,
(2.r2s)
on the basis of eqns (2.118) and (2]20) the torque*speed characteristic can be expressed in the following simplified form
fl
:t-t-
Io
T,l
no
Insh
Td"t
(2.126)
where the no-load speed, locked rotor armature current and stall torque are respectively
n o - W,. kE
I""n-i
vd,
Trlrt:
kr6.Io"h
(2.r27)
For half-wave operationi? : Rr while for full-wave operationR : 2Rt. Note that eqn (2.126) neglectsthe armaturereaction, rotational and switching losses. The torque-speed characteristics are shown in Fig. 2.18. Eqns (2.126) and, (2.127)arevery approximate and cannotbe usedin calculationof performance characteristics of practicalPM d.c. brushless motors. Theoreticaltorque-speed (Fig. 2.18a) differ from practical characteristics characteristics (Fig. 2.18b). The continuous torque line is set by the maximum rated temperatureof the
65
(a)
()
f
m
T
o f g"
peak stalltorque peak rated torque
cont. stall torque cont. rated torque
speed Figure 2.18. tical.
raled speed
speed
Torque-speed characteristicsofa PM brushlessmotor: (a) theoretical, (b) prac-
motor. The intermittent duty operation zone is bounded by the peak torque line and the maximum input voltage. The rms stator current of a d.c. brushlessmotor for a 120o squarewave (T : 2r lw) is
T-
LO.
+ 1,"'"
iz(t)dt:
?l::;"
/fotlzot (2.t28)
1 r ' \ - r(ss) to, 6;)
2.ll 2.ll.l
AFPM synchronous generator Performance characteristics of a stand alone generator
An AFPM machine driven by a prime mover and connectedto an electric load operates as a stand alone synchronousgenerator. For the same synchronous reactancesin the d'and g-axis Xsd. : X"q : X" : aL", and load impedanceper phase
.l
Zr,:Rr*jwLp-i
^ uaC
(2.tze)
66
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRT]SHLESS MACHINES
the input current in the stator (armature)winding is ,-EI The voltage acrossthe output terminals is
(2.l 30)
,r:r"W
(2.r3r)
characteristicsof EMF per phase t;, phase voltage vt, stator (load) current Io, output power Po6, inpttt power P;,r, efficiency q and power factor pf : cosl versusspeedn ofa standaloneAFPM synchronous generator for inductive loadZy : Rr * jaLr areplottedinFtg.2.l9.
2.11.2
Synchronization with utility grid
An AFPM synchronousgeneratorcan be synchronizeddirectly (connected in parallel) with the utility grid. The number of pole pairs is usually minimum2p: 6, so that to synchronize a 6-polegenerator with a 50Hz power (infinite system bus), the speedof the prime mover must be n : 60(f lp) : 60(50/3) : 1000 rpm. For 2p : 72 and the samefrequency, the speedwill drop to n : 500 rpm. In general,direct parallelingof AFPM generators requireslow speed prime movers.Before connecting the generator to the infinite bus, the incoming generatorand the infinite bus must have the same: r voltage r frequency r phasesequence r phase In power plants,thoseconditionsare checkedusing a synchroscope. AFPM synchronousgeneratorshave recently been used in distributed generator systemsas microturbine- driven high speed self-excited generators. A microturbineis a small, singleshaftgasturbine of which the rotor is integrated with a high speedelectricgenerator (up to 200 000 rpm), typically ratedfrom 30 to 200 kW. If an AFPM generator is drivenby a microturbine,in most cases the speedexceeds20 000 rpm. The high frequency current of the generator must first be rectified and then inverted to obtain the same frequency as that of the power system. To minimize the higher harmoniccontentsin the stator windings,an activeratherthan passive rectifier is used(Fig. 2.20).
67
(a,
Ef
t-
(b)
l1
v1
(c)
Port P,n
Figure 2 .19. Characteristicsof a stand alone AFPM synchronousgenerator for inductive load (a) EMF .try perphase andphasevoltage l/r versusspeedn, (b) load cunent Zr, : Rr,l juLt 1o versus speedn, (c) output power Pout andinput power P;, versus speedn, (d) efficiency 4 and power factor pf: cos @versus speed z.
active rectifier
cl+
Figure 2.20.
Power circuit of a microturbine driven AFPM generator.
68
AXIAL FLUX PERMANEI,IT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHTNES
Numericalexample 2.1
Find the armaturecurrent, torque, electromagneticpower and winding losses of the S802FAFPM d.c. brushless servomotor (Table 1. 1) at n : 2500rpm and input voltage230 V (line-to-line). Solution The line to line EMF is
: t / J k ' e a:" n L.st-L fi * :t^^" +P : 2p,24Y l(X)t) ttO

: 42 V 11000 because theEMF constant kEd.. rpm is for thephase EMF. Assuming thatthed.c.busvoltage is approximately equal to theinputvoltage,the amaturecurrentat2500rpm is
ro
TGq) -
230, 278.24 : 7.74 A 2 x 0.76
per phaseis 0.76 0. because the resistance The shaft torque at2500 rpm is T : kra"Ilss) : 0.64 x 7.74: 4.95Nnr because the torque constantis k76": 0.64 NmiA. The electromagneticpower (only two phasesconduct current at the same time) is PeIm: E1r. rlf,"') :218.24 x 7.74t 1689W The windine lossesfor 2 x 0.76 O line-to-lineresistance are LP,J : (2 x 0.76) x 7.742- 91 W

A three phase,Y-connected, 2p : 6 pole, AFPM brushless motor has the surfacePM of inner radius Rtn : 0.06 m, outer radius Rout : 0.11 m and the pole shoe width-to-pole pitch ratio a.i : 0.84, the number of turns per phase-Aft : 222, the winding factor k-1 : 0.926 and the peak value of the air gapmagneticflux densityBms :0.65 T. Neglectingthe armature reaction, find approximatevalues of the EMF, electromagnetictorque developedby the power at n : 1200rym andrms currentIo : 73.6 motor and electromagnetic A for:
Principlesof AFPM machines (a) sinewaveoperation (V : 0o) (b) 120" squarewave operation Solution (a) sinewave operation at V : 0o The speedin rev/s n: 1200 :20lrev ls 60
69
The form factor of the excitation field
r, : lsinff : !,,i"9+ll : 1.233

The excitation flux according to eqn (2.19) is
oy: o;r :1r
7tb
0.00114Wb 1 . 2 3x 80 . 6 b x ! x e . I f - 0 . 0 6 2:)
where B,nsl : kf B*n.The EMF constant accordingto eqn (2.30) is kn : npt/iN1k,,o1Ly: 7T x g x \/, x 222 x0.96 x 0.00114: 6.452Vs The EMF per phaseaccording to eqn (2.29) is Ef : knn:0.6.452 x 20 :129V The line-to-line EMF for Y connectionis
: 223.5Y E1r,-L: JSnt : rt x L29

The torque constantsaccording to eqn (2.27) is kr:\pNtk-t@!: \/2x 3 x 2 2 2 x 0 . 9 6x 0 . 0 0 1 1 4 : 3 . 0 8 N m / A + \/2
The electromagnetictorque developedat 14 A according to eqn (2.25) is Ta: krlo: The electromagneticpower is : mlBylacosV : 3 x 729 x 13.6 x 1 : 5264.5W Perrn 3 . 0 8x 1 3 . 6: 4 1 . 9N m
7O
MACHII,{ES MAGNETBRUSHLESS AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT
where iU is the angle betweenthe EMF Ey and stator current Io. (b) 120" square-waveoPeration value of the phasecurrentaccordingto eqn (2.128)is The flat-topped
: 16.66 : ,,1|r": A t te.e If,"o) /U

to eqn(2.117)is flux according Theexcitation : 0.00122 wb x (0.tt2 - 0.062) ofn) : 0.84x 0.65x 6n" flux flux to sinewave The ratio of the square-wave
t;
r;
*fn)
o;
: o.oor22:1.02
0.00114
mode and that ai : 2ln : 0'6366 for sinewave Note that it hasbeenassumed oi the flux ratio is equalto al"q) - 0.84 for squarewave mode, For the srrne ! lkt. The EMF constantaccordingto eqn (2.119)is kE,t":BpN1k-1*fn': B x 3 x 222x0'96 x 0'00122:L2'43Ys
in series)accordingto eqn (2.1l8) is The line-to-line EMF (two phases
Ey t-L :
l '2 .4x 3
1200
ff
: 248.6 V
The torqueconstantaccordingto eqn (2.121)is krd,: r:0" 2n :12'43 2r - 1.g7gNm/A
torqueat ltss) : 16'66 A accordingto eqn (2'120) is The electromagnetic Ta : kra"Il"q) : 1'978 x 16'66 : 32'95 Nm poweris The electromagnetic Petm: Ett-rlf,"q) :248'6 x 16'66: 4140'6W
7l
Find the main dimensions,approximatenumber of turns per phaseand approximate cross section of the stator slot for a three-phase,double-sided,doublestator disc rotor PM brushless motor with a laminated stator core rated at: Po't : 75 kW VrL :460 V (Y connection),.f : 100 Hz, n" : 1500 rpm. The stator windings are connectedin series. Solution For / : 100 Hz andn": 1500lpm : 25 revlsthe numberof polesis 2p : g. Assumingka : Dn/Dout : IlJ7 the parameter kT,laccordingto eqn (2.89) is kD:
, phase for series For a 75 kW motor the product q cos$ x 0.9. The current connected statorwindings is
- rf a
:('.#) ['-
(*)']
: 0.131
P^rt 75 000 : 104.6 A x 0.9 m1(2Vgr1cos$3x 265.6
loading canbe aswhere 2V1 : 4601\/3 : 265.6 V. The electromagnetic sumedas Brnn: 0.65 T andArn: 40,000 A/m. The ratio e : Et lVr x 0.9 and the stator winding factor has been assumedk,,:r : 0.96. Thus, the stator outer diameter according to eqn (2.93) is
Dout:
0.9 x 75 000 :0.452rn a'2x 0.131x 0.96x 25 x 0.65x 40 000x 0.9
The inner diameter according to eqns (2.20) rs

Din:
D<vut
0.452 :0.261m,
\/3
Jz
The magnetic flux according to eqrr(2.21\ is

r ^/ ) o x0.65 x --l' x 0 . 4 5 2 2 (t Q'r : r Ex4 \
^ I :0.00555Wb (r/J)'/
The number of stator turns per phaseper stator calculated on the basis of line current density according to eqn (2.86) is n, _ nD*t(t + ka)A* _ 7rx0.453x 1t +tlrt)x ",4*rrf2h 4yffi^1g43 40000 _ *, -"'
72
AX]AL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES
The numberof statorturns per phaseper statorcalculatedon the basisof eqn (2.87) and(2.92)is ^r " eVt r{2f k",1Q I
=50 nt/1 x100 x 0.96x 0.00555

A doublelayer winding can be located,say,in 16 slotsper phase,i.e. s1 - 4g slots for a three phasemachine. The number of tums should be roundedto 48. This is an approximatenumber of turns which can be calculatedexactly only after performingdetailedelectromagnetic and thermalcalculations of the machine. The numberof slotsper pole per phaseaccordingto eqn (2.2) is s1 ''-2p.r - :4 ' )8 Bx3-'
0.9x 265.612
The number of statorcoils (double-layer winding) is the sameas the number of slots,i.e. 2pq1my: B x 2 x 3 :48. If the statorwinding is madeof four parallel conductors au : 4, the numberof conductors in a singlecoil for one parallel currentpath ar: 1 accordingto eqn (2.$ is
"'' - W,r)
A/ -
o,,,lVr
4 x 48
'' 14gJg7
1.)
The current density in the stator conductorcan be assumedJ, x 4.5 > 106 A/m2 (totally encloseda.c. machinesrated up to 100 kW). The cross section areaofthe statorconductoris
Io
DO-
104.6
aru Jo.
4x4.5
D.6I1mn]-
).
The stator winding of a 75 kW machine is made of a copper conductorof rectangular cross section. The slot fill factor for rectangular conductors and low voltagemachinescan be assumed to be 0.6. The crosssectionof the stator slot should, approximately,be x 12x2 5.811
0.6
= 233 mm2
where thenumber of conductors in a sinsleslotis 12 x 2 : 24.Theminimum stator slotpitchis
: t'î'n
ry
: -f:
m : 17'1 o'0171 rrrur
PrinciplesoJAFPM machines
73
The stator slot width can be chosento be ll.9 mm; this meansthat the stator slot depth is 23311L.9 = 20 mm, and the stator narrowest tooth width is crrnin : 17.1 - 11.9 : 5.2 mm. Magnetic flux densityin the narrowestpart of the stator tooth is B * s t r * i n - 0 ' 6 5 - x1 7 ' 1 :2'I4T B 7 t u n o-'
CImin 5.'Z
This is a permissible value for the narrowestpart of the tooth and silicon electrical steelwith saturationmasnetic flux densitv of 2.2 T. The maximum stator slot pitch is tr,no,: TDert ; : r x 0.453 48 : 0.0296 m: 2 9 . 6m m
The magnetic flux density in the widest part of the stator tooth is B7t'ni'' = B*nt"no' "rrr"* 0'65 x 29'6 : 1'09 r'ur T r 29.6- 1l-9
Numericalexample2.4
A 7.5-kg cylindrical core is wound of isotropic silicon steel ribbon. It can be assumedthat the magnetic field inside the core is uniform and the vector of the magnetic flux density is parallel to steel laminations. The magnitudes of magnetic flux density time harmonics are: BrnL - 1.7 T, B,n3 : 0.25 T, Brns : 0.20 T and B-7 : 0.05 T. Harmonicsn, > 7 are negligible. The electric conductivity of laminationsis op" : 3.3 x 106 S/m, specificmass densitypFe :7600 kg/m3, thicknessdF" :0.5 mm and Richter'scoefficient of hysteresis lossese : 3.8. Find the core lossesat 50 Hz. Solution Eddy-current losses The coefficient of distortion of the magnetic flux density according to eqn (2.45\ is 0.25\ 2 L?) 0 . 2 0 \2 L7) 0.05\ 2 : 1.258
r.t /
The eddy current lossesaccording to eqn (2.44) arc r specific lossesat sinusoidalmagnetic flux density
: Lp""i,
^=#
: \.29w/kg x 502 x 0.0005 x 1.72
74
AXIAL FLIJX PERMANEI{TMAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES
r specific losses flux density at nonsinusoidal magnetic Lp.: :2'04w/kg LP""i,n x n3:7'29 x 7'2582
r losses at sinusoidal magnetic flux density

LP"ri.n- Lp""inrrtFe:1.29 x 7.5 : 9.68W r lossesat nonsinusoidalmagnetic flux density LP" : Hysteresislosses The hysteresislossesmay be calculatedaccordingto eqn (2.46), in which Richter'scoefficientof hysteresis lossese : 3.8 r specific lossesat sinusoidalmagnetic flux density Ap"*Fu : 2.04 x 7.5 : 15.32W
Lryh,tn: 3'8x
"
x 1'72: 5'49wlkg 502
r specificlossesat nonsinusoidal magneticflux density LPn: LPlrin x 11]:5'49 x L2582: 8'69 Wlkg
r lossesat sinusoidalmagnetic flux density L P n " m : L p h " t n m p " , : 5 . 4 9x 7 . 5: 4 1 . 1 8 W r lossesat nonsinusoidal magneticflux density LPh: Lqnmp.: 8 . 6 9x 7 . 5 : 6 5 . 1 9 W
plottedagainstfrequency losses are shown Specificeddy currentandhysteresis inFig.2.2I. Total losses The eddy cun:entand hysteresis lossesat sinusoidalmagneticflux density are calculated as
75
. - t6 to
I
t4
50
I i/
AP "rin(0 Ap .(t)
l2 l0
R
-:
,
'. /'
r /?'
//
t' l/*
ii"ttr _ip _^r_{0

S.
:/./
o
.-/ / /- /
.r''
4 2 0l 0
" ",: """'

100
' :;-"'*'.....,-.
0
r00
Figure 2.21. 2.4.
Specific eddy-currentandhysteresislossesversusfrequency.Numerical example
APF""I^ :
LP""tn -l LPn"tn: 9.68 + 41.18 : 50.86W
The eddy curent and hysteresislossesat nonsinusoidalmagnetic flux density

afe
LPp.:
LP. * LP':
: 80.51 15.32 W + 65.19
Theratio of hysteresis*to-total losses is the same for both sinusoidal andnonmagnetic flux densiryi.e. sinusoidal
41.18
50.86 80.51
65.19 : 0.81
Numericalexample2.5
Find the power lossesin PMs and solid rotor backing steel disc of a singlesided AFPM with slotted stator at ambient temperature of 20oC. The inner diameterof PMs is D,;n: 0.14 m, the outer diameterof PMs is Doul : 0.242 m, number of poles 2p : 8, magnet width-to-pole pitch ratio is at : 0.75, height of surfacepermanentmagnet is hxy : 6 mm, air gap thicknessg : 1.2 mm, number of slots 5t : 36 and speed n : 3000 rpm. Assume the peak valueofthe air gapmagneticflux densityBms :0.71 conductivityof NdFeB PMs op- : 0.8 x 106 S/m at20oC, its relativerecoil magneticpermeability of solid disc op" : 4.5 x 106S/m at20oCand its Frrec:1.05, conductivity relativerecoil magneticpermeability1tr: 300.
76 Solution
AXIAL FLUX PERMANEI,{T MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHTNES
The average magneticflux density is Born : (2lr)B*n : (2ln) x 0.7 : 0.4661the average diameter D :0.5(Dout I D,n) :0.5(0.242 + 0.14) : pole pitch is r : nD lQp) : r0.Igll}: 0.191m, the average 0.075m, the :0.017 m. The frequency average slot pitch h : rDlsl : 7T0.191136 of the fundamental harmonic of the slot component of the magnetic flux density accordingto eqn (2.49) is
f "t : stpn: 36x 4 t
3#
: 72oo Hz.
The corresponding angularfrequencyis c,r"l: 217200: 45 238.9 radls. The equivalentair gap in the d-axis for kct : 1 accordingto eqn (2.103)is
q q0=6 st :0.0012+ 1 . 0 5 : 0.006914rn

: 0.546havebeen The parameters rc : 0.434,0a:0.041, | : 0.18 anda,"1 found on the basis of eqns (2.53), (2.52) and (2.51) respectively.The Carler coefficient is k6 :1.012 - eqns(1.2) and (1.3). Thus, eqn (2.50)givesthe magneticffux densitycomponentdue to slot openingas Bsr:0.546 x 0.041 x 1.012 x 0.446:0.01018 T The parameters k : 139.283 l/m for prrec:1.05, A : \lk - 0.0072m, :377.241 3 j139.2831lm,0: rlQ.Stt): rl(0.5 x 0.017) o : 1 3 9 . 2 8+ : j50.962 llm, n 386.668+ llm, as, 2.733 andaa, 0.366 for u : 1. havebeenfoundon the basisofeqns (1.12),(1.11),(1.6),(1.12),(1.16)and (1.17) respectively. The transverse edgeeffect coefficientk" accordingto eqn (2.55)is 0 . 5x 0 . 0 1 7 A'z:r*olqz llq l'u6l
The activesurfaceareaof PMs accordingto eqn (2.56) is Sp*r :035r - (0.5 x o.ta)21 : 0.023rn2 x l(0.5 x 0.242)2
The activelossesin PMs accordingto eqn (2.51is LPpv: 1
+ j139.2831 x 2 .7 3 3 x r.o stx ( 1 1 3 9 . 2 8 3 377.24r

)'
0.01018
" ( 0.4tr x 10 6 x 1.05)'
: 1r 8.2 ,, -1 39?!t x 0.023 w
Principles of AFPM machines The reactive power losses in PMs can be estimated as
77
aX' x 118.2: 15.8/VAr LQpm A,Pp1u: 3* aR, 2.733 For calculation of power lossesin the solid steel disc of the rotor, the magnetic flux densitycomponent due to slot openingsB"t : 0.01018T is the same.The relative magnetic permeability F, : 300 and conductivity of the disc op" : 4.5 x 106 S/m are different, so that the attenuationfactor (1.12) calculatedfor thesevalues will be k : 6194.6 1/m. The coefficientsaRFe : 1.451 and axFe -- 0.849 are calculated using eqns(2.57) and (2.58) for 471- 1.45 and (trx : 0.85. The remaining field parameters, i.e. a : 8982 -t j5265 llm, 13: n I (0.5tt) : r I (0.5 x 0.017: 377.241llm andrc: 8988* j5362 llm havebeenfound from eqns(1.11), (1.6) and (1.12)respectively. The surfacearea of the rotor disc according to eqn (2.60) is - 0.742): 0.031m2 SF": \ x (0.2a22 4' The active power lossesin the rotor disc according to eqn (2.59) is
x 1.081 x ffgYi4Tlf)' LPr.z:1' 1.4b1 2 ZrZ.z+1

\
0.0101s ,. 1 (o.4;ffi) \2 6194.6
" *;lou
: l8"tw x o'031
in PMs. of losses as for calculation The coefficients k, : 1.081is the same powerlosses as Thereactive in therotor disccanbe estimated
LQP.z-axFe' ^n 0'84q
ffitor.z:
lfr
: 10.8 x 118.2 VAr

Find the rotational loss of a 3000 rpm disc type machine with outer radius of the rotor Rout : 0.2 m, radius of shaft behind the rotor core ,R"7,: 0.025 m"7, : I.49 kg. The m, mass of the rotor m, : 2.72 kg and mass of the shaft. machine is naturally cooled with air. The ambient temperatureis 20" C. The coefficient of bearing friction is ky6 : 1.5. Solution The bearing friction lossesaccording to eqn (2.64) are
L,P1,:0.06 x 1.5x \2.72 + 1.49)
3000 60
18.96 W
78
The Reynoldsnumberaccordingto eqn (2.65) is Re:1.2, , 2n r-5|';r x 3ooo x 0.22 : 8.378 x 105 ;;
where the air density is p : 1.2 kglm2 and dynamic viscosity of the air is /l : 1.8 x 10-5 Pa s. The coefficientof drag accordingto eqn (2.66) is 3.87
"/:75=ffi*:4.228x10*3
The windagelossesaccordingto eqn (2.67) ue / 1 3000\ :) 25.17W LP*;,d -;x4.228x10-3xl.2x (Zn x = ) (0.25-0.025t 2 6Ul \ The rotationallossesare thus LP""t: 18.96+ 25.17: 44.13W
Chapter3 MATERIALS AND FABRICATION
3.1
Stator cores
machinesare made of laminatedsteelsor Statorcoresof AFPM brushless soft magneticpowder materials. Soft magneticpowders simplify the manufacturing processand reducethe cost of AFPM machines.
3.1.1
Nonorientedelectricalsteels
machinesare made of Most laminatedcoresfor statorsof AFPM brushless nonoriented (isotropic) silicon steel rlbbons with standardthickness from 0.12 to 0.64 mm. Nonorientedsteelsare Fe-Si alloys with a randomorientationof crystal cubes. Magnetic properties are practically the samein any direction in processis not recrystallization the plane of the sheetor ribbon. A secondary neededand high temperatureannealing is not essential. Nonoriented grades containbetween0.5ohand3.25yoSi with up to 0.5% Al addition to increase the resistivity and lower the temperatureof the primary recrystallization. Nonorientedelectricalsteelsare availableasbothfully processedandsemiprocessed products. Fully processednonoriented electrical steels are completely processedby the steel manufacturer, ready for use without any additional processing required to achieve the desired magnetic quality. Semiprocessed steelsare those which have not been nonorientedelectrotechnical given the full annealingtreatmentby the steel producer. In some cases,users prefer to develop the final magnetic quality and achieve relief of fabricating coresfor small machines. in laminationsor assembled stresses gradingof electricalsteelsby core lossesis The most universallyaccepted the American Iron and Steellndustry (AISI) system(Table3.1), the so called "M-grading". For small and medium power electricalmachines(outputpower
80
Table3.1.
The most important silicon steel designationsspecified by different standards
Europe rB.c404-8-4 (re86)

250-35-A5 270-3s-A5 300-3s-A5 330-35-A5 2"10-50-45 290-50-A5 3 t 0-50-45 330-50-45 350-50-A5 400-s0-A5 470-50-A5 530-50-A.5 600-50-A5 700-50-A5 800-50-A5 350-65-A5 400-65-A5 470-65-A5 530-65-As 600-65-A5 700-65-A5 800-65-A5 1000-65-A5
U.S.A AISI M-15 M-19 M-22 M-36 M-l5 M-19 M-27 M-36 M43 M-45 M-4'7 M-19 M-27 M-43 M-45
Japan JIS2552 ( l 986) 354250 35/'210 35A300 501.270 504290 504310 50A3s0 50A400 501'470 50A600 50A700 50A800
Russia GOST 21427 a-75

l+ 15
L+IL
24t1
2413
1A1a
2411 2312 2311 2212 2112 2111
65A800 654.1000
2312 2212 2211 2u2
lessthat 75 kW), the following gradescan be used:M-27, M-36, M-43,M-45 and M-47. Laminating a magneticcore is ineffective in keepingexcessive eddy currents fiom circulating within the entire core unless the surfacesof laminations are adequately insulated. Types of surface insulation include the natural oxide surface,inorganic insulation, enamel,vamish or chemically treated surface. The thicknessof the insulationis expressed with the aid of the stackingfactor:
t-_
d+2L
(3.1)
g'hered is the thicknessof bare lamination and A is the thicknessof the insulation layer measuredon one side. The stacking factor ki is typically from 0.94to 0.97.
Materials andfa bricatio n
81
Table3.2. Specificcore lossesof Armco DI-MAX nonorientedelectricalsteelsM-27, M-36 and M-43 at 60 Hz Specificcore losses Magnetic flux density
I
wkg 0.36 mm I o.+r mm o.o+ mm I M-27 1 M - 3 61 M - 2 7 1 M - 3 6I M - 4 3 1 M-27 1 M - 3 61 M - 4 3

0.09 0.47 0.81 1.46 2.39 3.37 4.00 4.95 0.10 0.52 0.89 r.61 2.58 3.57 4.t9 4.74 s.14 0.10 0.53 0.92 1.6"/
2 . 6/
).20 1.50 ).70 1.00 t.30 t.50 t.60 t.70 1.80
3.68 4.30 4.85 5.23
I 0.1 0.56 0.97 1.7 5 2.80 3.86

A <1
0.1 1 0.59 1.03 1.87 2.99 4.09

A1a
0.12 0.62 t.1l 2.06

-) - -)z+
5.08 5.48
5.33 5.79
4.56 5.34 5.99 6.52
0.12 0.64 1.14 2.12 3.46 4.70 5.48 6.15 6.68
0.13 0.66 t.t7 2.t9 3.56 4.83 5.60 6.28 6.84
Table3.3. Magnetization curvesof fully processed Armco DI-MAX nonoriented electrical M-27,M-36 andM-43 steels
Magnetic flux density T Magnetic field intensity A/m
M-27 1
36 50 74 116 175 859 2188 4759 8785 26 977 64 93s t37 203
M-36I
41 5'l 80 119 t74 785 2109 4727 8722 26 022 6s 492 t36 9'77
0.20 0.40 0.70 r.00 r.20 1.50 1.60 1.70 1.80 2.00 2.10 2.20
M-43 4'1 64 89 130 187 777 1981 4592 8682 2 68 1 8 66 925 t37 075
Core loss curvesof Armco DI-MAX nonoriented electricalsteelsM-27, M36 and M-43 testedat 60 Hz are given in Table 3.2. Core losseswhen tested at 50 Hz would be approximate$ A.79times the core loss at 60 Hz. Magnetizationcurvesof the sameelectricalsteelsare given in Table3.3. The specific
82
AXIAL FL UX PERMANENT MAGNET BRUSHLESSMACHINES
Table 3.4. Specific core losses and d.c. rnagnetization curve ofnonoriented thin eiectrical steelsmanufacturedby Cogent Power Ltd., Newport, U.K.
Specificcore losses
wkg
Magn. flux dens. T
Magn. field
NO 12 0.12mnr
HzlHzlkIlz
NO 18 mm 0.18
Ilzl
NO 20 0.2mm
HzlHzlkHz
SffCN.
kA/m
so l+ool 2.5
0.16 0.'71 1.55 2.57 3.75 5.05 6.49 8.09 9.84 11.8 14.1 16.7 19.9 24.0 28.5 1.65 6.83 15.2 2.54 3'1.7 52.0 66.1 83. I 103.0 156
50 laool 2.s
LIz lkHz
5 0 1 4 0 0I 2 . s
2.79 10.6 24.4 40.4 58.4 78.4 103.0 133.0 205.0 253,0 0.025 0.032 0.039 0.044 0.051 0.057 0.064 0.073 0.084 0.099 0.124 0.160 0.248 0.470 1.290 3.550 '1.070
IJ
0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.'70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.t0 1.20 1.30 t.40 1.50 1.60 1.70 1.80
0.02 0.08 0.16 0.26 0.37 0.48 0.62 0.76 0.32 1.09 L31 1.56 1.89 2.29 2.74 3.14 3.49 3.78
0.02 0.08 0.16 0.26 0.36 0.47 0.61 0.75 0.90 1.07 1.28 1.52 1.84 2.23
z.o/
0.18 0.73 1.50 2.54 3.86 5.22 6.77 8.47 10.4 12.3 14.9 1 81 . 21.6 25.6 30.0
2.t8 10.6 19.1 3t.7 45.9 61.5 81.1 104.0 161.0 198.0
0.02 0.07 0.t4 0.23 0.32 042 0.54 0.66 0.80 0.95 1.14
3.06 3.40 3.69
0.r7 0.72 1.49 2.50 3.80 5.17 6.70 8.36 10.3 12.2 14.8 I.JO 17.9 1 . 6 5 21.4 2.00 25.3 2.40 2 9 . 7 2.75 3.06
).JZ
mass density of DI-MAX M-27.M-36andM-43 is 7650.7700and 77 50kg/m3 respectively.The stackingfactor is k; : 0.95 to 0.96. The prefix DI-MAX, e.g. DI-MAX M27, designates a registeredtrademarkwith a special stripannealedprocessthat maximizespunchability. DI-MAX gradeshave superior pemeability at high magnetic flux density, low core losses and good gauge uniformity. A smooth surface, excellent flatness and high stacking factor is obtainedas a result of cold finishing and strip annealing. For frequenciesexceedingthe power frequency of 50 or 60 Hz nonoriented laminations thinnerthan 0.2 mm must be used.Table3.4 showsmagnetization and specificcore losses of nonorientedgradesNO 12,NO l8 andNO 20 capable of operating up to 2.5 kHz (Cogent Power ltd , Newport, UK). Typical thickness chemicalcompositionis 3.0 % Si, 0.4 o A1,96.6% Fe. The standard of an inorganic phosphatebasedinsulation is 1 pm (one side). The maximum continuous operating temperaturein the air is 230"C, maximum intermittent
Materisls and fabrication
83
Table3.5. Physical properties of iron based METGLAS amorphousalloy ribbons (Honeywell, Morristown,NJ. U.S.A.)
2605CO
Saturation magnetic flux density, T Specificcore losses at 5OHz and I T, Wkg Specific density, kg/m3 Electric conductivity, S/m Hardnessin Vicker's scale E l a s t i c i tr yn o d u l u s G , Nrm2 Stacking factor Crystallization temperature,"C Curie temperature,"C Maximum service
fpnnarof.'rp of
2605SA1 1.59 annealed 1.57 cast about 0.125
1.8
less than 0.28
7 560
7200annealed 7190 cast 0.769x 10bS/m 900
r 1 0 6S / m 0.813 810
1 0 0 . .1 .1 0 less than0.75 430
1 0 0 . .1 .1 0 less than0.79 507
4ts 125
392 150
operatingtemperature in an inert gas is 850oC,hardness180 HV and density 7650kg/m3.
3.1.2
Amorphous ferromagnetic alloys
To minimize core lossesat high frequencies, nonorientedelectrotechnical steelsshould be replacedwith amorphousmagnetic alloys (Tables3.5 and 3.6). Amoryhors fenomagneticalloys, in comparisonwith electrical steels with crystal structure,do not havearrangedin order, regular inner crystal structure (lattice). Amorphousalloy ribbonsbasedon alloys of iron, nickel and cobaltareproduced by rapid solidificationof molten metals at cooling rates of about 10tr to segregate or crystal"C/s. The alloys solidify beforethe atomshavea chanc
84
Table3.6. Specific core lossesof iron basedMETGLAS amorphousalloy ribbons (.Honeyu*ell, Morristown.NJ. U.S.A.)
Magnetic flux density, B T
0.05 0 .1 0 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
Specific corelosses, Ap, Wkg 2605CO 2605SA1 5 0H z I 60Hz 5 0H z | 60Hz 0.0024 0.003 0.0009 0.0012 0.0071 0.009 0.0027 0.0035 0.024 0.030 0.0063 0.008 0.063 0.080 0.016 0.02 4.12s 0 .1 6 0.032 0.04 0.196 0.25 0.063 0.08 0.274 0.35 0.125 0 .l 6
lize. The resultis a metal alloy with a glass-likestructure, i.e. a non-crystalline frozen liquid. Application of amorphous alloy ribbons to the massproductionof electrical machinesis limited by hardness, up to 1100 in Vicker's scale. Standard cutting methods like a guillotine or blank die are not suitable. The mechanically stressed amorphousmaterial cracks. Laser and electro-discharge machining (EDM) cutting methods melt the amorphous material and cause undesirablecrystallization. In addition, thesemethodsmake electricalcontacts between laminations which contribute to the increasededdy-currentand additional losses.In the early 1980schemicalmethodswere usedin GeneralElectric to cut amorphousmaterials but thesemethods were very slow and expensive ll76]. The problem of cutting hard amorphous ribbons can be overcome by using a liquid 1et12201.This methodmakes it possibleto cut amorphous materialsin ambienttemperaturewithout cracking, melting, crystallization and electriccontacts betweenisolatedribbons.
3.1.3
powdercomposites Softmagnetic
Powdermetallurgyis usedin the productionof ferromagnetic coresof small electricalmachines feromagnetic or coreswith complicated shapes. The componentsof soft magneticpowder compositesareiron powder, dielectric (epoxy resin) and filler (glass or carbon fibers) for mechanical strengthening.Powder compositesfor ferromagnetic cores of electrical machines and apparatuscan be divided into 1236): dielectromagnetics and magnetodielectrics, magneticsinters.
M(tterials and fabr icatio n
85
Table3.7. Magnetizationand specificcore loss characteristics ofnon-sinteredAccucore(TSC Ferr i te I nternational, Wadsworth, IL, U. S.A. )
Magnr lzatlon curve Magnetic flux Magnetic field density, B intensity, 11 T A/m 0.r0 152 0.20 L J.) 0.30 312 0.40 400 0.50 498 0.60 otJ 0.70 749 0.80 909 0.90 1107 1.00 135'7 1.10 t677 1.20 2101 1.30 2687 1.40 3525 1.50 4763 1.60 6563 1.70 9035 1.7 5 r0,146
ipecific core loss curves
60Hz wkg 0.1 32 0.4t9 0.772 1.212 1.742 2.315 2.954 3.660 4.431 5.247 6.129 7.033 7.981 8.929 9.965 10.869 11.707 t2.125
100 Hz wkg 0.242 0.683 1.323 2.472 2.976 3.968 5.071 6.305 7.650 9.039 r0 . 5 8 2 12.2r4 13.845 15.565 17.394 19.048 20.63s 21.407
400Hz wkg 1.0s8 3.263 6.2t7 9.811 14.088 18.850 24.295 30.490 37.346 44.489 52.9r1 61.377 70.1 51 79.168 90.302 99.671 r09.880
Dielectromagnetics and magnetodielectrics are namesreferring to materials consistingof the samebasic components:ferromagnetic(mostly iron powder) and dielectric(mostly epoxy resin) material12361. The main tasksof the dielectricmaterialis insulationandbinding of ferromagnetic particles.In practice, composites containingup to 2o/o (of their mass)of dielectricmaterialsare consideredas dielectromagnetics. Those with a higher content of dielectric materialare considered as magnetodielectrics f236). TSCInternational,Wadsworth,IL, U.S.A., has developed a new soft powder material , Accltcore,which is competitiveto traditional steel laminations [4]. The magnetizationcurve and specific core loss curves of the non-sintered Accucoreare given in Table 3.7. When sintered, Accucorehas higher saturation magneticflux densitythan the non-sintered material.The specificdensity is 7550to 7700kg/m3. Hdgancis, Hogands, Sweden, manufactures soft magneticcomposite(SMC) powdersthat are surface-coated metal powderswith excellentcompressibility
86
AXIALFLUX PERMANENT MAG}{ETBRUSHLESS MACHINES
Table 3.8. Specific core lossesof Somaloy?A{500+0.S% Kenolube, 800 MPa, treated at 500"C for 30 min in the air, Hriganas, Hriganiis, Sweden
Magnetic flux
l^-^:+-. ug[D rLyr
A/m
5 0 H zI
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.0 1.5 1.9 2.1 4.6 6.8 30
l 0 0 H z|
3 3.6 6 10 16 50
Specific losses wkg 300H2 | soog, |

t2
t/
700H2
27 40 55 92 140 400
l000Hz
45 60 90 t20 180 570
l8 2'7
.)+
2l
)z
48 170
52 ii0 270
Table 3.9. Magnetizationcurvesof Sornaloy?^t500 +0.5% Kenolube, treaiedat 500"C for 30 min in the air, Hdganai, Hrigands,Sweden
Magnetic field intensity H A/m
B at density 6690 kg/m3 T
I 500 3 200 4 000 6 000 1 00 0 0 1 50 0 0 20 000 40 000 60 000 80 000 100 000
0.7 0.8 0.91 1. 0 1 1.12 t.24 1.32 1.52 r.65 1.75 1.82
at density 7l 00 kgAn" T 0.83 1.13 1.22 1.32 1.42 t.52 1.59 1.78 1.89 t.97 2.02
B at density kg/m'' 7180 T 0.87 1.19 t.28 1.38 l 5l l 6t 1.69 1.87 t.97 2.05 2.t0
(Tables3.8, 3.9) has been developedfor 3D magnetic 1216).SontaloyTLI500 circuits of electricalmachines, transformers, ignition systems and sensors.
Mater ials andJitbricatio n
8l
Figure 3.1. Stator core segmentformed from lamination strip: 1- lamination strip, 2 groove,3 - folding,4 compressed segment,5- finishedsegment.
3,1.4
Fabrication
of stator cores
Fabrication of laminated stator cores Normally, the stator cores are wound from electrotechnicalsteel strips and the slots are machined by shaping or planing. An altemative method is first to punch the slots with variabledistances betweenthem and then to wind the steelstrip into the form of the slottedtoroidal core (R & D Institute of Electrical MachinesV(IES in Brno, Republicof Czech).In addition,this manufacturing processallows for making skewedslots to minimize the cogging torque and the effect of slot harmonics. Each stator core has skewedslots in opposite directions. It is recommended that a wave statorwinding shouldbe made to obtain shorter end connectionsand more spacefor the shaft. An odd number of slots, e.g. 25 insteadof 24 canhelp to reducethe cogging torque ([/UES Brno). Another technique is to form the stator core using trapezoidal segments to one slot pitch (Fig. 3.1). The lamina[228]. Each segmentcorresponds tion strip of constantwidth is folded at distancesproportional to the radius. To make folding easy, grooveson oppositesidesof the althe strip hastransverse ternativesteps.The zigzaglaminatedsegment is finally compressed and fixed using a tape or thennosetting, as shownin Fig. 3.T 12281. Fabrication of soft magnetic powder stator cores The laminated cores of axial flux machinesare much more difficult to fabricate than those of radial flux machines. SMC powders simplify the manufacturing processof stator coreswith complicatedshapes, in general,3D cores.
88
AXIAL FLUX PERMANEIVT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES
6800r 400
450
500
550 compacting
600
650
700
750
800
pressure, MPa
Figure 3.2. The effect of compacting pressure on the specific mass density of Hoganiis soft magneticcompositepowders.
Mass productionof AFPM machinesis much more cost effectiveif soft magnetic powder composites are usedas materialsfor statorcores. Using SMC powders the stator core of an AFPM machine can be made as a slottedcore, slotlesscylindrical core and salientpole uorewith one coil per pole. The slottedand slotlesscylindrical coresfor AFPM machinescan be made in a powder metallurgy process using a ferromagnetic powder with a small amount of lubricants or binders. The powder metallurgy process generally (2) mixing or consistsof four basic steps,namely: (1) powder manufacture, blending, (3) compactingand (4) sintering. Most compactingis done with mechanical, hydraulic or pneumaticpresses and rigid tools. Compactingpresgenerally with 150 to 500 MPa being the range between 70 to 800 MPa sures most common. The outer diameterof the core is limited by the presscapability. Frequently, the stator core must be divided into smaller segments. Most powder metallurgyproductsmust havecrosssectionsof lessthan 2000 mm2. If the press capacity is sufficient,sectionsup to 6500 mm2 can be pressed. Figure 3.2 showsthe effect of compactingpressureon the density of Hdgands SMC powders. For SomaloyTMS00the heat treatment temperature(sintering) is typically powder has much less 500"C for 30 min. After heat treatmentthe compacted mechanicalstrengththan solid steel. The thermal expansionof conductorswithin the stator slots createsthermal depends in the stator teeth. The magnitude of thesestresses expansionstresses upon the difference in the temperatureof the winding and core, difference in
Materials and fabricatio n
89
Figure3.3. Slotted stators for smallsingle-sided disc-type motors [236].
Figure j.4. Powder salient pole statorsfor small single-sided AFPM motors. Courtesy of Mli Technologies, ZZC, West Lebanon,NH, U.S.A.
coefficientsof thermal expansionof both materialsand slot filI factor. This problem is more important in powder cores than in laminated cores since the tensile stressof powder coresis at least25 times lower and their modulus of elasticityis lessthan 100 GPa (versus200 GPa for steellaminations). Slotted stators for small disc-type motors fabricated from SMC powders are shown in Fig. 3.3 [148, 236]. SMC powder salient-polestatorsfor small single-sided AFPM motorsmanufacturedby Mii kchnologies, LLC, Lebanon, NH, U.S.A. are shownin Fig. 3.4. The three-phase statorhas9 poles. A single SMC powder salientpole manufactured by Htiganrisis shown in Fig. 3.5.
90
MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT
(a)
AFPM motors: (a) single SMC Figtre 3.5, SMC powder salientpole for small single-sided pole; (b) double-sidedAFPM motor. Courlesy of Hdganris, Hoganiis, Sweden.
3.2
Rotor magnetic circuits
Magnetic circuits of rotors consistof PMs and mild steelbacking rings or discs. Since the air gap is somewhatlarger that that in similar RIPM counterparls, high energy density PMs should be used. Normally, surfacemagnetsare glued to smooth backing rings or rings with cavities of the sameshapeas magnetswithout any additional mechanicalprotection against normal attractive forces. Epoxy, acrylic or silicon based adhesivesare used for gluing betweenmagnetsand backing rings or between is 20 x 106 magnets. The minimum requiredshearingstrengthof adhesives Pa. There were attempts to develop interior PM rotor for AFPM machines. According to [201], rotor poles can only be fabricatedby using soft magnetic of this configurationis the improvedflux powders[201]. The main advantage weakeningperformance.However,the complexity and high cost of the rotor structurediscouragefuither commercializing development.
3.2.1
PM materials
A PM can produce magneticflux in an air gap with no exciting winding and no dissipationof electric power. As any other ferromagneticmaterial, a PM can loop. PMs are also called hard magnetic by its B-H hysteresis be described materials, which meansferromagneticmaterialswith a wide hysteresisloop. The basis for the evaluationof a PM is the portion of its hysteresisloop located in the upper left-hand'quadrant,called the demagnetizationcunte (Fig. 3.6). If reversemagneticfield intensityis appliedto a previouslymagnetized, say,toroidal specimen,the magnetic flux density drops down to the magnitude determined by the point K. When the reversal magnetic flux density is removed, the flux density returns to the point tr according to a minor hysteresis ot loop. Thus, the applicationof a reversefield has reducedthe remanence,
91
r\-****----**;
.K {afi )*ur)
Bsa Fr
w,H
*A aBE & r** Figure 3.6. ability. Demagnetization curve, recoil loop, energy of a PM, and recoil magnetic pcrme-
remanentmagnetism. Reapplyingmagneticfield intensity will again reduce the flux density,completingthe minor hysteresis loop by retuming the core to approximatelythe samevalue of ffux densify at the point K as before. The minor hysteresis loop may usually be replacedwith little error by a straight line called the recoil line. This line has a slope called the recoil permeability
lJr er.'
As long as the negativevalue of applied magneticfield intensity doesnot exceedthe maximum value corresponding to the point K, the PM may be regardedas being reasonablypermanent. If, however, greater negative field intensity fI is applied, the magneticflux density will be reducedto a value lower than that at point 1(. On the removalof H, a new and lower recoil line will be established. Remanent magnetic.flux densityB,-, or remanence, is the magneticflux density corresponding to zero magneticfield intensity. Coercive.fieldstrength Hr, or coercivily, is the value of demagnetizingfield intensity necessary to bring the magnetic flux density to zero in a material previously magnetized. Both B" andH" decrease as the magnettemperature increases, i.e.
B,:B,2olr*ffi@pM_ 20)l
Hc: Hczotl + - 2o)l (t9 v,x1
(3.2)
ffi
(3.3)
92
MACHINES MAGNETBRUSHLESS AX]AL FLUX PERMANENT
- 0.8
dl
0.6
-1200
-1000
-800 ",
-uo*0o,. -400
-20o
and Be-H demagnetization curves and their variations Figure 3.7. Comparison of B-H with the temperature for sinteredN48M NdFeB PMs. Courtesy of ShinEtstt, Takefu-shi, Fukui Prefecture,Japan.
where Spm is the temperatureof PM, Br2o and Ha2g are the remanentmagnetic flux density and coercive force at 20oC and ap ( 0 and all <1 0 ate Thus, demagnefor B, andHcino/ol"C respectively. coefficients temperature (Fig. 3.7). tization curves are sensitiveto the temperature cuwe (Fig. 3.7) is the portion of the Bt. : f (H) lntrinsic demagnetization where Bt : B - FoH. loop locatedin the upperleft-handquadrant, hysteresis For f1 : 0 the intrinsic magneticflux densityBt: Br. Intrinsic coerciviQ iH. is the magnetic field strength required to bring to zero the intrinsic magnetic flux density B; of a magnetic material describedby the Bi : f (H) curve. For PM materialstH, ) H.. saturation magneticflur densityB5a1conespondsto high valuesof the magno in the appliedmagneticfield produces netic field intensiry when an increase further effect on the magnetic flux density. In the saturation region the alignment of all the magnetic momentsof domains is in the direction of the external appliedmagneticfield. Recoil magneticpermeability l1,..is the ratio of the magneticflux densityto-magnetic field intensity at any point on the demagnetizationcurve, i.e.
AB
I-trec ltolLrcec A 1 ,:,H
(3.4)
MaterialsandJitbrication
93
- 1 . . .4.5. where the relativerecoilpermeability ltrrrer: Maximum magnetic energyper unit producedby a PM in the external space is equal to the maximum magnetic energy density per volume, i.e.
un,or (BH)*o, 2 , , ;t , Jl m -
(3.5)
where the product (BH),-", corresponds to the maximum energy density point on the demagnetizationcurve with coordinates B,no* and H,no, (Fig. 3.6). Form factor oJ'the demagnetizcttion curve characterizes the concave shape of the demasnetization curve.i.e. 'l: (BH)n,o* BrH, :
B*orH,no^,
B,H"
(3.6)
for a square demagnetizationcurve 1 : I and for a straisht line (rare-earth P M s )7 : 0 . 2 5 . The leakage flux causesthe magnetic flux to be distributed nonuniformly along the height 2lt.y of a PM, where h,y1is the height per pole. As a result, the MMF producedby the PM is not constant.The magneticflux is higher in the neutral cross section and lower at the ends, but the behavior of the MMF distributionis the opposite[96]. The PM surfaceis not equipotential.The magneticpotential at eachpoint on the surface is a function of the distance to the neutral zone. To simplify the calculation, the magnetic flux which is a function of the MMF distribution alongthe height hy per pole is replaced by an equivalent flux. This equivalent flux goesthrough the whole height hy andexits from the surfaceof the poles. To find the equivalent leakageflux and the whole flux of a PM, the equivalent magneticfield intensityneedsto be found, i.e.
H:j
rhv
l nnr Jr:
H,dr
fvr h,nr
(3.7)
where 11" is the magnetic field intensity at a distancer from the neutral cross sectionandf tr is the MMF of the PM per pole (MMF : 2Fru per pole pair). The equivalentmagneticfield intensity (3.7) allows the equivalentleakage flux of the PM to be found. i.e. Qu$ : Qm - Qo (3.8)
where Ona is the full equivalentflux of the PM and On is the air gap magnetic flux. The cofficient of leakageflux of the PM,
94
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHII\trES otnt :

(Dn,
-! Qs
| + -+:1 > l Qs
Q, n,
(3.e)
simply allows the air gap magneticflux to be expressed as (Dn: Qrulotu. The following leakageperrneance expressed in the flux O*MMF coordinate systemcorrespondsto the equivalentleakageflux of the PM:
Gmr-y
.r A,t
(3. l0)
An accurateestimationof the leakagepermeanceG61 is the most difficult task in analyticalcalculationof magneticcircuits with PMs. Using the field approach, e.g. the FEM, the leakage permeance can be found fairly accurately. The averageequivalent magnetic flux and equivalent MMF mean that the magneticflux densityand magneticfield intensityare assumed to be the same in the whole volume of a PM. The full energy produced by the magnet in the outer spaceis
w:Tv*
(3.11)
where I/,y is the volume of the PM or a systemof PMs. For a PM circuit with a rectangular crosssection,single PM and two mild steel pole shoes,the magnetic flux density Bn in a given air gapvolume 7n : gumlu is directly proportionalto the square root of the magneticenergyproduct(B1yHx4) [96], i.e.
Bs :
: trroHs
u,$av1n*,
vq
(3.r2)
where 11p" is the magnetic field intensity in the mild steel yoke, fI, is the magneticfield intensity in the ak gap,VA,r: 2hpywxal7,1 is the magnetvolutae, LUlyl is the PM width, 1,11 is the PM length and2lp". is the length of the magnetic flux path in two mild steelpole shoes.Following the trend to smaller packaging, smallermassandhigherefficiency, the materialresearch in the field of PMs hasfocusedon finding materialswith high valuesof the maximum energy product (BH),n"". The air gap magnetic flux density Bn can be estimatedanalytically on the basis of the demagnetizationcurve, air gap and leakageperrneancelines and
Materia ls andfab rication
95
recoil lines [96]. Approximately,it can be found on the basisof the balanceof the magneticvoltagedrops,i.e. B' htr: tLrt 1 1+ B ' J t
oilpermeabil ity). ls,n.,.,""111i1,* li r*pM (,";;". rec where F,, " " "*rri, Hence,
: Bo=3" hll Hr,".9 1+ y,',,"glhn "
B,hm
1) l)y
(3.13)
The air gap magnetic flux density is proporlional to the remanent magnetic Eqn (3.13) can only flux densityB, and decreases as the air gapg increases. be usedfor preliminary calculations. For rare-earthPMs the approximation of the demagnetizationcurve is simple due to practicallylinear demagnetization curve,i.e.
B(H): u,(r -
#)
(3.14)
cules (Alnico or The approximationof more complicateddemagnetizations ferrites)is given e.g. in [96]. curve (3.14) and the The intersectionpoint of the above demagnetization gap of the air following line representingthe perrneance
B(H): 1,oL!!s
(3. l s)
to the air gap gives a point called the operatingpoint. This point conesponds magneticflux densityBn multiplied by the leakagecoefficientolM according to eqn (3.9).
3.2.2
Characteristicsof PM materials
Thereare threeclasses of PMs currentlyusedfor electricmotors: r Alnicos (Al, Ni, Co, Fe); r Ceramics(fenites), e.g. barium ferrite BaOx6FezO3and strontiumferrite SrOx 6Fe2O3; r Rare-earthmaterials,i.e. samarium-cobalt SmCo and neodymium-ironboron NdFeB. The demagnetizationcuwes of the above three types of permanent magnet materialsare given in Fig. 3.8.
96

14
\J
\'
= tl
^ ^:^ lVL
1,0
I NEODYMIUM-IRON B0R0Nl*>/
'l \LNICO
I
"
0,6 0,4 0,2 0
tTl
(rorl*,u"1 COBALT
rERRrr2
*tt
900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 -*Figure 3.8.
-H [xelm]
Demagnetizationcuryes for diflerent PM materials.
Alnico Alnico magnets dominated the PM motor market in the range from a few watts to 150 kW betweenthe mid 1940sand the late 1960s.The main advantages of Alnico are its high magnetic remanentflux density and low temperature coefficients(Table 3. 10). The temperaturecoefficient of B, is -0.02ohl" C and maximum servicetemperatureis 520"C. Unfoftunately, the coercive force is very low and the demagnetizationcurve is extremely non-linear. Therefore, it is very easynot only to magnetizebut also to demagnetize Alnico. Alnico has been used in PM d.c. commutatormotors of the disc type with relatively large air gaps. This results in a negligible armature reaction magnetic flux acting on the PMs. Sometimes,Alnico PMs are protected ffom the armature flux, and consequentlyfrom demagnetization, using additional mild steel pole shoes. Ferrites Barium and strontium ferrites produced by powder metallurgy were invented in the 1950s. Their chemical formulation may be expressed as MOx is 6(Fe2O3), where M Ba, Sr, or Pb. Fer:rite magnetsare availablein isotropic and anisotropic grades. A ferrite has a higher coercive force than Alnico, but at the sametime has a lower remanent magneticflux density(Table3.10). Temperature coefficients -0.20%loc are relativelyhigh, i.e. the coefficientof B,- is and the coefficient of H. is *0.27 to -0.4ohf"C. The maximum servicetemperature is 450"C. The main advantagesof ferrites are their low cost and very high electric re-
Materials andfab ricatictn
9'7
Tsble3.10. Physicalpropertiesof a representative selectionof PM materialsfor small motors offeredby Magnaquench GnBH, Essen,Germany
Property
Remanentflux density, -B", T Coercivity,H.,kAlm Intrinsic coercivity, i H,,, k A/m (B H)-,o,,kJlm3 Relative recoil magnetic permeability Temperaturecoefficient o s of 8,, at 20 to 100"c, %/"c Temperaturecoefficient a ;.rr of iH,. at20 to t00"c,o f c Curie temperature,"C Maximum continuous service temperature,"C Thermal conductivity, W(m "C) Specificmassdensity,ppv,kglms Electric conductiviry S/m Coefficient of thermal expanslon at20to 100"c, x10 6/"c Specific heat, J "C/kg
Alnico sintered Koerzit500 1.24 5l 4t.4 3 to 4.5 -0.02 * 0 . 0 3t o - 0 . 0 7 850 500 1 0t o 1 0 0 7300 1 . 4t o 2 . 5x 1 0 o 11ro13 350to 500
Hardfenite bonded Koercxl2l22p 0.26 r80 225
Hardferrite sintered Koerox 350 0.39 270 310 30 1.1 -0.2 +0.3 450 200 4 4800 < 0.0001 I 2 parallel 8 vertical 800
l.l -0.2 +0.4 4s0 100 to 200 3400 < 0.0001 20 to 50
which meanspractically no eddy-currentlossesin the PM volume. sistance, motors.Barium Ferritemagnets are most economicalin fractionalhorsepower ferrite PMs are commonly used in small d.c. commutatormotors for automobiles (blowers,fans,windscreen wipers,pumps,etc.) and electrictoys. Rare-earth permanent magnets The first generationof rare-earthpermanentmognets,i.e. alloys basedon the compositionof SmCo5has been commerciallyproducedsince the early of a high remanent 1970s(inventedin the 1960s). SmCo5has the advantage flux densiry high coercive force, high energy product, a linear demagnetization curve and a Iow temperature coemcient (Table 3.11). The temperature coemcientof coemcientof B, is 0.02 to -0.045%l"C and the temperature -0.14 -0.40%loC. is 300 to 350oC. 11" is to Maximum servicetemperature It is suitable for motors with low volumes and motors operating at increased generators for microturbines.Both Sm and Co are temperatures, e.g. brushless relatively expensivedue to their supply restrictions.
98
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRTJSHLESS MACHINES
Table 3. I l. Physical properlies of Vacomax sintered SmzCorz PM materials at room temperature 20"C manufacturedby Vacuumschmelze GmhH, Hanau. Germanv
Property
Remanentflux density, -B".,T Coercivity,H.,kAlm Intrinsic coercivity,i H., kAlm (BH)-.^",kIlm3 Relative recoil magneticpermeability Temperaturecoefficient clB of B ,. at 20 to 100"c , o/ol" c Temperaturecoefficient a;r1 of i,H,. at 20 to 100"c, o/ol" c Temperaturecoeffrcient or of B" at 20to 150"C.,o/of'c Temperaturecoefficient o;s of i H ,, at 20 to 1 50"C, o/ol" C Curie temperature,"C Maximum continuous servicetemperature,''C Thermal conductiviry W/(m "C) Specificmassdensity,pntt,kglm3 Electncconductivity,, | 0" S/m Coeffi cientol thermalexpansion at20to 100'c, x10-6/"c Young'smodulus, x 106 MPa Bending stress,MPa Vcker's hardness
, ^f
Vacomax 240 HR
Vacomax 225 HR
Vacomax 240
1.05 to 1.12 600ro 730 640to 800 200to 240 1.22 to 1.39
1.03 to 1.10 720to 820 1590 ro 2070 190to 225 I . 0 6t o 1 . 3 4 -0.030
to 1.05 0.98 580to 720 640to 800 180 t o2 1 0 1.16 to 1.34
0.15
-0.18 -0.035
-0.15
-0.16
-0.19 approximately 800 350 approximately 12 8400 1.18 to 1.33 10 0.1 50 9 0t o 1 5 0 approximately 640
-0.16
300
300
With the discovery in the recent years of a secondgenerationof rare-earth magnetson the basis of inexpensive neodymium (1.{d),remarkableprogress with regard to lowering raw material costs has been achieved.The new generation of rare-earthPMs basedon inexpensiveneodymium (Nd) was announced by Sumitomo SpecialMetals,Iapan,in 1983 atthe29th Annual Conference of Magnetismand MagneticMaterialsheld in Pittsburgh, PA, U.S.A. The Nd is a much more abundantrare-earthelement than Sm. NdFeB magnets,which are now produced in increasing quantities have better magnetic properties (Table The de3.12)thanthoseof SmCo,but unfortunately only at room temperature. magnetizationcurves, especially the coercive force, are strongly temperature The temperature dependent. coefficientof B, is -0.09 to -0.15o/ol"C and the temperature coefficientof fI" is -0.40 to -0.80%1"C. The maximum service
Materialsandfabrication
99
is 350oC.The NdFeB is also sustemperature is 250oCand Curie temperature ceptible to corrosion. NdFeB magnetshave great potential for considerably improving the performance-to cost ratio for many applications. For this reaand applicationof PM son they will have a major impact on the development machinesin the future. magnetsis similar to that of alkalineearth Chemicalreactivityof rare-earth temperaat increased metals, e.g. magnesium. The reaction is accelerated ture and humidity. The NdFeB alloy if exposedto hydrogen gas, usually at becomesbrittle and and/or elevatedpressure, a slightly elevatedtemperature with very little effort, it can be crushed.Diffusion of hydrogeninto the alloy causes it literally to fall apart. Corrosionprotectivecoatingscan be divided into metallic and organic.For are used as a rule. metallic coatings,e.g. nickel and tin, galvanicprocesses varnishes powder applied electrostatically, include coatings Organic coatings and resins. Nowadays, for the industrial production of rare-eafthPMs the powder metallurgical route is mainly used 1194]. Apart from some material specificpathis processing technologyis, in general,the samefor all rare-earth rameters, magnet materials. The alloys are produced by vacuum induction melting or by a calciothetmicreductionof the oxides. The material is then size-reduced by crushingand milling to a single crystallinepowder with particle sizesless than 10 trrm. In order to obtain anisotropicPMs with the highest possible (BH)-", value, the powdersare then aligned in an externalmagneticfield, pressed and densifiedto nearly theoreticaldensityby sintering.The most ecoparts like blocks, rings nomical methodfor massproductionof simply shaped is die pressingof the powders in approximatelythe final shape. or arc segments Researchers at General Motors, U.S.A., developeda fabrication method basedon the melt-spinningcastingsystemoriginally inventedfor the producmetal alloys. In this technologya molten streamof NdFetion of amorphous CoB materialis first formed into ribbons 30 to 50-pm thick by rapid quenching, then cold pressed, extrudedand hot pressedinto bulk. Hot pressingand are carried out while maintaining the fine grain to provide a high hot working density close to 100% which eliminatesthe possibility of internal corrosion. epoxy resin coatingprovides excellentcorroThe standardelectro-deposited sion resistance. The prices of NdFeB magnetsorderedin large quantitiesare now below US$20 per kg. Owing to a large supply of NdFeB magnetsfrom China it is expectedthat the prices will fall further.
3.2.3
Operatingdiagram
ofthe The energyofa PM in the externalspaceonly existsifthe reluctance PM extemalmagneticcircuit is higher Ihan zero. If a previouslymagnetized
100
Table3.12. Physicalproperliesof Hicorex-Super sinteredNdFeB PM materialsat room temperature 20"C manufacturedby Hitachi Metals,ltd, Tokyo, Japan
Property
Remanent flux densiry .B., T Coercivity,H",kAlm Intrinsic coercivity, i,H,,, kNm (BH),,,o*,kJlm3 Relative recoil magnetic permeability Temperaturecoe{ficient as of 8,. at20 to l00"C,okl"C Temperaturecoefficient otr of i,H,.at20 to 100"c,yol"c Curie temperature,"C Maximum continuous sewice temperafure,"C Thermal conductivity, W(m" C) Speciflcmassdens.,pp M,kglms Electric conductivity, x 106 S/m Coefficient of thermal expanslon at20to 100"c,x10 6/"c Young'smodulus, x 106 MPa Bending stress, MPa Vicker's hardness Features
Hicorex-Super HS-38AV
Hicorex-Super HS-25EV
Hicorex-Super HS-47AH
1.20 to 1.30 875to 1035 m i n .1 1 1 4 278to 319
0.98 to 1.08 7 16to 844 min. 1989 183to 223 1.03 to 1.06 - 0 . 1I t o - 0 . l 3 0.65to -0.72 r 310
1.35 to 1.43 1018 to I 123 min. 1I 14 342to 390
160
180 7500 x 0,67 * 1.5 0.1 50 260 = 600 High temperature
140
High energy product
Super high performance
is placedinside a closedideal fenomagneticcircuit, i.e. toroid, this PM does not show any magneticproperties in the external space,in spite of the fact that there is the masnetic flux
Qr:BrS74:Brwx4lp1
(3.1 6)
coffesponding to the remanent flux densityE, insidethe PM. A PM previouslymagnetized and placedalone in an open space,as in Fig. 3.9a, generates a magnetic field. To sustain a magnetic flux in the external open space,an MMF developedby the magnetis necessary. The stateof the PM is characterized by the point K on the demagnetizationcule (Fig. 3.10). The location of the point K is at the intersectionof the demagnetization curve with a straight line representingthe peffneanceof the externalmagnetic circuit (open space):
Materials and fabrication
r0r
Figure 3.9. Stabilizationof a PM: (a) PM alone, (b) PM with pole shoes,(c) PM inside an external magnetic circuit, (d) PM with a complete extemal amature system.
G"rt: Y, J-K
tan G"r; :
Q r cl Q ,
FxlF"
r c (: , rr velro
(3.l 7)
The permeanceGs.r1coffespondsto the flux O-MMF coordinate systemand is referred to as MMF at the ends of the PM. In the O-MMF coordinate systemthe remanentflux O" is accordingto eqn (3.16) and the MMF correspondingto the coercivity FI" is
f.: H.hM
(3.18)
The magnetic energy per unit producedby the PM in the extemal spaceis rDK : BKHK 12. This energyis proporlionalto the rectanglelimited by the coordinate system and lines perpendicular to the @ and f coordinates projected from the point 1{. It is obvious that the maximum magneticenergyis for B1a : Brno, and for HK : Hrnor. If the poles are furnishedwith pole shoes(Fig. 3.9b) the permeance of the increases. point external space The which characterizes a new stateof the PM in Fig. 3.10 movesalong the recoil line from the point K to the point A. The recoil line KGu is the sameas the intemal permeance of the PM, i.e.
\t1y1:
wttltrt
rec 11 rLNl Ft".,
.Snl
nL,l
(3.1e)
The point A is the intersectionof the recoil line KGm and the straight line permeance i.e. the leakage of the PM with pole shoes, OGa representing
GA:y!,
J-A
tana4 - ,o
(3.20)
102
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGIVET BRUSHLESS MACHINES
The energy produced by the PM in the external spacedecreases as compared with the previous case, i.e. utl: ffogo1r. The next stage is to place the PM in an extemal ferromagnetic circuit as shown in Fig. 3.9c. The resultantperneanceof this systemis
Gp: i!, {P
6-
tanap
",
F *,
(3.2r)
which meetsthe conditionG p > G n ) G."t. For an externalmagneticcircuit without any electric circuit carrying the armaturecurrent, the magnetic stateof the PM is characterizedbythe point P (Fig. 3.10), i.e. the intersection of the recoil line K G u and the perrneance line OG p . When the external magnetic circuit is furnished with an armature winding and when this winding is fed with a currentwhich producesan MMF magnetizing the PM (Fig. 3.9d), the magneticflux in the PM increases to the value O1,'. The d-axis }l4MF FL.r of the external (armature) field acting directly on the PM corresponds to O1,'.The magneticstateof the PM is described by the point l/ located on the recoil line on the right-hand side of the origin of the coordinatesystem. To obtain this point it is necessary to lay off the distance Of'"aandto draw aline G p from the point ft"6 inclined by the angle ap to the F-axis. The intersection of the recoil line and the perrneance line Gp givesthe point l/. If the exciting current inthe externalarmaturewinding is increased further, the point lt/ will move further along the recoil line to the right, up to the saturationof the PM.
Figure 3.10.
Diagram of a PM for finding the origin of the recoil line and operating point
Materials andfabrication
103
When the excitation current is reversed,the externalatmaturemagneticfield to lay off the distance will demagnetize the PM. In this case it is necessary Of'"ofrom the origin of the coordinatesystemto the left (Fig. 3.10). The line the demagnetization Gp drawnfrom the point, ftro with the sloperr p intersects curve at the point K' . This point can be aboveor below the point K (for the PM alone in the open space).The point K/ is the origin of a new recoil line the operatingpoint K'G'n.Now if the armatureexciting cur:rent decreases, will move along the new recoil line K'G'y to the right. If the armaturecurrent drops down to zero,the operatingpoint takesthe position P'(intersection of line Gp drawn from the origin the new recoil line K'G'n with the permeance of the coordinatesystem). lDpr : Bp, Hp, f2, u)p : BpHp f2, On the basisofFig. 3.10the energies zndusp, I wp. The location of the origin of the recoil line, as well as the location of the operatingpoint, determinethe level of utilization of the energy produced by the PM. A PM behavesdffirently than a d.c. electromagnet:lhe energy of a PM is not constant if the perrneanceand exciting current of the changes. external ar:rnature by the minimum The location of the origin of the recoil line is determined value of the permeanceof the external magnetic circuit or the demagnetization action ofthe externalfield. of the externalmagnetic To obtain the propertiesof PMs more independent the PM is demagnetized fields,PMs needto be stabilized.Stabilizationmeans demagnetization up to a valuewhich is slightly higherthanthe most dangerous field during the operationof a systemwhere the PM is installed. In magnetic circuits with stabilized PMs the operatingpoint describing the stateof the PM is locatedon the recoil line. More detailsabouthow to find the operatingpoint of a PM graphicallyand analyticallycan be found in [96].
3.2.4
Permeancesfor main and leakagefluxes
Permeancesof air gaps and permeancesfor leakage fluxes can be found of analyticallyby dividing the magneticfield into simple solids. Petmeances simple solids shownin Fig. 3.11 can be found using the following fonnulae: (a) Rectangular prism (Fig. 3.1I a)
G: LnYYy H
(3.22)
104
AX]AL FLUX PERMAAIENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES
,r,M]
rlwrl s {*rf-
o' N -'-l{;{;f
Figure 3.11. Simple solids: (a) rectanguiarprism, (b) cylindeq (c) half-cylinder, (d) onequarter of a cylinder, (e) half-ring, (0 one-quarter of a ring, (g) one-quarter of a sphere, (h) one-eighthofa sphere,(i) one-quarter ofa shell, O one-eighthofa shell.
105
(b) Cylinder (Fig.3.1Ib)

G:lro*
(3.23)
(c) Half-cylinder (Fig.3.11c) G :0.26p,olnr

where the average air gap gau : replaced by 0.322glLr ll3)
(3.24)
1.229 and, the surface wmltw should be
(d) One-quarter of a cylinder (Fig. 3.11d)
G :0.52p,o1u
(3.2s)
(e) Half-ring (Fig. 3.1le)
2lm
Lr l-Lt)
r(gltuM * 7)
(3.26)
For g { 3tuy,
G: ^Vm(t +'**\ 7T\.9/

(f) One-quarter of a ring (Fig. 3. I 10
(3.27)
r':l'ton@1"+w
For g < 3c,
(3.28)
r" (r + 9) G : po2tM g/
7T \
e.2s)
(g) One-quarter of a sphere(Fig. 3.I I g) G : 0.077|,tog
(3.30)
106
(h) One-eighth (Fig. 3.I th) of a sphere G : 0.308pr,og
(3.31)
(i) One-quarter of a shell(Fig. 3.11i) G:po;
of a shell(Fig. 3.1lj) fi) One-eighth
G: t"o;
(3.33)
Fig. 3.12 showsa model of a flat electricalmachinewith smootharmature core (without slots) and surface PM excitation system. The armature is of steel laminations.The PMs are fixed to the mild steelyoke. The pole pitch is r, the width of eachPM is w16, andits length is /7yr. In an AFPM machine lu :0.5(Dout - Dm)
(3.34)
The spacebetweenthe pole face and the armaturecore is divided into a prism (l), four quartersofcylinders (2 and4), four quartersofrings (3 and 5), four piecesof 1/8 of a sphere(6) and four piecesof 1/B of a shell (7). Formulae for the perneance calculations have been found on the assumption that the perrneance of a solid is equal to its averagecross sectionareato the average length of the flux line. If we ignore the fringing flux, the permeanceof a rectangularair gapper pole (prism I in Fig. 3.12) is
Ggt: prYff
( 3.3s)
The equivalent air gap g' is only equal to the nonmagnetic gap (mechanical clearance) g for a slotless and unsaturatedarmature. To take into account slots (if they exist) and magnetic saturation,the air gap g is increased to gt - gkck"ot, where kc > 7 is Carter'scoefficienttaking into accountslots (1.2), and k"at )> 1 is the saturationfactor of the magneticcircuit definedas
Mq terials andJbbrication
t07
(c)
'1 0
(b)
,,i.,!-------i-------T;
1l lsl+
1l 1l
I
ft"
lm
;+i t
Itl lst lg Iti Itl
Figure3.1 2. Electricalmachine with flat slotless armature and flat PM excitationsystem (a) longitudinal fieldintosimple division of thespace occupied by themagnetic solids: section, (b) air gapfield, (c) leakage ficld (between thePM andsteelyoke).
the ratio of the MMF per pole pair to the air gap magneticvoltagedrop (MVD) takentwice 1961. to include all paths for To take into accountthe fringing flux it is necessary the magnetic flux coming from the excitation systemthrough the air gap to the armaturesystem(Fig. 3.l2), i.e. Gn : G6 * 2(Gsz * Gsz * Gsa -t Gss)* 4(Gsa+ Gsz)
(3.36)
where Go1 is the air gap permeance accordingto eqn (3.35) and G sz to G sz are the atr gapperrneances for fringing fluxes. The permeances G sz to G n5 can be found using eqns(3.25), (3.28), (3.3I ) and(3.32). for the leakageflux of the PM can In a similar way the resultantperrneance be found.i.e.
GLu :2(GB * Grc) * AGns
(3.37)
(one-eight of a sphere) are where GB, Grc (one-quafter of a cylinder) and G110 the permeancesfor leakagefluxes between the PM and rotor yoke according - eqns(3.25)and(3.31). to Fig. 3.12c
3.2.5
Calculationof magneticcircuitswith PMs
The equivalent magnetic circuit of a PM systemwith armature is shown in Fig. 3.13. The reluctances of pole shoes(mild steel)and armaturestack(electrotechnical laminated steel) are much smaller than those of the air gap and
108
MACHINES MAG]\IET BRUSHLESS AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT
R,'m
'tprg
l*,,*nn,t
.fi '00
''irta
Figure 3. I 3.
Equivalent circuit (in the d-axis) of a PM system with armature.
PM and have been neglected. The "open circuit" MMF acting along the interthe d-axis armature nal magnetpermeanceG M : Tlftpnt is Tmo : H Nrohx,L flux @,y1, the leakage the PM is flux of total magnetic MMF is reaction f oy,the flux of the On, leakage the the useful air gap magneticflux is of the PM is Q17,1, (01o, the flux in the d-axis produced by the atmaexternal armature system is ture is Ooa(demagnetizingor magnetizing),the reluctancefor the PM leakage is Sr, :7lGg, andthe exterflux is sf4,r.r: LlGtm,the airgapreluctance is S,ro llGgn.The following Kirchhoff's nal armatureleakagereluctance equations can be written on the basis of the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 3 .l 3
(D,r: 1Q 1 g 1 l Q s + F ,o,o, !!
QIo:
Vl1,,ta
: 0 Tuo * QnlWpr4 - Q11qTlp17r QtmTlttr - Q nBrn T To,t : 0 The solutionto the aboveequationsystemyields the air gap magneticflux:
Qg:
I
lftt"Tfactn
L or
GnG't (Gg+ GtM)(Gar Gn + Gt^r)l GnGtu -s*Ga,I I Gn*Gtu*Gyr
rAIO
-d
f od,
Gt(Gnr * Gttr
GnGn'r
GnG* GtlGyr
(3.38)
Mnterials and fabrication
109
Figure 3.14. Shapesof PM rotors of disc-type machines: (a) trapezoidal,(b) circular, (c) semicircular.
where the total resultantperrneance G1 for the flux of the PM is Gt: Gs I Gw : ot11Gs
( 3.3e)
and the direct-axis armatureMMF acting directly on the PM is
- ,"ocjb; F[a 'lt*Urnt
: ro,t (' _,_ +) G,

\
-'
)
: {-uo
otrr
(3.40)
The upper sign in eqn (3.38) is for the demagnetizing armatureffux and the lower sign is for the magnetizing armatureflux. in terms The coefficientof the PM leakageflux (3.9) can also be expressed of permeances, i.e. olM: , , ol,ri % , Gttt
(3.41)
3.2.6
Fabrication of rotor magneticcircuits
Magnetic circuits of rotors of AFPM brushlessmachinesprovide the excitation flux and are designedas: r PMs glued to a ferromagnetic ring or disc which seryesas a backing magnetic circuit (yoke); r PMs arrangedinto Halbach array without any ferromagnetic core. Shapesof PMs are usually trapezoidal,circular or semicircular(Fig. 3.14). The shape of PMs affects the distribution of the air gap magnetic field and contentsof higher spaceharmonics.The output voltagequality (harmonicsof
110
Table 3.13. Magnetization cur.res of solid ferromagnetic materials: I (0.27%C).2- castiron
carbon steel
Magnetic flux densiryB T 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
Magnetic field intensity, 11 Mild carbon steel0.27o/o C Cast iron A/ur A/m
190 280 320 450 900 I 500 3000 1500 6600 r I,000
900 I 600 3000 51 5 0 9s00 18,000 28,000
the EMF) of AFPM generators depends on the PM geometry(circular, semicircular,trapezoidal) and distance betweenadjacent magnets[75]. Sincethe magneticflux in the rotor magneticcircuit is stationarymild steel (carbon steel)backing rings can be used. Rings can be cut from 4 to 6 mm mild steel sheets. Table 3.13 shows magnetizalion characteristics B-11 of a mild carbonsteel and cast iron. Electrical conductivitiesof carbon steelsare from 4.5 r 106to 7.0 x 106Stmar 20oC. Halbach array Twin rotors of double-sided coreless AFPM machines(Fig. l.ad) may use PMs arrange d in Halbach array I I 04- 106] . The key conceptof Halbach array is that the magnetization vector of PMs shouldrotateas a function of distance
Figure 3.15.
CartesianHalbach array
l1 1
alongthe array (Fig. 3.15) [04-106]. Halbach anay hasthe following advantages: r the fundamental field is strongerby a factor of 1.4 than in a conventional PM array,and thus the power efficiencyof the machineis doubled; r the amay of PMs does not require any backing steel magnetic circuit and PMs can be bonded directly to a non-ferromagnetic suppofiing structure (aluminum,plastics); r the magneticfield is more sinusoidal than that of a conventional PM array; r Halbach array has very low back-sidefields. The peak value of the magnetic flux density at the active surface of Halbach array is
- B,l7 - exp(-ljhl,)l ,rjp Bmo
(3.42)
where B," is the remanentmagneticflux density of the magnet,13:2rlI" seealso eqn (1.6), lo is the spatialperiod (wavelength)of the arcayandnyl is the number of PM piecesper wavelength.For the array shown in Fig. 3.15 nM : 4. For example,assumingB, : 1.25 T, hat : 6 mm, lo : 24 mm, Dm : 4 (rectangular PMs), the peak magnetic flux density at the surface of Halbachanay B1q6: 0.891T. The tangential B, and normal B, componentsof Halbach arliayat the distancez from the surfaceof PMs are B"(r, z) : B,nocos(l3r)erp( l3t)
(3.43)
"(r,
- Pz) z) : B,nosi.n(Pr)erp(
(3.44)
For a double-sided configurationof Halbach arrays, i.e. twin disc external rotors, the tangential and normal component of the magnetic flux density distribution in the snacebetween discs are
B,(r,
")
: B-.oicos(0r)-- ^Lsinh(pz)
(3.45)
B z) : Bôsin( e") Ai0r,cosh(Pz) "(r,
(3.46)
t12
AXIAL FLUX PERMAAIENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES
where B,ns is according to eqn (3.42) and I is magnet-to-magnet distance betweentwo halvesof the disc. The origin of the \ry z coordinate systemis as in Fig.1.8.
3.3 Windings 3.3.1 Conductors

Stator (armature)windings of electric motors are made of solid copper conductor wires with round or rectangularcross sections. The electricconductiviQ at20oCof copperwires is 57 x 106 ) ozo ) 56 x 106 S/m. For aluminum wires o2ox 33 x 106 Sim. The electricconductivity is temperature dependent and for 0 - 20" < 150"C can be expressed as
o20
l+a(d-20")
(3.41)
where a is the temperaturecoefficient of electric resistance.For copper wires a : 0.003931/"C and for aluminumwires o : 0.00403l/"C. For I - 20" > 150oCeqn(3.47)containstwo temperature coefficients cr and p of the electric resistance. i.e.
o20
1 * a(t9 - 2A) + p(0 - 20")2
(3.48)
The maximum temperaturerise for the windings of electrical machines is determinedby the temperature limits of insulatingmaterials.The maximum temperature rise in Table3.14 assumes that the temperature of the cooling medium 8. < 40"C. The maximum temperatureof windings is actually Srno*:8.+ L8
(3.4e)
where Ari is the maximum allowabletemperature rise accordingto Table3.14. A polyester-imideand polyamide-imide coat can provide an operatingtemperatureof 200"C. The highest operatingtemperatures (over 600oC) can be achievedasing nickel clad copper or palladium-silver conductor wires and ceramic insulation.
3.3.2
Fabrication of slotted windings
Statorwindings are usuallymadeof insulatedcopperconductors. The cross sectionof conductors canbe circularor rectangular. For largeAFPM machines a direct watercooling systemand consequently hollow conductors can be considered. It is difficult to make and form stator coils if the round conductor is thicker than 1.5 mm. If the current density is too high, parallel conductorwires of
113
Table 3.14. Maximum temperaturerise Arl for armature windings of electrical machines according to IEC and NEMA (basedon 40"C ambient temperature)
Ratedpower ofmachines, length of core and voltage IEC a.c. machines< 5000 kVA (resistance method) IEC a.c. machines> 5000 kVA or length ofcore ) I m (embeddeddetector method) NEMA a.c.machines< 1500 hp (embeddeddetector method) NEMA a.c. machines> 1500 hp and < 7 kV (embedded detectormethod)
Insulation class AEBFH "C "C "C OC "C
60
75
80
100
125
60
70
80
100
125
70
90
115
140
65
85
I 10
135
smallerdiameterare recommended ratherthan one thicker wire. Statorwindings can also haveparallel currentpaths. The anrraturewindings can be either single-layer or double layer (Seclion 2.2). Af\er coils are wound, they must be securedin place, somehow,so as to avoid conductor movement. Two standardmethods are used to securethe conductors of electricalmachinesin place: t dipping the whole component into a varnish-like material, and then baking off its solvent, t trickle impregnation method, which uses heat to cure a catalyzed resin which is drippedonto the component. Polyester, epoxyor silicon resinsareusedmost often asimpregnating materials for treatmentof statorwindings. Silicon resinsof high thermal endurance are able to withstand $n,', ) 225"C. Recently,a new method of conductor securingthat doesnot require any additionalmaterial,and usesvery low energyinput, hasemerged [63]. The solid conductorwire (usuallycopper)is coatedwith a heat and/or solventactivated adhesive. The adhesive which is usuallya polyvinyl butyral,utilizesa low temperaturethermoplastic resin [163]. This meansthat the bondedadhesive can come aparl after a certain minimum temperatureis reached,or it again comes in contact with the solvent. Norrnally this temperatureis much lower than the
tt4
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNET BRUSHLESSMACHINES
Figure 3.16. Disc-type corelesswinding assembledof coils of the same shape according to U.S. PatentNo. 5 744 896 !391: (a) single coil; (b) three adjacentcoils. I - coil side, 2 inner offsetting bend, 3 - outer offsetting bend.
thermal rating of the baseinsulation layer. The adhesiveis activatedby either passingthe wire through a solventwhile winding or heatingthe finished coil as a resultofpassing electriccurrentthrough it. The conductor wire with a heat activatedadhesiveovercoatcostsmore than the sameclassof non-bondable conductor. However,a less than two second culrent pulse is required to bond the heat activatedadhesivelayer and bonding machinerycostsabouthalf as much as trickle impregnation machinery[63].
3.3.3
Fabrication of corelesswindings
Stator coreless windings of AFPM machines are fabricated as uniformly distributed coils on a disc-type cylindrical supporting structure (hub) made of nonmagnetic and nonconductive material.Thereare two types of windings: (a) winding comprised of multi-turn coils wound with turns of insulated conductor ofround or rectangular crosssection; (b) printed winding also calledy'lm coil winding. Coils are connectedin groups to form the phasewindings typically connected in in staror delta. Coils or groupsof coils of the samephasecan be connected parallel to form parallel paths. To assemblethe winding of the samecoils and obtain high density packing, coils shouldbe formed with offsettingbends,as shownin Fig. 3. I 6. The space betweentwo sidesof the samecoil is filled with coil sidesfrom each of the adjacentcoils. Coils can be placedin a slottedstructureof the mould (Fig. 3.17). With all the coils in position, the winding (often with a supporting structure or hub) is
Materials and fabrication
I l5
(a)
Figure 3.17. Moulds for positioning the coils: (a) mould with guide slots; (b) mould with guide pins.
Figure j.18.
Film coils for AFPM micromotors.Courtesyof EMbest,Soeul,Korea
mouldedinto a mixture of epoxy resin and hardener and then curedin a heated oven. Becauseof the difficulty of releasingthe cured stator from the slotted structureof the mould (Fig. 3. l7a), eachspacingblock that forms a guide slot pins of different size (Fig. 3.17b). consists of severalremovable For very small AFPM machinesand micromachines printed circuit corelesswindings allow for automationof production.Printedcircuit windings for
I16
MACHINES MAGNETBRUSHLESS AXIAL FLUX PERMAAIENT
AFPM brushlessmachinesfabricatedin a similar way as printed circuit boards have not been commercializeddue to poor performance.A better perfotmance using film coil windings madethrough the sameprocessas hasbeenachieved flexible printed circuits [85]. The coil patternis formed by etchingtwo copper films that are then attachedto both sides of a board made of insulating mateboth rials (Fig. 3.18). Compactcoil patternsare madepossibleby connecting throughholes [85]. sidesofcoil patterns
Numerical example3.1
circuit is shown in Fig. 3.19. There are two A simple stationarymagnetic Vacomax240 HR SmCoPMs (Table3.11) with B, : 7.10T, H, : 680 kA/m, coefficients()B : -0.03%l"C and as : -0.15o/ol"CaI 20 I temperafure 'Bpm { 100"C. The height of the PM per pole is hy : 6 mm and the air gap cores thicknessg : 7 mm. The U-shapedand I-shaped(top) ferromagnetic are made of a laminated electrotechnicalsteel. The width of the magnetsand coresis 17 mm. Calculatethe air gap magneticflux density,air gap magnetic field strength, the useful energy of PMs and normal attractive force per two polesat: (a) 8pu: 20oCand (b) ,5ptr :100oC' The MVD in the laminated core, leakageand fringing magnetic flux can be neglected. Solution: (a) Magnet temperatureI pm : 20"C The relativerecoil magneticpermeabilityaccordingto eqn (3.4) for a straight curveis line demasnetization
1AB
Itrrrec: tto,LH
M;
1.10-0 1 x - 0 L.29 Y 104 680,0U0
The air gap magneticflux densityaccordingto eqn (3.13) is

Dug-
1.10 : 0.906 T L+I.29 x 1.0/6.0
The air gap magneticfield strengthaccordingto eqn (3.14) in which H : Hs andB: Bg is
Ho: H.lt
/8.
x ro3 "u',): ouu (r
'r:,t1)
x r03 A/rn r20.r2
The useful energyper magnetvolume accordingto eqn (3.5) is
-,: u-p :W#e:54
J/m3 3e5.8
M aterial s and.fabric atio n
117
17
m ffi
Figure 3.19. A simple stationary magnetic circuit with PMs and air gap. Numerical example
3.1. The useful energyper pole pair is Wg:wgVIV: 5 4 , 3 9 5 . 8 (x 2 6 x 15x 17x 10 n) : 0.166J
The normal attractiveforce per 2 poles is Bl , - ,fr(2s.lr) I o\a'2
,3pnt -- 100oC (b) Magnet temperature The remanent magneticflux densityand coercivityat l00oC accordingto eqns (.3.2) and(3.3) is
B,: r ro +#(roo-,o)] ror4r [r.

x tor fr + **troo r/" : 680
L 100
- 20)l: 5e8.4 x 103 A/m j
At'Bpu : 100"C the demagnetization curveis nonlinear.lts linearpart is only between0.5 T and B, parallelto the demagnetization curveat 20oC.Thus,the permeabthty gap relative recoil magnetic and air magnetic field strength 1.t,.,,.. Ho at l00oC are approximately the sameas those at room temperature. The air gap magneticflux densityaccordingto (3.13) is
Bs*
r.074
7 + 7 . 2 9x 1 . 0 / 6 . 0
: 0.884T
118
MACHINES MAGNETBRUSHLESS AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT
The useful energyper magnetvolume is

ugx
0.884x 720,120 : 53090.3 Um3
perpolepair is Theusefulenergy e) J W g : 5 3 0 9 0 . 3 (x 2 6 x 1 5x 1 7 x 1 0 : 0 . 1 6 2 forceper2 polesis Thenormalattractive
r:
N RR42
*ffi(r5
N x 17x to 6): 158.6
statorhas 8-poleAFPM machinewith slottedferromagnetic A single-sided, : : Din 0.12 m. inner diametet m and diameter Do6 0.22 PM outer the (Carter is coefficient) The air gap including the effect of slotting I : 1.9 1.15 T and /1. : 900 mm. TrapezoidalsinteredNdFeB magnetshave B,: l"C and coefficientfor B" is as : *0.15 o/o kA/m at 20oC.The temperature o/o -0'64 of The coefficient l"C' for H.t's as: coefficient the temperature PM leakageflux is otv,r : 1.15 and pole width-to-pole pitch coefficient is a;:0.72' to obtainthe air gap magneticflux densitYBs : 0.64 Find PM dimensions 8pv : B0oC.Sketchoperatingdiagramsin the T at no-loadand temperature B-H and O-I,t M F coordinatesystemat no load. Assumethat the magnetic circuit is unsaturated. Solution: and coercivity at Spxn : The remanence (3.3)is 80"C accordingto eqns (3.2) and
B,: r.tb . [r *#
r6 ( fp m* r o ) ] 1 . 0 4
- 2o)l: bb4.4kAln H. : eooft * *9(dp.,rr ruu I L

accordingto eqn (3'14) at 20oCand Approximationof demagnetizationcurves B0"C respectively /H\ Bto(H) r.ri[, -
oo*oo]
/H\ B(H):1.046t1--l 5544001 "
Materials and fabrication The relativerecoil magneticpermeabilityaccordingto eqn (3.a) is lf,,ec: 1. 0 4 6 g4r. ,a 1g-o * ttn n* : -t'ir
119
The axial heightofthe PM perpole according to eqn (3.13)is , otAIBn htr: !,,." Ufffire:
t.S**ffia0.0019
l.l$vnA,a
- 0.0068m
The equivalent air gap is
s " q :e - # :
l'e I
L:
:6'4mrn
The average pole pitch (1.9), length (3.34) and width of the magnet diameter, are respectively
D : 0.'o(0.22 0.17m + 0.72):

- 0.5(0.22-0.I2): 0.05 I,r.r m
"
: y::
ry
: 0.0668 m
: crir :0.72x0.0668: 0.048 m ux,1
Thepermeance of the air gapaccording to eqn(2.23)is
Go:1roiY\oi,, - D?,)
o8n
0'72r - 0.122): 1.59x 10-6H : 0.4n10-6--1rc.222 U.00198x4\"'""

OI
tL'711174 .^ 6 0.048x0.05 bffi x tu 6 H 1.59 Cu - t-ro::L - 0.4x n'10
The total penneance for magneticflux including leakagepermeances is x 10 6H G 1 : o y n G g: 1 . 1 5x 1 . 5 9x 1 0 6 : 1 . 8 2 8 Approximation of the total perneance (air gap and leakage)line can be expressed as a linear function of 1{ h,, \ t ( H )- r , f f i H 0. 69 6 od ;0 ;0 ;G : t . B 2x v io 6H oo H :b.146 E.r^
The magneticfield intensity correspondingto the operatingpoint of the magnet is calculated as
I2O
(a)
ll
,)
l 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
u z o( l t ) B(H) lrr*,
1ou 8.10' 1000000
6.10'
-4 .t0-
-2.1{)'
(b)
o.ot) l
o ool 0.0025
o( F) O. ' (F)
o.oo2
0.00 t5
-Ty"
oool
5 ro-'
-4000 - 4000 -3s00 -3000 -2500 -2000 -r500 -r000 -500 0 0
Figure 3.20. Operating diagram of PM at no load: (a) in B-H I,I L,I F coordinate system. Numerical example 3.2.
coordinate system; (b) in O-
HM-
B,
Gfty1fQt1rtru) * B,lH.
1'046 : 148 795 Alrn "" '-' x 10-6 5.146 + 7.0461554,400
The air gap magnetic flux density as obtainedfrom the operating diagram (Fig. 3.20a)is h n, 0.0068 6 T Be - : G -Y ^w _ !; !r!lL ; r 1 1 n , : 1 . 5 9r l 0 _ - l _ " " " ! - - l 4 B 7 g b : 0 . 6 6 6 0.048x0.05 To plot the operating diagram in the Q-M M F coordinatesystem,eqns (3.16) and (3.18) are usedto find the magneticflux O, correspondingtoBr and the MMF -A per pole correspondingtoH", i.e.
x 0.048 x 0.05: 0.00252 Wb O, : 1.046
t2l : 3750.6 554400x U.0068 A
f,:
Approximation of themagnetic flux line is , 11- : O ( F ) : O - ,1 \T

\
,\
r c/
:ooo252(r-#)
The MMF F11 coffesponding to the operatingpoint of the magnetin the OM M F coordinatesystem(Fig. 3.20b)is
F". *
o_
Gt I Q,lf"
0.00252 : 1006.6 A 1.828 x 10-6+ 0.002521375A.6
The air gap flux line (Fig. 3.20b)is : GgF: Oq(.F) The total flux line (Fig. 3.20b)is Or(f) -GLf:LB2Bx10-6f The air gap magneticflux conespondingto the operatingpoint is Qs(FM) : 0.0016 Wb. The air gap magneticflux densityis Bn : 0.0016/(0.048x : 0.666T. 0.011) 1.59 > 10 6F
The magneticfield in the air gap of an AFPM machinewith coreless stator is excitedby sinteredNdFeB magnets arranged in Halbacharray.The extemal twin rotors do not have any backing steel discs (Fig. l.ad). The remanent magneticflux density is B, - 7.25 T, the height of the PM is hxn : 6 mm, the wavelength at the averagediameter is lo - 2r : 48 mm and the magnetto-magnetdistanceis f - 10 mm. Find the distributionof the magneticflux densityin the space betweenmagnets for the 90-degree Halbacharray,i.e. nNr :4. Estimate,how the number n11 of PMs per wavelengthaffects the magnetic flux density at the active surface of PMs. Solution The peak value of the magneticflux density at the active surfaceof Halbach array accordingto eqn (3.42) is
* exp(-130.e Bmo:1.2511 x 0.006)1"#P: 0.62 T
122
(a) e
MACHINES AXIALFLLTX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS

08
0.8 0.6 0.4
*x,:j. "7 "r r'[';j
roo 0.2
- 0.2 - 0.4 - 0.6 0 . 8- 0 . 8
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
(b)
0.8 B x(0,2) 100 ----7 , B - l 0 . 2 5I ^ " z l
,))r
0.6 04 0.2 0 *0.4 -0.6
o 8 -o.s
-0.004
-0.002
0 zg
0.002
0.004
of B* andB, components: (a) in the z direction; (b) in the z direcFigure3.2L Distribution example 3.3. tion.Numerical
: 130.9lim. where0 : 2 x r 10.048 The distribution of the tangential componentB, in the spacebetweenmagnets is described by eqn (3.45) and the distributionof the normal component B" andBz areplotted in Fig. B, is described by eqn (3.46). Both components
3.2r.
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0
0.8
B m0lim
s ,oo(nN4 )
re
2 2
8 nM
10
t2
14
16 16
Figw'e 3.22. Peak value of magnetic flux density 8,,, as a function of number n,ry of PMs per wavelength. Numerical example 3.3.
Materialsandfabrication
123
For the 90-degree Halbach array(ny1 : 4) the peak value of the magnetic flux densityat the activesurfaceof PMs is -8,r,6: 0.42 T. Similarly,using eqn (.3.42), the peak value B-s can be calculated for otherHalbachconfigurations. For 60-degreeHalbach arcay(n,y : 6) B-o : 0.649 T and for 45-degree Halbach array(nx1 : B) B-o : 0.663 T. In general,
- \h'm)1ry# Brno: B,l1-exP(1 ,#T""

-exp(130.9x 0.006)] : 1.25[1 x 1 : 0.68T sincelim"*ssinrf r : 1. The peak value Br,rg?s a function of number n,y of PMs per wavelengthis shown inFig.3.22.
Chapter 4 AFPM MACHINES WITH IRON CORES
In Chapter2, principlesof operation, topologiesand fundamental equations of a broad family of AFPM machineswere discussed.In this chapter,the focus is on those types of AFPM machinesthat make use of the stator and rotor ferromagneticcores. The AFPM machineswith ferromagneticcoresare designed both as single-sided and double-sided. The statorcore can be fabricatedusing either laminated steelsor SMC powders. Generalequationsgiven in Chapter2 for the performancecalculations will be developedfurther and adjustedto the construction of AFPM machineswith ferromagnetic cores. Application of the FEM analysisto performance is also emphasized. calculations
4,1
Geometries
Single-sidedAFPM machineswith stator ferromagnetic cores have a single PM rotor disc oppositeto a singlestatorunit consistingof a polyphase winding and ferromagnetic core(Fig. 2.1). The statorferromagnetic corescanbe slotted or slotless.The statorwinding is alwaysmade of flat wound coils (Fig. 2.8). The PMs can be mounted on the surface of the rotor or embedded(buried) in the rotor disc. In the caseof a slotlessstatorthe magnetsare almost always surface mounted, while in the case of a slotted stator with a small air gap between the rotor and stator core, the magnetscan be either surfacemounted on the disc (Fig. 2.1) or buriedin the rotor disc {Fig.2.6). Largeaxial magnetic forceson bearings arethe main drawbackof single-sided AFPM machines with ferromagnetic stator cores. ln double-sided AFPM machines and magneticsymwith ideal mechanical metry the axial magnetic forces are balanced. Double-sidedAFPM machines with stator ferromagnetic cores have either a single PM rotor disc with ironcored statorson both sidesof the disc (Figs l.4c and 2.3) or outer PM rotor discswith iron-coredstatorfixed in the middle (Figs 2.4,2.5 and2.6').As with
126
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHTNES
single-sided AFPM machinesthe statorferromagnetic corescan be slottedor slotless,and the rotor magnetscan be surfacemounted,embeddedor buried (Fig. 2.6). Again, in the caseof a slotlessstatorwith a large air gap between the rotor and stator core the magnetsare almost always surfacemounted. The AFPM machinescan be flat wound (slottedor statorwindings of double-sided slotless) as shownin Fig. 2.8 or toroidally wound (normally slotless) as shown in Fig. 2.9.
4.2
Commercial AFPM machineswith stator ferromagnetic cores
An example of a commercial double-sidedAFPM servo motor with ferromagneticcore is shown in Figs.4.1 and 4.2. Extemal statorshave slotted ring-shaped steelribbon. The incoresmade of nonorientedelectrotechnical ner rotor does not have any ferromagnetic material. PMs are mounted on a nonmagnetic rotatingdisc.
Figure 4. I . Double-sided AFPM brushlessservo motor with the stator f'erromagneticcore and built-in brake. Courtesyof Mavilor Motors, 5.A., Barcelona,Spain.
generator with the stator AFPM synchronous Fig. 4.3 showsa double-sided alloy ribbon manufacturedbyLE Incorporated,Incore wound of amorphous is approximately dianapolis,IN, U.S.A. The volume of lE AFPM generators lower than that of classical synchronousgeneratorsof the samerating. 60o%
AFPM machineswith iron cores
r27
Figure 4.2. Longitudinal section of the double-sided AFPM brushlessservo motor shown in Fig.4.1. Courtesyof Mavilor Motors,,S.l., Barcelona,Spain.
'v
:.
*l:::::,::::::,:,:::,,:,&
wlillrlll',
.:llllllll:t l
Lt Figure 4.3. Gensrnart:I AFPM synchronous generator with amorphous alloy stator core. Courtesyof LE Incorporated,lndianapolis,IN, U.S.A.
4.3
Somefeaturesof iron-cored AFPM machines
Iron-coredAFPM machinesare distinguishedin two ways from coreless havecore losses (air-cored)AFPM machines, namely: (i) iron-coredmachines while coreless machinesdo not and (ii) the per unit valuesof the synchronous mareactances of iron-coredmachinesare much hieher than thoseof coreless chines.
128
The core lossesare functions of amongstother things the frequencyand density of the magneticflux in the ferromagnetic core - see eqn (2.a8). The frequency of the ffux variation in the core is in turn determinedby the speed and number of pole pairs. As AFPM brushless machinestend to have a high numberofpoles (minimum 2p : 6), the speeds of iron-coredAFPM machines are limited to keep the frequency,and hencethe core lossesof the machine, within limits; unlessthe machinesare designedto have low flux densitiesin ferromagnetic cores. Flux frequenciesare normally kept below, say 100 Hz, for laminated ferromagnetic cores. If higher frequencies are required, then silicon steellaminations with a thickness of lessthan0.2 mm, amorphous alloy ribbonsor SMC powdersmust be used. The higher synchronous inductanceof iron-coredAFPM machinesaffects negatively the voltage regulation of the machine in generator mode, which might be consideredas a disadvantage.However, for solid-stateconverter-fed applicationsthe higher synchronousinductanceof iron-cored AFPM motors is an important advantageas it helps reduce the current-ripple due to converter switching.Thus the relativelylow inductance of coreless AFPM machinescan be a significantdisadvantage in switchedsolid stateconverterapplications.
4.4
Magneticflux densitydistributionin the air gap
AFPM brushless machines with ferromagnetic stator and rotor cores can produce strong magnetic flux density in the air gap with a minimum volume of PMs. The distribution of the normal component of the magnetic flux density in the r-direction (circumferential) excited by PMs without armaturereaction at the radius correspondingto the averagepole pitch r canbe describedby the following equation
1
BnQ):.
"K6
B,pu(r)*8"1\r)
(4.1)
where the PM excitation flux density for smooth stator core is
and the magnetic flux density componentdue to stator slots is
Ba(n): x"@)#B"pnr(r)
(4.3)
The peakvaluesof the higherharmonicsof the magneticflux densitydistribution of eqn (4.2) arc B*s, : (Bnf o1y)b".
t29
1.0
t 0.8 0.6 0.4
B J9 o.z
B - ' ( x )- 0 _ 2 "' -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1o -t
0 0
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
0.1 x
0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
0.2
0.22 2.pt
Figure 4.1. Magnetic flux density distribution in the air gap of an AFPM machine with iron slottedcore obtainedon the basisof eqn (4.1) forp : 3, s1 : 18, r : 36.7 mm, a; : 0.78, : 5 m m ,o : 0 a n d b p : d t r , B , : 1 . 2 T , p , , . " : 1 . 0 6 1g , : 1 . 5 m m , b r a : 3 . 5m m , h , x 1 otv : 1.!5.
In the aboveequations(4.1), (4.2) and(4.3) kc is Cafier's coefficientaccording to eqn (1.2), b, is accordingto eqn (1.8) usually for a : 0, r is the pole pitch accordingto eqn (1.9), g' is the equivalentair gap in the daverage axis accordingto eqn (2.103),Bo is the flat-toppedvalue of the magneticflux
- 3.l0j 3.10) s 2.5 102.10" p,(x) t.s t05 l'10' 5'10' 0

5
0 0
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
0.1 x
0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
0.2
0.22 2.p.r
Figure 4.5. Magnetic pressure distribution in an AFPM machine with iron slotted core obtainedonthebasis ofeqn (4.7) forp : 3, s1 - 18, r : 36.7 mm, ar : 0.78, b, : a.r, B , : 7 . 2 T , p 1 , , " , ,: 1 . 0 6 1 ,g : 7 . 5 m m , b 1 a : 3 . 5 m m , h m : 5 m m , a : 0 a n d otu : 1.15.
130
densityaccordingto eqn (3.13), o1x1isthe coefficientof the PM leakageflux perrneance given by accordingto eqn (3.9) and .\"t is the relativeslot leakage
/2r\ lu xl \tr /
(4.4)
in which the averageslot pitch h : 2prls1, s1 is the number of statorslots and the amplitude of slot harmonics as derived by W. Weber 164, I 1I I is
a u: tto 'n ," ' + ,; (O.s 'i B _ tFpj
Bln)l4(^.
u2l2
sin( t.6utr r )
( 4.5)
The remainingquantities0(n), rc and I are expressed by the following equations: 1 /I\

t-l
13(") 2
\-
\E -E )'
bu
9*hu/tt,,,.'
f-=
1:1
(46)
The distribution of the magnetic flux density in the air gap obtained on the basisof eqn (4.1) is shownin Fig. 4.4. The magneticpressure on the statorand rotor activesurfaces can be found on the basisof the normal component(4.1) of the magneticflux densitydistributionin the air gap, i.e.
Hzy*, 7 Bo(t)'2 2 lrl
(4.7)
The distributionof the magneticpressure(.7) is visualizedin Fig. 4.5. The magneticpressure resolvedinto Fourier seriesyields harmonicsof magnetic forcesacting on the stator.It is necessary to calculate thoseharmonics,e.g. in the noise analysisof electromagnetic origin radiatedby the AFPM machine.
4.5 Calculation of reactances 4.5.1 Synchronous and armaturereactionreactances

Calculations of the stator current, other machine parametersand characteristics require knowledge of the synchronousreactanceper phase which is reactance X"4 andX", expressed by eqns(2.12) and(2.73). The synchronous is the sum of the armature reaction (mutual) reactanceX,rd, Xoq and the stator winding leakage reactance X1 . The atmature reaction reactancesXod",Xoq Lod,,Loq can be calculatedwith the aid of and armaturereactioninductances given in Section2.9 and Table2.1. The analyticalapproachto calequations X1 is discussed in Section4.5.2. culation of the statorleakagereactance
AFPM machines with irutncrtres
131
(b)
(c)
h h." frtz
h,,o h.^
n ''12
h "14
fira
h "12
fl,,.,
h ' '11
h,,
'11
-11
Or=
9p
Figure 4.6. Stator slots of AFPM brushless machines: (a) rectangular semi-open slot; (b) rectangular open slot; (c) oval semi-open slot.
4.5.2
Stator leakagereactance
The armatureleakagereactanceis the sum of the slot leakagereactance Xp, and the differential leakage X1.r, the end connectionleakagereactance i.e. reactance X14 (for higher spaceharmonics), Xt: Xt" I Xrc * lra
Iro..,t 1ii,, . , : nnf * )ra) ,.tJ#(Ar"krx + t^,.,, * i; ^,,"',r
(4.8)
where l/1 is the number of turns per phase,k1;; is the skin-effectcoefficient p is the number of pole pairs. q1 : is the for leakagereactance, "tl(2prn,1) numberof statorslotss1 per pole per phase(2.2),11i"is the lengthof the stator winding inner end connection, l1,,rr1is the lengthof the statorwinding outerend (slot-specific connection,)r" is the coefficientof the slot leakagepenneance perrneance permeance) the inner end the leakage of \r",in is the coefficient of , connection,\reout is the coefficientof the leakageperneanceof the outer end connectionand )1,7is the coefficientof the differentialleakage. of the slots shownin Fig. 4.6 are: The coefficients of leakageperrneances r for a rectangular semi-open slot (Fig. 4.6a):
, h1
-
hn b rr
2ltt:r bll * b11
ht+ brt
At^
3 b rr
(4.e)
132
AXIAL FLTIXPERMANEAIT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES
r for a rectangular open slot (Fig. 4.6b):

, htt
Joi I -
hn*h'm*hM
, OtI
il't-
(4.10)
r for an oval semi-open slot (Fig.4.6c):
) r . = 0 . t 4 2 4 1l f * ! ' ' t + 0 . 5 a r c s i n l Jbrr bn
(bulbn)2)+ t #
u14
(4.1r)
The coefficientsof leakagepelmeancesfor other shapesof slots than those shown in Fig. 4.6 are given, e.g. in [147]. The abovespecific-slot penneances (4.9), (4.10) and (4.11) are for single-layerwindings. To obtain the specific perrneances of slots containingdouble-layerwindings, it is necessary to multiply eqns(4.9), (4.10) and (4. I l) by the factor
30+t
4 where p is according to eqn (2.7). Such an approach is justified if 213
(4.r2)
1.0. The specificperrneance of the end connection(overhang)is estimatedon the basisof experiments. For double-layer, low-vo1tage, small and medium-power machines the specificpermeances of the inner and outer end connections are: r inner end connection
<{3<
:W) ) k i , , x 0 . 7 7 q 1-A
r outerend connection
(4.13)
iff;l 0 . 1 7 q 1-O ) 1 o o= ,1
(4.14)
where l1;'-,is the length of the inner end connection, l1ou1, is the length of the outer end connection, ul",;r.is the inner coil span, and u).orr1 is the outer coil span.The speciflcpeffneance of two end connections is a sum of permeances (4.13)and(4.14), i.e.
AFPM machines with iron cores
133
)1u :
)10,i,,* )l"ort :
* tu"outlrin\ 0.34qt (t - lt'u"i'Ibut ?r \ hinlbu,t )
@'15)
For wrir, : ucout : 'tltc &fid lyin - lrou,t - 1i1"the speciflc permeance (see eqn (4,15)) of two end connections has the same form as that for a cylindrical stator. i.e.
)r.:o.34qr(r-?g)
\
(4.r6)
71'lf,,/
Putting ut.fl1" : 0.64, eqn (4.16) also gives satisfactoryresults for singlelayer windings, i.e. the specificperrneance of two end connections becomes
)1" ru 0.2q1
(4.17)
For double-layer, high-voltagewindings the specificperneancesof the inner and outerend connections are: . inner end connection
?ffilni, x 0.27q11_ A7"in

r outer end connection
(4.18)
-: =ro . 2 1 q 1 treou r# t rn'-,
(4.re)
where the statorwinding factor k-1 for the fundamentalspacehatmonic z : 1 is accordingto eqn (2.10). The specificperneanceof two end connections l at'\tLl}lr't!t\
n llintlout /
(t ) r " : ) r , i n r ) t to u t: o . a z q 1
\
nt,
(4.20)
In general,the following approximaterelation may be used for most of the windinss:

)1" = 0.3q1
(4.21)
134
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHTNES
The specific penneanceof the differential leakageflux is

, Atd: mtqtrk'|,,t Tat *
T'9' Ksat
(4.22)
whereg/ is the equivalent air gap accordingto eqns(2.103)or (2.104) andkrol is the saturationfactor of the masnetic circuit. The differential leakase factor Tdr is
rat-J-f1l-r1z
'b"' t r t l
t I
(4.23)
yS\
The curvesofthe differentialleakagefactor16 are given inpublications dealing with designof inductionmotors,e.g. 196,| 11, 1471. In practicalcalculations it is convenient to usethe following formula
tot
n2(toql + z) . / 3 0 ' \ sllrl-l-1

27
\Qrl
(4.24)
The specificperrneance betweenthe headsof teeth:
Str=ffi
(4.2s)
should be added to the differential specificpeffneance)1a of slotted stator windings.
4.6
Performancecharacteristics
Specifications of Mavilor AFPM motors (Figs. 4.1 and 4.2) are shown in Table4.1. Torque-speed characteristics of Mavilor AFPM motors are plotted in Fig. 4.7. AFPM servomotors MA-3 to MA-30 are designedwith ClassF insulationand IP-65 protection. Table 4.2 showsspecifications of brakesfor MA-3 to MA-30 servomotors. Table 4.3 shows specifications genof GenSmartTMAFPM synchronous erators with amorphousalloy stator cores manufacturedby LE Incorporated, Indianopolis,IN, U.S.A. GenSmar{M AFPM synchronous generators can be used both as stationary and mobile generators.
135
Tnrqur iNmi 18
lr!
14 1! 1*
tul4-![
s
fi 4 7. fi 0
MA.-30
_ MA-1fi
.MK.E - MA"3
5flf
1nflfi
'}*{Jt} 'l 35fl CI 4Dnfl 5flfi ?0fifl 25*fi $peecl irpnti
Figure 4.7. Torque-speedcurves of AFPM brushlessservo motors manufactured by Mavilor, Barcelona,Spain.
Table 4.1.
AFPM brushlessservomotorsmanufacturedbv Mcrvilor. Barcelona" Spain
Maximum speed,rpm Stall torque,Nm Stall current, A Peak torque, Nm Torque density, Nm/kg EMF constant,Vs/rad Torque constant,Nm/A Cogging torque, Nm {) Winding resistance, Winding inductance,mH Rotor moment of inertia,kgm2 x 10-3 Mechanical time constant,ms E,lectricaltime constant,ms Thermal time constant,s Thermalresistance, "C/W Mass, kg Radial load, N
MA-3 9000 1.3 2.2 5.2 0.1 0.3 0.6 < 0.2 10.2 25.0 0.04 2.0 2.5 1500 1.1 2r8
MA-6 6000 3.6 4.2 28.5 0.8 0.5 0.9 < 0.1 5.3 11.6 0.30 3.8 2.2 1500 0.6 225
MA-10 6000 5.8 6.8 40.7 Ll 0.5 0.9 < 0.1 2.2 0.4 2.10 3.6 7.5 1800 0.5 225
MA.2O 6000 10.0 10.3 69.8 1.2 0.6 1.0 < 0.2 1.4 7.0 0.80 2.1 5.0 1500 0.4 34 390
MA-30 6000 16.0 16.5 96.0 1.6 0.6 1.0 < 0.3 0.5 4.0 1.60 1.6 7.5 1500 0.4 36 390
r36
AXIALFLUX PERMAI{ENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES
Table 4.2. Speciflcationsof built-in brakes for AFPM brushlessseryomotorsmanufacturedby Mavilor, Barcelona, Spain
Holding torque, Nm d.c. voltage,V Input power, W Momentof inertia,kgm2 x 10-3 Disengagement response time, ms Engagementresponsetime, ms Mass, kg
MA-3 I 4.8 5 0.08 7 5 0.3
MA6 4 24 22 0.3 30 7 0.8
MA-10 4 24 22 0.3 30 7 0.8
MA-20 88
11
Ma-30
1/
22 0.3 30 77
22 0.3 30 0.8
0.u
Table 4.3. GenSmartT^r AFPM synchronousgeneratorsmanufactured by LE, Inc., Indianopolis. IN. U.S.A.
28-G22
Rated output poweq kW Rated speed,rpm Maximum speed,rpm Voltage, V Stator insulation Efficiency, To Frame extemal diameter, mm Frame extemal length, mm Stator core material Cooling Ambient temperature,"C Maximum allowabie temperature,"C Enclosure Mounting Overtemperaturecontrol Mass,kg Power densiry kWkg
28 3600 4240
90-G32 90
t20-G49 t20 2s00 3000
92.2 216 150
480or 208 Class H 94.9 315 186 Amorphous alloy liquid or air cooled -50to 60 125(risefrom40"C) Totallyenclosed Flange or foot Embedded thermistor 44 2.045
95.3 485 200
I.JJJ
115 1.043
4.7 Performance calculation 4.7.1 Sine-wave AFPM machine

power of a sine-wave(synchronous) The electromagnetic AFPM motor is expressed by eqn (2.84)which can also be broughtto the following form:
AFPM machines with iron cores rll + * (t", - X,n)I?,sin 2V] Perr, : mllloE J lcos 2\ Hence,the developed torque is
P"l^ 2nn"
t37 (4.26)
, ['s ^ :
t#
llrr
- L " s ) I : , iz v* nv l @ . 2 7 1 1ku, 11 Ioo <s )tr"o
For buried and interior PM rotors X",t t X"n and L",t ) ,L"n, which implies that an additional reluctancepower and torque component is developed by the machine. For surface PM rotors the reluctancedependentcomponents of power and torque are almost not existent as X"a = Xsa and L",1.= L"n. In eqn(4.26)the EMF E y canbe calculated by meansof eqn (2.29). The current Io and angle V in eqns (4.26) and (4.27) are either specified,or determined accordingto Section2.7 using voltage phasorV1 projectionson the d, and q axes. The reactances and inductances are calculatedas describedin Sections 2.9 and 4.5.2. Hence,with all the parameters known, the performance of the AFPM brushless motor in terms of the electromagnetic power and developed torquecanbe calculated. Note that, for the generating mode,the second term in eqns(4.26) and(4.27) (dependent on the differencebetweenthe d- and q-axis inductances) synchronous is written with the minus ( ) sign. The electric power available,after losses,of an AFPM machinewith the statorferromagnetic core is calculated as r the input power for motoring mode
Pr.n: P.t,n * LPt- * LPrp" * LPzp" * APppy + AP"
(4.28)
r the output power for generatingmode
Pout : P"t^ - LPu, - LPtt"",
LPzp" * A.Ppm - LP",
(4.29)
where P"1^ is accordingto eqn (4.26), LPr, are the stator winding losses accordingto eqn (2.42), LPtpu are the stator core lossesaccordingto eqn (2.47), LPzp" are the rotor core lossesaccordingto eqn (2.59), LPpyl are
138
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRL]SHLESS MACHINES
the lossesin the PMs accordingto eqn (2.54) and AP" are the eddy current lossesin the stator conductorsaccordingto eqns (2.61) or (2.62) (only for (input power Pi, for generators,output slotlessstators). The shaft power P"7.. power Po6 for motors) is calculated power by adding to the electromagnetic P"1- (generators)or subtractingfrom the electromagneticpower (motors) the rotationallossesLProt accordingto eqn (2.63). The shaft torque is r for a motor (developed by the motor itself)
-t , s n
Por,t
2rn
(4.30)
r for a generator(developedby the prime mover) P,L , _ _, ", 27r,, and the efficiency is
L
(4.3r)
P
t
't
OUf
p
1,n,
(4.32)
4.7.2
Synchronousgenerator
The phasordiagramof a salientpole synchronous generator with RL load is shownin Fig. 4.8. The input voltageprojectionson the d andq axesaccording to Fig. 4.8 are Vrsin6:IonX"n-IoaRt
* IoqRt l/r cos6 : Ef * IodX",t,

and
(4.33)
14 sin 6 : IoaRr
IoqXr
I cos6 : IonRl * IoaXr
G}4)
139
jl"oX, jl"oXL
l"oR,
o
I
Figure 4.8.
Phasordiagram of an overexcited salient pole synchronousgeneratorfor RL load.
perphase acrossthe outpul where Zr - Rr * jXr, is the load impedance tetminals.The d- and q-axiscurents are
r from eqns(4.33) r,E.fX", - Vt(X"qcos d F R1 sind)
'ad,
X"aX"q * R,'4
(4.3s)
't a-q
Vr(X"a sin d - fir cosd) + tf Rt X"aX"q* R?
(4.36)
r from eqns(4.34)
tq.a
r,-
W(Rr sind * X; cosd) R2r_ + x2,
(4.37)
140
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES Vt (.Rr cosli t,o r : W Xl sin d)
(4.38)
The load angle6 betweenthe voltageVl andEMF Ei can be determined, e.g. from the first eqn (4.33),i.e.
I"dRL - I"qXL\ d : arcsin (
\I/r
(4.3e)
Combining eqns(4.33) and (4.34), the d- and q-axis currentsare independent of the load angled, i.e.
Lad
r.-
Ef (X'q a xr) (X"a* xr)(X"qaxr) +(/?rlRr)'

ES(Rt * Rr,)
(4.40)
"n
(x"o* xy)(x"n a xr) + (i?r* Rr)2
(4.4r)
The angle V between the current Io and g-axis and the angle $ between the current Io and voltage Vy arc respectively,
: arccos irr (?)d: arccos (+):
arccos (m)
arccos (X)
(4.42)
(4.43)
where I" : lia * Iln @eealso eqn (2.82)). The output electrical power on I the basisof phasordiagram(Fig. 4.8) and eqn (a.33) is
Pout : myVllocos @ - m1V1(Ia,rcos d * Ioa sin d) : mllEylo, - Io6,Ior(X"a - X"q) - IiA,l
6.44)
Including only the statorwinding losses, power of the internalelectromagnetic the eenerator is
Petrn: Pout -f LP:'- : mllEylon - Io6Ion(X"a - X"q))
(4.45)
AFPM machines with iron cores
t4l
4.7.3
Square-wave AFPM machine
The square(trapezoidal) wave AFPM brushlessmachine has already been introducedin Section2.10.2. Square-wave machines arecharacterized by their trapezoidal or quasi-squareback EMF waveforms with the conduction angle from 100 to 150 electricaldegrees, dependingon the construction.The trapezoidalback EMF waveformscanbe obtainedby properdesignof the magnetic and electric circuits. Both slofied and slotlessAFPM machinescan be designedso as to obtain sinusoidalor trapezoidalback EMF waveforms,except the toroidal AFPM machineof Figs 2.4 and2.5.The toroidalmachineis almost always designedto have atrapezotdalback EMF waveform. The amplitude of the back EMF can be calculatedby meansof eqn (2.118) for a three phase Y-connected machinewith two phasewindings active. The square-wave AFPM machine is always fed by meansof a solid state inverter.The invertersuppliesd.c. PWM voltagesto the machinephasewindings during the conductionintervals. The current squarewaveforms(seeFig. 1.3a)are described by the flat-toppedvalueof the current4"q). The developed torque Ta of Ihe square-waveAFPM brushlessmachine can be calculated by power Pr1- of the machine meansof eqn (2.120). Hence,the electromagnetic can be found. Using the same loss and power balanceequationsas for the sine-wave machine,the input and output power can be calculatedwith the aid of eqn {4.28) and the ouQut power Pottt : Putr, - LProt. Note that LPn, must be calculated by using the true rms value of the current given by eqn (2.t28).
4.8
Finite elementcalculations
Insteadof using analyticalor semi-empiricalformulae, someof the equivalent circuit parameters and lossesof the AFPM machine can be calculated accuratelyby meansof the FEM analysis.The 2D and 3D FEM electromagnetic software packagesare nowadays available at affordable prices and the field solution time has become attractivelyshort. For example,most of the problemscan be solvedin seconds on today'spersonal 2D FEM magnetostatic computers. inductances -Lr6 and Lrn and the EMF Ef of an AFPM The synchronous calculamachineare the critical parameters usedin the performance brushless tions. The first step is to specify on a 2D plane the outline, dimensionsand materials of the AFPM machine. Due to the symmetry of an AFPM machine, even half it is usually sufficientto model only one pole pitch (or sometimes a pole pitch) of the machineby applying periodic boundaryconditions[233]. The cross section is taken at the averageradius of the active part of the staon the machinetopology tor winding, i.e. at 0.2s(Dort + D,"). Depending
142
Air Gap F'lux 0 Density
-''\,\ ,!
(r)
\---:+-
lg0 "
900 Rotor angle
lg00
t'
!:
=iliilii
..t--j--___= /'--'--z;:*;
t,',";-E
Air (iap Flux g Density
(r)
(b)
Figure 4.9. Magnetic flux plot and air gap flux density with only PM excitation of (a) slotless and (b) slotteddisc type machinewith surfacePMs.
and material propefties,either Neumannor Dirichlet conditionmay be imposed on the remainingboundaries. The length of the winding, which is in the radial direction, is taken as the active length of the stator winding, i.e. Lt: ltr :0.5(Dout Dm) - eqn (3.34).After assigning differentmaterial propefiiesto various regions of the model, the defined structurecan then be meshed. The secondstep is to specif,u the phasecurrents,i.q,,ia andig, in the machine accordingto the position of the rotor. To calculatethe parameter L"4 ot L", the phasecumentsmust be assignedin such a way that the statorMMF can be alignedwith the d-axis or q-axis respectively. In both cases the PMs haveto be kept inactive.In the caseof calculationof the EMF Ef equalto the no load voltage in generatingmode, the phasecurrentsare set to zero and only PMs are active. The third stepis to run the FEM solverand obtainfor eachof the threecases describedabove a solution for the air gap magneticflux density in the axial directionof the machine.The fundamental componentof the air gap magnetic
AFPM machineswith iron cctres
t43
\/
/
- r . ' - - - - - = - 1
' \ ' J ' - - - - .
ffi#a+ji)ArAf-,5.$
mn |ii-litiiiilt ii.ltitif--li| i lt -+;

Aluminium
0.1 Magnet Flux Density
it[.;tf-]riltL:l Iiilj illif {--l
(r) o ' * / \ _ ,
-0.1
l1
\r
Rotor angle
:7
Ltffi
ffi=='
0.24
Magnet Flux Density
(r)
g00
I 80-
(b)
Rotorangle
Figure 4.10. Magnetic ffux plot and air gap flux density of interior AFPM machine with (a) only d-axis and (b) only g-axis statorwinding excitation.
of the axial componentof the flux densityis determined by Fourierexpansion air gap flux density. Hence, the peak values of the fundamental air gap flux for eachof the casesabove: (1) B,n"at with only densities can be determined the d-axis MMF and thus only the d-axis cuffent I"a, (2) Brroql with only the g-axisMMF and the q-axis cunent lor,and(3) Bn,s with only the PMs active. the inductances Step four is to calculateby meansof analytical equations and B,nonl known from the FEM analysis,the and induced EMF. With Brnc,,1r accordingto eqns(2.97)and (2.98). flux linkagesVa and Ilrncanbe calculated in Section5.4.2. as described l",y L"o can be calculated The inductances and With B-e known from the FEM analysis,the back EMF Ey can be found by and then to eqn (.2.22) first calculatingthe magneticflux per pole Oy according .O1according to eqn (2.29). Fig. 4.9 showsthe FEM flux plots and air gap flux densitiesdue to PM excitation alone for two single-sidedAFPM machine configurationswith slotted and slotlessstators.Fig. 4.10 showsthe FEM flux plots and air gap flux den-
144
sities for a single-sidedinterior AFPM machine with only the d- and q-axis stator windingexcitation.
A three-phase, 2.2-kW, 50-Hz, 380-V (line-to-line),Y-connected, 750-rpm, : : 7870, cos 0.83, double-sided PM disc synchronous motor has the T @ following dimensions of the magneticcircuit: PM outerdiameterDout : 0.28 m, PM inner diameterD;r: 0.16 m, thicknessof the rotor (PMs) 2h7,1: g mm, single-sided mechanical g - 1.5 mm. A surfaceconfiguration clearance of uniformly distributed PMs has been used. The rotor does not have any soft ferromagnetic material. The rotor outer and inner diameters correspond to the outer and inner outline of PMs and the statorstack. The dimensionsof rectangular semi-closed slots(Fig. 4.6b) are: hn : 11 mm, hr2 :0.5 mm, : hs 1 mm, hu 1 mm, bn : 13 mm andbla : 3 mm. The number of statorslots (one unit) is sr :24, the number of armaturetuins of a single statorper phaseis ly'r : 456, the diameterof the stator copperconductoris 0.5 mm (without insulation),the numberof statorparallelwires is a- : 2 and the air gap magneticflux density is B,nn - 0.65 T. The rotational lossesare LP,ot: 80 W and the coreand PM losses arc L,P1p. + LP1M :0.\5Pout. There are two winding layers in each stator slot. The twin-stator Y-connected windings are fed in parallel. Find the motor performance at the load angled : 11o. Comparethe calculationsobtainedfrom the circuital approach with the FEM results. Solution The phasevoltage is I,z1: 3801/3 : 220 V. The number of pole pairs is p : f ln: 50 x 601750: 4 and 2p : B. The minimum slotpitch is
. tm?,n
rD,i,n
-
zr x 0.16
51
24,
: 0.0209rn = 21 mnr
The width of the slot is b12 : 13 mm, that meansthe narrowesttooth width clrnin : trnir, - btz : 2I - 13 : 8 mm. The magneticffux density in the narrowestpart of the stator tooth
Brtnro, B*nt\'ni'
cLrnirt
0 . 6 5x 2 1
:7.7 T
which is rather low. The average pole pitch accordingto eqn (1.9) are diameterand average
8 0 . 1 6:)0 . 2 2 m D : 0 . 5 ( 0 . 2+
n x 0.22
: 0.0864rn
145
Because thenumber perpoleperphase of slots (2.2)

qI
sl
zp-t-g"J
24
the winding factorkr,1 : k6kpt: a n d( 2 . 1 0 ) .
1 x 1 : 1 asexpressedby eqns(2.8),(2.9)
The magneticflux accordingto eqn (2.22) and EMF inducedby the rotor excitationsystemaccordingto eqns(2.29) are respectively ) er : 1x 0.6b{[(0.5 x 0 . 2 q 2 - ( 0 5 x 0 . 1 6 ) 2:] 0 . 0 0 2 1 4w 5b " Tt 8"
: 2rT.z\l Ef : nt/250 x 456x 1 x o.oo2r4b

It hasbeenassumed that B,',ny - Brns. Now it is necessary to check the electric loading, current density and fill (space)factor of the statorslot. For two parallel wires a- : 2,the numberof per coil of a double-layer conductors phasewinding accordingto eqn (2.3) is orly'r 2 x 456 ,, n Ar "" - (", (2413) lr,,) Thus the number of conductorsin a single slot l/"1 is equal to the (number of layers) x (numberof conductors per coil N") : 2 x 774 : 228 or according (2.5) to eqn | ',2 x 456 ,\',i:__*-:22x The rated input current in a single stator is I Pout 2200 " 2m1V1r7cos@ 2x3x220x0.78 -r.57_\ > U.83
The statorline currentdensity(peakvalue) on the basisof eqn (2.86) is 4r/2 *tloNr 3 \ / r 4 5 6x 2 . s 7 ^ - -A- : _r;-l-l -152.2 A/rn t,\uout + Di") 0.0864x 4 which is rather a low value even for small PM a.c. motors. The crosssection of the stator (armature)conductor
,^ o o -:
ndTro'52: mm2 o.1gz ,t /
146
MAGI'{ET BRUSHLESS MACHINES AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT
gives the following current density under rated conditions

,la -
2.57 :6.57 Af nln2 2 x 0.797
This is an acceptable value of the current density for disc-typea.c. machines rated from I to l0 kW. For the class F enamel insulation of the armature conductors,the diameter of the wire with insulationis 0.548 mm. Hence.the total crosssectionalarea in the statorslot is ofall conductors ^^ . n0.548'
22s#
= 54 mnr2
h nbn : 11x 13 : 143 slotis approximately Thecross section area of asingle thatthe statorcanbe easily mm2. The slot fill factor54f143 : 0.38 shows with round slot filI factorfor low voltagemachines wound,sincethe average is about0.4. stator conductors for a discrotora.c.machine endconnection Theaverage length of thestator to eqn(2.32) turnaccording length of thestator is 11"= 0.154m. Theaverage is m lto,: ,2(Lt. + lt") : 2(0.06 + 0 . 1 5 4:) 0 . 4 2 8 - 0.16) : 0.06m. The stator - Dn) : 0.5(0.28 whereLt : O.5(Do,ut per phase of 75"C (hotmotor)according at a temperature windingresistance is to eqn(2.33)
Rr
lfr lrou
456x 0.428
a1n6so, 47 x106 x 2 x 0.1965
: 10.57 O
is calculated on the basisof eqns(1.2)and (l .3),i.e. coefficient Carter's

roo-l
2 28.8 - \I : 1.004 2 8 . 8 0 . 0 0 5 2x 6 17/
1 : +[*
arctan (#")
-'"
: 000526 *f] V[ (--?__,,,
x 0.22124: 0.0288m: 2B.Bmm. The nonferwhereh : rDlsr : '1T romagneticair gap in calculationof Carter'scoefficientis g' = 29 l2h'y : of twin statorcores, 2 x 7.5 * 8 : 11 mm. Sincetherearetwo slottedsurfaces Carter'scoefficienthasbeensquared. The stator (one unit) leakagereactancehasbeen calculatedaccordingto eqn ; = i 1 " )t " f L , . i . e . rf (4.8) Lf; - l l r o u t \ t , o uL i n w h i c hl y ; , A 1 . ; n
147
t i'm (o.T7g+ x t - r x 0 . 4 rv I 0 6 r , . 5 g a 5 6 ' ffio.zra

: 6.158 CI +0.2297 + 0.9322) where - eqn (4.9) is r the coefficientof slot leakagereactance Ar": 11 o'5 2x1 l + + *5 :o'ttn 3x 13 rs re+g
* eqns(4.16)in which r the coefficientof end connection perrneance leakage the average coil spanwc: T is
) r "= 0 . 3x 4t (t -?*ry)
\
/f u.t)+ /
: 0.218
- eqns(4.22) and(4.24) is r the coefficientof differentialleakage perrneance
)r'r:#i#?##o
r(tr 4t#-,i,,$
:o22e. oe66
_ r o.oe6ei
- eqn(4.25)is r thecoefficient peflneance of tooth-top leakage . rr:5 A *o;fi-0.9322

According to eqns(2.114) and (2.115) in which kf a: kf n:1, the armature reaction reactances for surfacetvne PM rotors and unsaturated machinesare X o ' t: f , a a 2x3 x0.4x rx 10 6 t so ({9t1)' \4/
5 x7713
- (o .s ( o .rx o .zs)2 x o .to )2 _ 5.856 CI 1 .0 0 x 4 0 .0 1 1
where the air gap, in the denominator,for the armatureflux should be equal to g' x 2 x 1.5t8 - 11 ffiffi(F,,.. = 1). The synchronous reactances according to eqns(2.12)and(2.73)are
148
Figure 4.11. Magnetic flux plots in the double sided AFPM motor: (a) zero armature curent, (b) rated armature current. Numerical example 4.1.
X s d:, X " q : 6 . 1 5 8 + 5 . 8 5 6: 1 2 . 0 1 O The armaturecurrentsare calculatedon the basis of eqns (2.80), (2.81) and (2.82). For d : 11" (cosd : 0.982,sind : 0.191)the currentcomponents z r e 'f. o 4 : 1 . 8 2A , 1 o q: 1 . 8 8A a n dI o : 2 . 6 2 A . The input power absorbedby one stator is expressed by eqn (2.83). The input power accordingto eqn (2.83)absorbed by two stators in parallelis twice as much, i.e. Pin -2 x 3 x 220(1.88 x 0 . 9 8 2- ( - 1 . 8 2 ) 0 . 1 9 1:) 2 8 9 2 . 4 W
power absorbed The input apparent by two statorsis
149
(a)
I 0.E
0.6 Magoetic
nllli, o.n' (r)

0.2 0 *q.2
-90'
I
-450
0" Rotor angl*
4$E
(b) 0.8
0.6
Magnetic
nll'li, o.r {r)

4.2 0 *o.2
-s0q
*45" 00 Rntor angle
Figure4.12. Magnetic flux density distribution alongthepolepitch: (a) zeroarmature cunent, (b) ratedarmature current. Numericalexa.mnle 4.I .
5;,, : 2 x 3 x 220 x 2.62 : 3458.4VA The power factor is

,aa, ,4 ';rr*:0.836 cosE-
Thelosses in two stator windings according to eqn(2.42), in which kyp rt I,

are calculated as LPt,, : 2 x 3 y 2.622x 10.57: The outputpowerassuming that LP1p. + LP.4: 71 P u u t- 7 1 ; ( P ; , , - A p r . r .uit Lp,or):
l.Ulr
435.2W 0.05Porris + J 5 . 2 B 0 . t t )= 2 2 6 4 W
.;-(2g92.4
150
I 35 30 25
Torque 20 Nm 15
A,YIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRL]SHLESS MACH]NES
Reluctance torgue -Total torque -*-
10
o
0 *5
-154 0, 150 Rotor angle 304 4go
Figtrre 4. I 3.
Torque as a function of the disc rotor position. Numerical example 4. I
Thus
LPrr. + LPPM -- 0.05x 2264: 113.2 W Themotorefficiency is 2264.0

2892.4
The shaft torque is
: 0.783
or
rl :78.37o
["n power is The electromagnetic Petm: P,n- LPt--
- 28'83 Nm 2o\7,.,1V60)
))(\A
LPtr"'"- LPpm - 2892.4-435.2-713.2 :2344W
The electromagnetic torquedeveloped by the motor is

ry1 , _ rd,
2344 : 29.84Nm 2r x 750160
The resultsof the FEM analysis are shownin Figs 4.11,4.12 and4.13. The FEM gives higher valuesofthe average developed torque than the analytical approach. Eqns(2.114),(2.115)and (a.8) do not give accurate valuesof X,6, X"n andX1. The electromagnetic torqueplotted in Fig. 4.13 againstthe rotor position has a significantcogging effect componentwith the period equal to doubleslotpitch, i.e. 30".
AFPM machtnes with iron cores
l5l
A three-phase, Y-connected, 50 Hz, 5.5-kW AFPM synchronous generator with slotted stator has the following parametersof the steady-state equivalent circuit: fir : 0.1 Q, X"d, : 2.3 Q and X"n : 2.2 Q. The generator is loaded with a resistance of Rt, : 2.2 Q and inductance of L7: 0.0007H connected in series. The EMF per phaseat no load inducedby the rotor PM excitation systemis Ey : 100 V and rotationallossesare LProT: 90 W. Find the statorcurrents,electromagnetic powet output power and efficiency. Statorcore lossesand lossesin PMs havebeenisnored. Solution The load reactance and module of load impedance are XL:2tr.f Lr:2r x 50x 0.0007:0.22{)
Z 7 : / 2 2 2 + 0 2 2 2: 2 . 2 1 1 Q The statorcurrentsaccordingto eqns(4.40),(4.41) and(2.82) are , : : + 0 . 2 2 )+ ( 0 . 1+ 2 . 2 ) 2 \ 4 . . r- r 0 . 2 2 ) ( 2 . 2 21'2ltA
"n
'L^ u q-
Loo(o'l- 2'2) t{) 2()A 0 . 2 2 ) ( 2 . 2 + o . 2+ 2 )( 0 . 1+ 2 . 2 ) 2 23 Io: A J212b2+ 2020, : 2g.32
(across Theterminal voltage theloadimpedance) is V : I u Z r : 2 9 . 3 2 x 2 . 2 7 I: 6 4 . 8 2 Y :112.3 V VtL: nEVt : \/5 64.82 The powerfactor,loadangled andangleV according to eqns(4.43),(4.39) and(4.42)respectively are cos@zg'??\-z'z:0.9e5 64.82 4:5.77'
v : arccos (ffi)
:46.4b"
152
AXIALFLTJX PERMANENT MAGT)ET BRUSHLESS MACHINES
x 2'2-- 20'20x 0'22 d : arcsin(27'25 ) : 40.24o 64.82 \ I - 5.77": 40.740 d : V * 4,: 46.450 Theelectromagnetic poweraccording to eqn(a.45)is - 2.2)l: 5930.3 :31100 x 20.20 2I.25x 20.20(2.3 Petrn W Thestator windinglosses according to eqn(2.42)is LPt-*:3x 29322 x0.1:257.8W Theoutput poweris : rrllVllecosd - 3 x 64.82 : 5672.5 Pou,t x 29.32 x 0.995 W : P"t^ * APw: Pout The inputpoweris Pin : P.h, i LProt: 5930.3 W * 90 : 6020.3 Theefficiency is 5672.5 4:6020-3:o'942 - 257 '8 :5672.4 5930.3
Chapter5 AFPM MACHINES WITHOUT STATOR CORES
5.1
Advantages and disadvantages
Dependingon the applicationand operatingenvironment,statorsof AFPM machinesmay haveferromagnetic coresor be completelycoreless. A coreless stator AFPM machine has an internal stator and twin external PM rotor (Fig. L4d). PMs can be glued to the rotor backing steeldiscsor nonmagnetic supporting structures. In the secondcasePMs are arranged in Halbachanay (Fig. 3.15) and the machineis completelycoreless. The electromagnetic torque developedby a coreless AFPM brushless machineis producedby the open space current-carrying conductor-PM interaction (Lor entz force theorem). Coreless configurations eliminateany ferromagnetic material,i.e. steellaminationsor SMC powdersfrom the stator(armature), thus eliminating the associatededdy current and hysteresis core losses. Becauseof the absence of core losses,a corelessstatorAFPM machinecan operateat higher efficiency than conventional machines.On the other hand, owing to the increased nonmagneticak gap, such a machineusesmore PM material than an equivalent machine with a ferromagnetic stator core. Typical coil shapesused in the winding of a corelessstator are shown in Figs3.16 and3.17 . In this chapterAFPM brushless machineswith corelessstatorand conventional PM excitation,i.e. PM fixed to backing steeldiscs,will be discussed.
5.2
Commercial coreless stator AFPM machines
Bodine Electric Company,Chicago,IL, U.S.A. manufactures 178-mm (7inch) and 356-mm (I4-inch) diameter e-TORQTMAFPM brushlessmotors with corelessstatorwindings and twin externalPM rotors with steelbacking discs (Fig. 5.1a). The corelessstatordesigneliminatesthe so called cogging
t54
AXIAL FLUX PERMANEI{T MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES
Figure 5.1. AFPM brushlesse-TORQT\I motor with corelessstator windings: (a) general view; (b) motor integratedwith wheel of a solar powered car. Photo coudesy of Bodine Electric Company, Chicago,IL, USA, www.Bodine-Electric.com.
(detent) torque, improves low speedcontrol, yields linear torque-cunent characteristicsdue to the absenceof magnetic saturationand provides peak torque up to ten times the rated torque. Motors can run smoothly at extremely low speeds, evenwhen poweredby a standardsolid stateconverler.In addition, the high peak torque capability can allow, in certain applications, the elimination and reducethe risk oflubricant leaks. ofcostly gearboxes The 356-mm diametere-TORQTMmotors have been used successfully by studentsof North Dakota StateUniversity for direct propulsion of a solar powered car participatingin2003 American Solar Challenge(Fig. 5.lb). A well designed solar-poweredvehicle needs a very effrcient and very light electric motor to convert the maximum amount of solar energy into mechanicalenergy AFPM brushless motors satisfythese at minimum rolling resistance. Coreless requirements. Small ironless motors may haveprinted circuit stator windings or film coil windings. The film coil statorwinding has many coil layerswhile the printed circuit winding has one or two coil layers.Fig. 5.2 showsan ironlessbrushless EmBesl,Soeul,SouthKomotor with film coil statorwinding manufacturedby PM excitationsystemat one side of the stator rea. This motor has single-sided and backingsteeldisc at the other sideof the stator.Small film coil motorscan be usedin computerperipherals, computerhard disc drives(HDDs) 1128,129), pagers, printers,plotters, flight recorders, cardreaders, copiers, mobile phones, labelingmachines, video recorders and medicalequipment. micrometers,
AFPM MACHTNES WITHOT]T STATOR CORES
155
H <;c|H
.*HA:
'U:
9d
Ug *S.rr
,:p,
' ];,rr:,l,lli' -" 1 6 14
6:
w:
3 , *v)
b fr 2zP+
f 5
gs
H;
Figure 5.2. Explodedview of the AFPM brushle ssmotor with film coil coreless statorwinding and single-sided rotor PM excitationsystem.Courtesyof Embest,Soeul,South Korea.
5.3 Performance calculation 5.3.1 Steady-stateperformance

To calculate the steady-state performance of a coreless statorAFPM brushlessmachineit is essential to considerthe equivalent circuits.
(a) jl"oX"o jl"oX"o
<__
jl"oX"o jl"oX"t x1
<__ <_
-+
+,l
t"
'"{
Figure 5.3. Per phaseequivalentcircuit ofan AFPM machinewith a corelessstator: (a) generator arow system; (b) consumer(motor) arrow system. Eddy current lossesare accountedfor bv fhc shuntrc5istance n, .
The steady-state per phase eqLdvalent circuit of a corelessstator AFPM brushless machinemay be represented by the circuit shown in Fig. 5.3, where R1 is the statorresistaoce, X1 is the statorleakagereactance, E1 is the EMF
156
induced in the stator winding by the rotor PM excitation system,Ei isthe rms value of the internal phasevoltage, V1 is the terminal voltage and Io is the rrns statorcurrent. The shuntresistance -Ruis the statoreddy current loss resistance, which is definedin the sameway as the core loss resistance [116] for slotted PM brushless motors. The statorcurrentslo,t",Ioq andIo for a given load angle d (correspondingto the slip s in induction machines) can be calculated on the basisof eqns(2.80), (2.81) and (2.82) respectively. If loa : 0, all the stator current Io : Io,t produces the electromagnetictorque and the load angle 5 : Q. The angle / between the stator current 1o and terminal voltage % is determinedby the power factor cos@. If we ignore the lossesin PMs and lossesin rotor backing steeldiscs,the input power can then be calculatedas follows r for the motoring mode (electrical power) Pi,: P"hn * LPt- + LP"-
( s1 )
r for the generatingmode (mechanical shaft power)

Pin:P"t*,*LProt
(.s.21
power accordingto eqn (2.84) in which where P"1,nis the electromagnetic LPtr" : 0, LP1, is the statorwinding loss accordingto eqn (2.42),A,P" are the eddy currentlossesin the statorconductors accordingto eqn (2.61) or eqn (2.62) and A,P,o1arethe rotationallossesaccordingto eqn (2.63). Similarly, the output power is: r for the motoring mode (shaftpower)
Pout:Pulnr-LProt
(s.3 )
for the generating mode (electrical power) Pout: P"I*, LPtLP",
(s.4)
The shaft torque is given by eqn (4.30) for motoring mode or eqn (4.31) for generating mode,and the efficiencyis expressed by eqn (4.32).
AFPM MACHTNES WITHOUT STATOR CORES
157
5.3,2
Dynamicperformance
For a salient pole synchronousmachine without any rotor winding the voltage equationsfor the stator circuit are
utd: Rti"o +*
dL
- duq
(s.s)
(s.6)
utq:R1i'o+**aad
AL
in which the linkage fluxes are defined as
tba: (L"a* Lv)i"a* ths: L'aioa* 4;f
(s.7)
,!q :
(Loq -t Ly)i,"n :
L"qioq
(s.B)
(5.5) to (5.8) tr14and'u1n ared- andq-axis components ln the aboveequations of the terminal voltage,r! S is the maximum flux linkage per phaseproduced Lo6, Lon are by the excitationsystem,Br is the armaturewinding resistance, r,r : 2n f is the d- and g-axis componentsof the armatureself-inductance, the angular frequency of the armature current, iod, ioq are the cl- and q-axis componentsofthe armaturecurrent. The resultantarmatureinductancesLsd,: inductances. In Lo,j I L1 andLrq : Loq t Ly arereferredto as synchronous a three-phase machineLod : Gl\Lt*,j and Lo, : (3f 2)Lt"q where Ltooand L'on are self-inductances of a single phasemachine. The excitation linkage : Lyaly where Lya is the maximum value of the mutual inductance flux /7 between the armature and field winding. In the case of a PM excitation, the fictitious field currentis 1; : H.hu. Puttingeqns(5.7) and (5.8) into eqns(5.5) and (5.6),the statorvoltageequations in the d and q-axiscan be written as u1,1: R1,io6 * 4#f
dt
"o
- aL"nion
(s.e)
(s.10)
,u1n :
f"n I aLr6io4 a alt t R1,ion - + *o,1;
:0,Io:Io4l : (dI d,t)L For the steadystateoperati on (dI dt) L "qi"q "d,iacr : f2lo, , u14- J2Vra, rrn : jl,rq,Yt : Va I jVtq,loy : f2Iod, i,s.q
r58
,fiVtn, Ey : wLyalt lt/2 : ,rltf lt/2 [86]. Thequantities aL,4 and, uL,, areknownasthe d- andq-axissynchronous reactances respectively. Theinstantaneous powerto themotorinputterminals is [86,96]
pi, : T@M.ia,i. -l uhioq)
( s1 .1)
The input power of a motor (5.11) is equivalentto the output power of a generator.The electromagnetic power of a three-phase machineis [86, 96] :l"bl,t Petrrt * (L"a - L")i'oa)zoq $.12)
The electromagnetictorque of a three phasemotor with p pole pairs is
ro: p&# :')nltr -t (L"a- L"n)i,oali,on
(s. r3)
The relationships between,io4,,ioo andphasecurrentsi,o4,ioB and'iog ate

o uao, , O
' i o 4 c o s u t * i 4 6 c o s l/w t
2r\ 2^\l l * i,og r:os ( " , + 3/ T))
( s.14)
. ioq:
/ 2 2.\ / -3 sinc,:/ * io6 sin (r, | rnr-sin (ut + ; Lt,o ) 2l
2"\l
T))
(s.l 5)
The reverserelations,obtainedby simultaneous solution of eqns (5.14) and (5.15)in conjunction with iot * i'e t ioc - 0, are
daA :'io4cos ut - ion sin at
Za,B :
?o4 COS
(.''- T)2r\ / [uf+i)-
2r\
r ^ ^s i n
Q'-T) Q'*T)
(5.I 6)
LaC,' :
?,adCOS
ri-^sin
AFPM MACHINESWITHOUT STATORCORES
159
5.4 Calculation of corelesswinding inductances 5.4.1 Classicalapproach

inductance L" consistsof the atmaturereaction(mutual) The synchronous . For a machine with magnetic inductance Lo and the leakageinductance -L1 in the d and q axes,the synasymmetry,i.e. with a differencein reluctances arewritten as sums in the d* and q-axis, L and L chronousinductances "n, "6 of the armaturereaction inductances(mutual inductances),Loa and Lo,,, and tf . i.e. inductance leakage
LsrL: Loil * Lt
L"rr: Lo, * Lt
( 5 .l 7 )
by eqns(2.109),(2.110)and are expressed The armaturereactioninductances (2.111), in which air gaps in the d- and q-axis are given by eqns (2.105) are given by eqns Q.fl4) and and(2.106). The armaturereactionreactances (2.115). Table 2.1 comparesarmaturereactionequationsfor cylindrical and disc-typemachines. analyticallyas a sum of three compois expressed The leakageinductance i.e. nents,
Lt : Lr, * Lt" * Lta: 2LroY()r, +
E^r,+
)ra)
(s.1 B)
- Dm) is the active length of a coil equalto the radial where Lt : O.S(Dout length ly of the PM, qr is the numberof coil sidesper pole per phase(equivalent to the number of slots) accordingto eqn (2.2), ly" : 0.5(1u,, -f luut) end connection,Ly" and .\7" are the length of the single-sided is the average for the leakageflux about radial portions of inductanceand specificperrneance (corresponding to slot leakagein classicalmachines)respectively, conductors Lp and.\1s ore the inductance and specific perrneancefor the leakage flux about the end connectionsrespectively, and L6 and ).y1 are the inductance and specific perrneancefor differential leakageflux (due to higher spaceharmonics)respectively. It is difficult to derive an accurateanalytical expressionfor ),1" for a core.\1" and )1" can roughly be lesselectricalmachine. The specificpenneances equation: from the following semi-analytical estimated
,\15!,\1.=0.39r
(s.1e)
The specific permeancefor the differential leakageflux can be found in a similar way as for an inductionmachineI I I I ], using eqn(4.22)in which ks,,lx I
160
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNET BRUSHLESS MACHINES
andgt x 2l(g +0.5t-) +hml. The thickness of the statorwinding is f- andthe distancefrom the stator disc surfaceto the pM active surfaceis g (mechanical clearance). It is not difficult to show that L1a : L,,ray flll).
5.4.2
FEM approach
unlike conventional slottedAFPM machines, thereis no cleardeflnitionfor main and leakageinductances in a corelessor slotlessmachine as discussed in U2,77, 1221.using the 2D FEM analysisboth mutual and leakagefluxes can be taken into account. The only remaining part is the end winding leakage flux. with the 2D finite element solution the magnetic vector potential I t as only a z component, i.e. A : A@,il.a" where a, is the unit vector in z direction (axial direction). The total stator flux of a phasewinding th,sBc that excludesthe end-windingflux leakagecan be readily calculated by using Stokes'theorem, i.e.
aARCl"E.{s:l"t"A a3-t',Aa1
(s.20)
As an approximationthe flux linkage of a phase coil can be calculatedby working out the differencebetweenmaximum magneticvector potential values of each coil side. In the casethat the coil is not very thin, magneticvector potentialvariesin the coil cross-section area.Therefore,the average magnetic vector potential values should be used. For first-order triangular elements,the flux linkageof a coil with N1 turns,area,g and length I is given by [133]
$:N,i? tf* o,,f
(s.21)
where Aii is the nodal value of the magnetic vector potential of the triangular elementj, e : *1 or ( : -1 indicates the directionof integrationeitherinto the plane or out of the plane, A, is the areaof the triangularelementj, andn is the total numberof elements of the in-going and out-goingareasof the coil. It follows that for an AFPM machinewith only one pole modelled,the total flux linkageof a phasewinding is
,b.qec:'+y,r ^,,7 [T f..
(s.22)
whereu is the total numberof elements of the meshedcoil areasof the phasein the pole region and ao is the number of parallel circuits (parallel cul:rentpaths) of the statorwindins.
CORES STATOR AFPM MACHINESWITHOUT
16I
From a machine design perspective,it is important to find the fundamental of the total flux linkages. For a corelessstator AFPM machine components with usually unsaturatedrotor yoke, the flux linkage harmonics due to iron stator slots and magnetic saturationare absent.Owing to the large air gap, the statorwinding MMF spaceharmonicsare negligible in most cases.The most important harmonics neededto account for are those due to the flat-shaped PMs. the ffux linkage wave of an AFPM machineis Given theseconsiderations, parameter(non-distributed)windnearly sinusoidal,though for a concentrated 5th and Tth harmonicsare still less significant and appreciable 3'd ing, an If prisent in the total flux linkage waveform. the 5th, 7Lh andhigher harmonby total phaseffux linkagescan be calculated ics are ignored,the fundamental givenin [133],i.e. usingthe technique
ancl - lQaBcs) anct) = lrl, frl,
( s.23)
3'd harmonicflux linkage,includingthe higherordertriple wherethe co-phasal can be obtainedfrom: harmonics,
tbas: ,!tt : tbczx
|{r,,
* 4;s +,!s)
(s.24)
with the fundamentaltotal phaseflux linkages and rotor position known, the d as follows and q-axisflux linkagesare calculatedusing Park's transformation [86]:
Itaqol: lKoll,l'asct)
where [86]
(s.2s)
!) {) Kr--;l -'i"e -s\n(|r-*) *sin(e+#)

lt7t
I , I cos
cos(o
cos(g +
,u, ,, I
(s.27) ( s.28)
With a constant rotor angular velocity cuthe angle 0 : wt' In the 2D FEM do not includethe cominductances model the d-axis and g-axis synchronous ponentdue to end connectionleakageflux [96], i.e. L'",1,: Loa * L\ : Lod. * L* i Lu
L ' " q : L o st L \ :
L o n* L t " I L u
162
The inductances tr'", andLt"oresultfrom eqns(5.7) and (5.8), i.e.
L'"d: *#
ancl L'"r: ;Vq

"aq
(s.2e)
The end winding inductanceL1" e&nbe calculated from numerical evaluation of the energy storedin the end connections1169]or simply by using an approximateequationresultingfrom eqn (5.18), i.e.
r trle : n ZpO^T2l lYl [1c . Ale
( s.30)
PQT
Finally,
Lsd : Lt"r1 * Lp and Lsd, : L'",7* Lrc
( s.3 1)
5.5
Performance characteristics
Specifications of e-TOROTN{ AFptrrtbrushless motorsmanufacture d,by Bodine Electric Company,Chicago,IL, U.S.A. are given in Table5.1. The EMF constant,torque constant,winding resistanceand winding inductanceare lineto-line quantities. Motors are designedfor a maximum winding continuous temperature of 130"c. Steady-state performance characteristics of a 356-mm, l-kW, 170-V e-TORQrra motor are shown in Fig. 5.4. Fig. 5.5 shows an air-cooled 160-kW AFPM brushlessgeneratorwith a corelessstator built at the university of Stellenbosch,South Africa 12321. The stator winding consistsof sixty single-layertrapezoidal-shape coils, which have the advantageofbeing easy to fabricate and have relatively short overhangs (Fig.3.17). The winding coils are held togetherto form a disc-type statorby using compositematerialof epoxy resin and hardener.SinteredNdFeB PMs with B, = 1.16 T and maximum allowable working temperature around130oChavebeenused.The detaileddesigndataare given in Table5.1. The output power and phase current at different speedsare shown in Fig. 5.6. Owing to very low statorwinding inductance per phase, the outputvoltage variesalmostlinearly with the load cunent. It has been found from both experimental tests and calculations that for a typical sine-wave AFPM machinewith a coreless stator,the ratio of the d- and q-axisinductances of the phasewinding is nearunity, i.e. Lral Lr, = 1. Thus, the analysis of the AFPM brushless machinewith a coreless statormay be done in a similar way as that of the three-phase cylindrical machinewith surfaced P M s [ 1 1 8 ,1 4 5 ] .
AFPM MACHII,IES WITHOUT STATOR CORES
163
AFPM motors with corelessstatorsmanufacturedby Tabte5.1. Speciflcationsof e-TORQTNT Bodine Electric Companr,Chicaso, IL, U.S.A.
Parameter Output power, kW Number of poles d.c. bus voltage,V Speed,rym Peak speed,rpm Torque, Nm Peak torque, Nm Current, A Peak current, A Efficiency, % Torque constant,Nm/A EMF constant,V/krpm Q Winding resistance, Winding inductance,mH Viscous friction, Nm/rad/s Static friction, Nm Electrical time constant,ms Mechanical time constant,ms Moment of inerlia, kgm2 Mass of activepafts,kg Power density, W/kg
AFPMmotor AFPM motor 356-mm 178-mm Low EMF High EMF Low EMF HighEMF constant constant constant constant 0.26 0.57 1.0 0.7 l6 l6 8 8 170 300 170 300 70 1500 300 3000 2200 700 400 3500 2.83 31.1 33.9 2.26 84.4 t3.67 t52.1 22.6 2 13 5 5 t2.5 10.5 64 50 77 75 84 8l 6.814 1.299 2.38 0.4859 249 713 137 50 43 t4.3 1.33 2.2 29.4 10.5 3.6 t.4 0.012 0.00019 0.00669 9 . 9x 1 0 - 5 0.1442 0.0378 0.02357 0.00728 2.'11 0.684 0.734 a.$64 17.78 4.5 4.026 4.538 0.21 0.00525 0.21 0.00525 30.87 6.17 30.87 6.17 32.39 8.42 11 3 . 5 92.4
5.6 Eddy current lossesin the stator windings 5.6.1 Eddy current lossresistance
statoriron losses For an AFPM machinewith a corelessstator,associated are absent. The rotor discs rotate at the same speed as the main magnetic field, thus the core lossesin the rotor discs due to the fundamental harmonic of the statorfield also do not exist. Howevel the eddy culrent lossesin the stator winding are significant due to the fact that the machine is designedwith 2p > 6 to operateat relatively high frequenciesf = pn. Eddy current losses AP" in stator conductors are calculated according to eqn (2.61) or eqn (2.62). A more detailedmethod of the eddy current losses inl234l. Eddy cunent lossesin the statorconductors computationis discussed for in the sameway as core lossesin the statorstack [l16]. can be accounted The eddy-loss cunent Iu and its d- and q-axis components1",1and I"n shown in Fig. 5.3 is in phasewith the internalphasevoltage t7 acrossthe shuntre-
164
Table5.2. Specifications of a three-phase, 160-kw, 1950-rpm AFpM brushless synchronous generator with ironless stator corebuilt at the (Jniversity ofstellenbosch. SouthAfrica
OutputpowerP,"t, kW Speed n, rpm

Number of phases m1 Rated line voltage, V Rated phase current, A Frequency /, Hz Number of stator modules Number of pole pairs p Number of stator coils (3 phases) Number of turns per phase Wire diameter,mm Number of parailel wires ri,Axial height of PM per pole h,y, mm Axial thicknessof the winding f,,,, mm Air gap (one side) 9, mm Air gap magnetic flux density B-n under load, T Current density, Almm2 PM outer diameterDou1., mm ka : Dtn/Do,,i r&tio Class of insulation Winding temperaturerise, "C Cooling system Type of windi
160 1950 3 (Wye) 435V 215A 100 I 20 60 51 0.42 12 10.7 t5.7 2.75 0.58 7.1 720 0.69 F 56 Selfair-cooled
le layer trapezoidal
sistanceBu. The internal phase voltage -oi is generatedby the resultant air gap flux and usually referred to as the air gap voltage [86]. consequently, the shunt resistancein the equivalent circuit representingthe eddy current loss is expressed as
(s.32)
where
(5.33)
on the basisof equivalent circuits(Fig. 5.3), the following equations can be written in the phasor form:
AFPM MACHINESWITHOI]T STATOR CORES ;oo (a)

fi00
165
3 3 soo
o I
g 4oo
o- 300 E
d zoo g.
100
0 100 150 troque, Nm
(b)
80 -70 x
j
",
.9
o50
E*'
50
100
150 torque, Nm
200
250
300
Figure5.4. Steadystatecharacteristicsofof356-mm, l-kW 170-ve-ToReTNi AFpMmotor: (a) outputpowerPo.u,1 andspeed n versus shafttorque?"6; (b) phase current andefficiency versusshafttorqueT"6. Datacaptured at22"C for totallyenclosed non-ventilated motor.Courtesv of BodineElectricCompany, Chicago, IL, U.S.A. r for generators
E"r: Er I jTo6Xo6+ jloqxo,,t
( s.34)
I'u:Io*I"
(s.3s)
166
AATAL FLUX PERMAI,IENT MAGI{ETBRUSHLESS MACHTNES
Figure 5.5. Air-cooled single-stagesynchronousAFPM machine: (a) rotor disc with surface (b) corelessstatorwith busbars, mountedPM segrnents, and (c) the assembled machine. Courtesy of the University o.fStellenbosch,South Africa.
250
500
750
1000 1250 (rpm) Speed
1500
1750
2000
Figure 5.6. Output power and phasecurrent versusspeedfor generatingmode ofa 160-kW generator. AFPM brushless Specifications are given in Table5.2.
AFPM MACHINESWITHOUT STATOR CORES
t67
r for motors
Ef :E1jToaXoa- jloqXoq
(5.36)
I'o:Io-
I.
( s.37)
where Il is the stator current with eddy curents being accountedfor and Iu is the stator current with eddy currentsbeing ignored.
5.6.2
Reduction of eddy current losses
In an AFPM machinewith a coreless statorthe winding is directly exposed to the air gap magneticfield (seeFig. 5.7). Motion of PMs over the coreless winding produces an alternating field through each conductor inducing eddy currents. The loss due to eddy currents in the conductorsdependson both the geometry of the wire cross sectionand the amplitude and waveform of the flux density.In orderto minimize the eddy currentloss in the conductors, the stator winding shouldbe designed in one of the following ways using: r parallelwires with smallercrosssections insteadof a one thick conductor; r stranded (Litz wires); conductors r coils madeof copperor aluminumribbon (foil winding). In an AFPM machinewith an ironlesswinding alrangement (as shown in Fig. 5.7a),in additionto its normal component, the air gap magneticfield has a tangentialcomponent, which can lead to seriousadditionaleddy curent loss (Fig, 5.7b). The existenceof a tangentialfield componentin the air gap discourages the use of ribbon conductorsas a low cost arrangement.Litz wires allow significantreductionof eddy current 1oss, but they are more expensive and have fairly poor filling factors. As a cost effective solution, a bunch of parallel thin wires can be used. However,this may createa new problem, i.e. unlessa completebalanceof inducedEMFs amongthe individualconducting pathsis achieved, a circulating curent between any of theseparallelpaths[49, 206,234] may occuras shown in Fig. 5.7c,causingcirculatingeddy currentlosses. When operatingat relatively high frequencymagneticfields, theseeddy current effectsmay causea significantincrease of winding losses,which are intensified if there are circulating currents among the parallel circuits. These
168
Axial Flux Tangential Flux (b) LocalEddyLosses
Airgap field
Circulating Eddy Losses

(a)
(c)
Figwre5.7. Eddy curents in the coreless statorwindingof an AFPM machine:(a) magnetic field distributionin a coreless stator;(b) eddy currentsin a conductor;(c) circulatingeddy parallelconnected currents among conductors.
losseswill deteriorate the performance of the AFPM brushless machine.Predicting the winding eddy current losseswith a good accuracyis thereforevery important at the early stageof design of such machines. Eddy current lossesmay be resistance limited when the flux producedby the eddy currentshas a negligible influence on the total field 1206].In this case (diameterof thickness) the conductordimensions are small when comparedto the equivalent depth of penetration A : I lk" of the electromagneticfield e q n( 1 . 1 2 ) .
5.6.3
Reduction of circulating current losses
To minimise the circulating current in a coil made of parallel conductors, the normal practice is to twist or transpose the wires in such a fashion that each parallel conductoroccupiesall possiblelayer positionsfor the samelength of the coil. The effect is to equalizethe induced EMFs in all parallel conductors, and to allow them to be paralleled at the ends without producing eddy circulating currentsbetweenthe parallel conductors. Figure 5.8 illustratesthe effectiveness of suppressing circulatingeddy current by wire twisting. Four coils are made with the only differencethat the par-
AFPMMACHINESWITHOUT STATOR CORES
t69
fl
(a) Ch 1:2 NDiv 2.5 ms/Div
,il .i'U
(b) Ch 1: 100 mA/Div 2.5 ms/Div
I ll '; :1 " lur

,L;,1 I
..1-r. : i I : _ . l t.i. u . _ : i l . . . , \ 1 . ., , :..i1l

:J
:! 1l ilr { . l, : t t ' l : , ' h ' i l l ' .l
: 'n i' lt" ' 'M" tq""irl "i l,l l: il t: il:l

It I
t:,/{'.h' !!.'h..
;e*
i4
lt::::
(c) Ch 1: 100 mA/Div 2.5 ms/Div (d) Ch 1: 100 mA/Div 1 mslDiv

Figure 5.8. Measuredcirculatingcumentof (a) non-twistedcoii, (b) slightly twisted coil, (c) moderatelytwisted coil, (d) heavily twisted coil.
allel wires of eachcoil are: (a) non-twisted, (b) slightly twisted (10 to l5 turns per metre),(c) moderatelytwisted (25 to 30 turns per metre),and (d) heavily twisted (45 to 50 tums per metre)respectively. All the coils havebeenusedto form a portion of an experimental stator,which is placedin the middle of the two opposingPM rotor discs. The machineoperates at a constantspeed(400 rpm in this case). The circulating currentsbetweentwo parallel conductors havebeen measured and logged on a storageoscilloscope.It can be seenthat the inducedcirculatingcurrent is greatly reducedevenwith a slightly twisted coil and can generallybe ignoredin a heavily twisted coil. Thesetwisted wires can easily be manufacturedin a cost effective way. The fill (space)factorsfor the non-twistedand the heavily twisted coils are estimated as 0.545 and 0.5 respectively, which is slightly lessthan that of the Litz wires (typically from 0.55 to 0.6). However,the savingin manufacturing costsis usuallymore important. It shouldbe notedthat due to the low impedance of a coreless statorwinding, circulating current could also exist among coil groups connectedin parallel (parallel current paths) if a perfect symmetry of coils cannot be guaranteed.
170
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACH]NES
5.6.4
Measurement of eddy current losses
limited eddy loss in the statorof an AFPM machinemay be The resistance experimentally determinedby measuringthe difference in input shaft powers of the AFPM machine at the same speed,first with the stator in, and then by replacing it with a dummy stator (no conductors). The dummy stator has the samedimensionsand surfacefinish as the real statorand is meantto keep the windagelosses the same. A schematicrepresentation of the experimentaltest setup for measuring eddy current lossesin stator conductorsis shown in Fig. 5.9. The shaft of the tested prototype and the shaft of the prime mover (driving machine) are coupledtogethervia a torque meter. The statoris positionedin the middle of the two rotor discswith the outer end ring (seeFig. 5.9a)mountedon the outside supportingframe. Temperaturesensors are also attachedto the conductors in order to take into accounttemperaturefactor in the measurement. Initially, the prototype(with the corelessstatorplacedin it) was driven by a variable speedmotor for a number of different speeds.The corresponding torque measurementswere taken. Replacing the real stator with a dummy one, the tests were repeatedfor the same speeds. Both the torque and the temperature valueswere recorded.The differenceof the torquesmultiplied by the speedgivesthe eddy currentloss. The eddy lossesdue to eddy-circulating currentin the windings can also be determined by measuring the differenceof input shaft powers,first with all the parallel circuits connected and then with parallel circuits. disconnected Fig. 5.I 0 showsthe measured and calculated resistance limited eddy losses of the prototype machine. It can be seenthat the calculatededdy lossesobtained by using the standardanalyticalformula - eqns (2.61) and (2.62) with takeninto accountyield underestimated values(43% only the B-, component less). The discrepancy and calculatedresultsbecomes betweenthe measured large at high speeds.Better accuracymay be achievedby including both the normal B,n" and tangential B-" componentsof the magnetic flux density and implementing eqn (2.61)or eqn (2.62)into the 2D or 3D FEM [235].
5.7
Armature Reaction
hasbeenappliedto the modelling of a coreless stator The 3-D FEM analysis AFPM machinein [10]. Both no-loadand load operations havebeenmodelled. It hasbeen shown that good accuracycan be expectedevenwhen the first order linear FEM solutionis appliedto the AFPM machineif the magneticcircuit is not saturated(large air gap). It has also been found that the armaturereaction for an AFPM machinewith a coreless statoris generallynegligible. Using a 40-pole,766 Hz coreless statorAFPM machineas an example,the simulated effects of armaturereaction to the air gap flux distribution has been
AFPM MACHINESWITHOUT STATOR CORES
171
(a) u't' ,"',{l '

Thermometer t,'''_'l
Supplv\ q .q . ,
HryTf
AFPM Machine
Speedometer _l tr--..
L:I
Torque Sensor
Figure5.9. Laboratory setformeasuring eddycurrent losses in the statorwinding: (a) spe(b) experimental ciallydesigned stator; (c) schematic machine; of experimental set-up.
demonstrated in Figs 5.1I and 5.12. lt can be seenthat the plateauof the axial field plot is somewhat tilted due to the interactionbetweenthe flux of the PMs and the armatureffux generated by the ratedculrent (Fig. 5.11). Similarly,the modified tangentialfield plot is comparedwith the original one in Fig. 5.12. As the atmaturereactionflux is small in coreless AFPM machineswith large air gaps,the air gap magnetic flux density maintains its maximum value very close to that at no load. The influenceof the armaturereactionon the eddy current lossesis usually insignificantthough it can be easily accountedfor when the FEM modelling is used. The harmonic contentsof the air gap flux densityobtainedwith and without armature reactionarecompared in Table5.3. It is evidentthat, in this case, the changeof the field harmoniccompositiondue to the armature reactionis negligible.
172
900 800 700 , 600
soo E o I - 4nn
t|J 3oo 200 100 0 600 800 1000 1200
Speed (rpm) Figure 5.10. Comparison of calculated eddy loss with measurements.
0 Rotor angle (degrees)
Figure 5.1I.
Air gap axial field component at noload and full load conditions
AFPM MACHINESWTTHOUT STATOR CORES

04 0.3 0.2
173
01
F e0
m -0.1
-02
---o---Zeroarmature current
-03
--+- Rated armature current

-0.4
Rotor angle{degrees) Figure 5. I 2. Air gap tangential field component at no-load and full load conditions.
Table 5.3. action Harmonics I

2rtd
Hatmonics content of the axial air-gap flur density with and without armature re-
Rated armature current
5'',t 7'h
gtlt lLth
1 2Lh t rth l7th lgth
0.60346784 0.0374565 1 0.0409906 I 0.03502689 0.01231397 0.00304573 0.00559543 0.00314908 0.00083 159 0.00307828
Zero armature cunent 0.60246033 0.03745759 0.04070525 14609 0.035 0.01230032 0.00262309 0.005'79739 0.00312t79 I2 0.000868 4.00272939
5.8
Mechanical design features
In the mechanicaldesignof an AFPM brushless machine,obtaininga uniform air gap betweenthe rotor disc and the stator is important. Therefore, the methodsof fixing the rotor discs onto the shaft and the statoronto the enclosure (frame)arevery important.Impropermethodsof fixing, or misalignmentin the
t74
AXIAL FLLIX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES
assembling of the statorand rotor will causea nonuniform air gap, vibration, noise,torquepulsationand deterioration of electricalperformance. With regardto cooling in an air-cooledAFPM machine,the entry lossesof the air flow can be quite high if the machine-air-inlet is poorly designed.It is importantto reducetheselosseswithout weakeningthe mechanicalstructure for bettercooling. To summarise, attentionshouldbe paid to the following aspects of the mechanicaldesign: r Shaft. The load torque, the first critical speedand the shaft dynamics shouldbe taken into accountin the shaft design. r Rotor. (i) The deflectionof the rotor disc due to the strong magneticattraction force, (ii) the meansof mounting and securingthe magnetson the rotor discs to counteractthe strong centrifugal force especiallyfor high speedapplications, and (iii) the balancingof the rotor discs. r Stator. (i) The strength andrigidity ofthe resinreinforcedstatorand frame, and (ii) the positioningand spacingof the coils to ensure perfectsymmetry. r Cooling. For air cooled AFPM machines,the air inlet and air flow paths throughthe machineshouldbe carefullydesigned in orderto ensure a better massflow rate and thereforebetter cooling. r Assembly. An effectivetool to facilitatethe assembling and dismantlingof the machinefor maintenance.
5.8.1
Mechanicalstrengthanalysis
The deflectionof the rotor discsdue to the strongmagneticpull may have the following undesirable efTects on the operationand conditionof AFPM machines: closingthe running clearance betweenthe rotor disc and the stator: looseor broken PMs: r reducingair-flow discharging areathus deteriorating the cooling capacity; r nonuniform air gap causing a drift in electrical performancefrom the optimum. For a double-sided AFPM machinewith an internal corelessstator,the rotor discsaccountfor roughly 50% of the total activemassof an AFPM machine. Hence,the optimal designof the rotor discsis of greatimportanceto realisea designof high power-to-massratio. All theseaspects requirethe mechanical stress analysisof the rotor disc.
AFPMMACHINES WITHOUT STATOR CORES
175
Attraction forcebetween rotor discs The attraction forcebetween two parallel rotor discscanbe calculated by usinethevirtualwork method. i.e.
t-
'
dW
dz
LW
L,z
Wz-Wt
z2-zr
(5.38)
where tr4/is the total magnetic energy storedin the machine and Az is the small variation of the air gap length. The accurateprediction of the attraction force is a prerequisite for the mechanical analysis.Hence,the respective stress gap magnetic stored energiesW1 andW2 for air lengths z1 and ,z2are usually by using the FEM. calculated Analytically, the normal attractiveforce between two parallel discs with PMs can be expressed as
," = ttlLnsr*
wherethe activeareaof PMs is accordingto eqn (2.56). Optimum design of rotor discs
(s.3e)
The structureof the rotor steeldiscs may be optimisedwith the aid of an FEM structural program. It is important that the deflection of the rotor steel for small rundiscs,due to the axial magneticpull force, is not too dangerous ning clearance the coreless statorand PMs. Two importantconstraints between i.e. (i) the maximum allowabledeflection,and (ii) the shouldbe considered, maximum mechanical strengthof the material used to fabricate the disc. When choosingallowabledeflection,one needsto make surethat the PMs do not experienceany excessiveforces due to bending of the disc that can potentially peel them off from the backing steel disc. Owing to the cyclical symmetry of the disc structures,it is sufficient to model only a section of the disc with symmetry boundary conditions applied. In the FEM analysis the axial magnetic force can be applied in the form of a constantpressureload over the total areathat the PMs occupy. Usually, the axial-symmetric elements are preferred for modelling a relatively thick disc. However, it has been shown in [167] that the FEM modelling of rotor discs using both axial-symmetricgivesvery closeresults. elements and shell-elements rotor disc using4Fig. 5.13 showsthe finite elementmodel of the analysed with symmetricalboundaryconditionsapplied.The axial node shell-elements, magneticattractionforce has been calculatedas 14.7 kN and applied in the form of a constant69.8 kPa pressureload. Specificationof the investigated AFPM machineare given in Table 5.2. The stiffnessprovidedby the magnets
r76
AXTALFLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES
hasnot beenincluded,to keepthe designon the conservative side.As the rotor discs are mounted on the centre support hub, additional boundary constraints have been definedso that there is no axial displacement in the vicinity of the mounting bolts and contact area. To find the suitablethicknessof the rotor disc, which satisfies the critical strengthrequirementsof the rotor disc with a 1owsteelcontent,the linear FEM static analysiswas performed for different thicknessesof the rotor disc.
kPa masnetic force
Support boundary conditions

Figtre 5.I j. FEM model for analysing the mechanical stressof the rotor disc.
Basedon the analysis, the rotor disc thicknesswas chosenas 17 mm with a maximum deflectionof 0.145 mm. Fig. 5.14 showsthe deffection(blown-up) and the von Mises stressdistribution of the laboratory prototype of the 17-mm thick disc. The maximum stressof 35.6 MPa is much lower than the typical yield strengthof mild steel,that is in the region of 300 MPa. It has been shown in literature ]67lthat the bending of the rotor disc decreases towards its outer periphery. The rotor disc may be machined in such a way that the disc becomesthinner towards the outer periphery. As shown in Table 5.4, the tapered disc usesapproximatelyl0o/o lesssteelthanthe straightdisc. The maximum deflectionincreases by only 0.021 mm with the tapereddisc, which is negligible.This can effectivelyreducethe activemassof the machinewithout compromising the mechanicalshength,but doesnot bring down the cost of the steel. If manufacturing costsare taken into accountfor small production volumes, it is betterto usea steeldisc with uniform thickness.Obviouslv.a uniform disc
AFPM MACHINESWITHOUT STATOR CORAS
177
35.58 m 3327 w 30.95',(z

28.64 , ' l 26.33
re
24o1Ji
217 | 1, 1e3eI I
noTJ
z
X
1476i : 12.45 1 | t: 10131 7818w
Output Set: MSCA,IASTRAN Case I Deibmed [0. 166]: Total Translation Contour: Plate Top VonMises Stress
Tip deflection resulting fi'om 147 I 5N magneticforce : 0. 166 mm
5504m 31e1u
Figure 5.14,
Deflection (blown-up) and von Mises stressdistribution of the rotor disc.
meansa heavierrotor disc. It can,howevel be arguedthat the extramachining work needed for producinga taperedrotor disc may be too costly to justifii the profit due to improvement in the dynamic perfomance. As long as the added masscan be tolerated,this option is viable for small productionvolumesand for laboratory prototypes.
Table5.4.
Comparison of different designs of rotor disc
Parameter
Straightdisc
Tapereddisc
Mass, kg Maximum deflection, mm Maximum von Misesstress, MPa
l 84 39. 0.1 45 35.6
31.296 0.1 66 33.4
5.8.2
Imtlalanced axial force on the stator
As a result of the interaction of alternating currents in conductors and the tangential componentof the magnetic field, there is an axial magnetic force f " on eachhalf of the coil as shownin Fis. 5.15. When the statoris locatedin the
r78
a s
Figure 5.15. Schematic diagram showing the axial force exerted on stator.
z. 9
zv
Fo 3
< -zv
Electrical angle (degrees)
Fisure 5.16. Unbalanced axial force exerted on the stator.
middle of the air gap, the forces on each side of the stator should cancel each other. statorof the AFPM machineis slightly off cenAssumingthat the coreless tre, the axial forceson eachsideof the stator(/1 and f2) as shownin Fig. 5.16 force, A,f : lh - fzl,bewill not be the same,resulting in an unbalanced ing exertedon the stator.This unbalancedforce may causeextra vibration and thus have an adverseeffect on the mechanicalstrengthof the epoxy reinforced stator.
AFPM MACHINESWITHOIJTSTATOR CORES
179
5.9
Thermal problems
Owing to the excessive heat generated in the statorwinding and the resultant thermal expansion,an epoxy encapsulated stator is subject to certain deformation. When the deformationis significant,it may causephysicalcontact betweenthe stator and the magnetsresulting in seriousdamageto the stator winding and the magnets.
0.6 0.5
ts
E oa
.9 ^ . -(E
g 02 o o 0.1
40
60
80
100
(degreeC) Temperature Figure5.17. Thermal expansion of the statorfor differenttemperatures.
Fig.5.l7 shows the thermal expansionof the stator at different temperatures.The ratedcurrent(16 A) hasbeenconducted througha coil in the epoxy encapsulatedstator. A thermal coupler and a roundout meter have been used to measurethe coil temperatureand surface deformation respectively. lt has been found that the relationship between the stator deformation and its temperatureis almost linear. On average,the deflectionof the stator surfaceis about 0.0056 mm/oC, resulting in a 0.5 mm deffectionat the temperature of I77"C. The remainingair contentsin the epoxy can also contributeto the heat transferdeterioration and temperature increase. To solvethis problem,a more productionprocess dedicated is suggested. The running clearance betweenthe stator and the rotor should be kept reasonablylarge.
A three-phase, Y-connected, 3000 rpm PM disc motor has a corelessstator and twin externalrotor with surfacePMs and backing steel discs. Sintered NdFeB PMs with B, : 7.2 T and prrec: 1.045havebeenused. The nonmagneticdistance betweenoppositePMs is t - 1.1mm,the winding thickness is f- : B mm and the height of PMs (in axial direction) is h71 : 6 mm.
180
The outer diameter of PMs equal to the outer diameter of the stator conductors is Dort : 0.22 m and the parameterka : 71J5. The number of poles is 2yt : 6, the number of single layer coil sides(equivalentto the number of slots) is sr : 54, the number of turns per phaseis I'I1 : 234,the number of parallel conductorsau : 2, the diameterof wire d- : 0.912 mm (AWG 19) and the coil pitch is ur" : 7 coil sides. Find the motor steadystateperformance,i.e. output power, torque, efficiency and power factor assumingthat the total armature current Io : 8.2 A is torqueproducing(Ioa:0). The saturation factor of the magneticcircuit is : 1.02,the motor is fed with sinusoidal ksc,t voltage,the massof the twin rotor :3.4 kg, the massof shaftTilsh:0.64 kg, the radiusof shaftftsh : 15 TrLy mm, the conductivity of copper conductorso : 47 x 106 S/m at 75"C, the specific density of copper conductorsp : 8800 kg/m3, the density of PMs ppttr : 7700kg1m3,the air density p : 1.2 kg/m3, the dynamic viscosity of air pr,: 1.8 x 10-s Pa s, the coefficient of bearingfriction kfu = 1.5 and the coefficientof distortionof the magneticflux density\a:1.15. Lossesin PMs, lossesin steelrotor discsand the tangentialcomponentof the magnetic flux density in the air gap arenegligible. Solution The numberof coils per phasefor a singlelayerwinding is n" : s t I (2rnt) : 54lQ x 3) : 9. The numberof tums per coil is ly'., : l{tln, : 23419 : 26. The number of coil sidesper pole per phase(equivalent to the number of qt : stl(2p*t) : 5 l$ x 3) : 3. slotsper pole per phase) The air gap (mechanical is 9 : 0.5(t - t-) :0.5(11 - B) : 1.S clearance) mm and the pole pitch measured in coil sidesis rr : sl f (2p) : 5416 : L The input frequency at 3000 rpm is
. r -,!sy-
3000
60
x3:150H2
The magnetic voltage drop equationper pole pair is
: nB# nffinû +|'-)n"") l#+ (o

Hence
Brng
7 I Ut,,."(g+ 0.5t",) f hulk"o, 7.2 : 0.607 T
x I.02 I + f1 .0 4 5 (1 +0 .5.5 x s)/01
AFPM MACHINESWITHOUT STATOR CORES The magneticflux accordingto eqn (2.21) is
t8l
?[o.oor - f+)'l : oooru32 o, x 0.222[r wb , : 1 BrJ-'\V:,t]

tThewinding factor (2.9)and according (2.8), to eqns (2.10) is
sinrlQx3) , rr,_ffi_ 1t)" T ^ 0.ebe8: O__T_,
: 0.9397 kor: sin ( Or /

1 \
/t
: 0.9019 kut : 0.9598 x 0.9397
The EMF constant according to eqn(2.30)andtorqueconstant according to eqn(2.27)arerespectively kn : nt/2x3x234x0.9019x0.00163 : 9rV/(rev/s) : 0 . 0 7 6V 42 .b 5/rprn
:2.192Nm/A kr : kr3: '27T 4.b91;1

2r
The EMF at 3000rpm is E f : k a n : 0 . 0 7 6 5 x 3 0 0 0- 2 2 9 . 5 V The electromagnetic torqueat Io, :1oq : 8.2 A is T a : k r l u : 2 . 1 9 2 x 8 . 2: 1 7 . 9 7 Nm The electromagnetic poweris : 0 2n-9 Petm: 2rrtT,1. *6 x \7.97: 5646.8W
: 0.221\n : 0.127 m, the average The inner diameterD.i, : Doutll! diameter D :0.5(Dout* Dm) :0.5(0.22+0.727): 0.1735 m, theaverage :0.091 m, the lengthof conductor pole pitch r : z-0.173516 (equalto the radial length ly1 of the PM) Li : Iy : 0.5(Do6 * Dm) : 0.5(0.220.I27) : 0.0465m, the length of shorlerend connectionwithout inner bends I7e.-in: w. f r,,)x D n I Qp) : (7I 9)n x 0.727I 6 : 0.052m and the length of : 0.052x 0.2210.727: the longerend connection without outerbendsl7".rno, 0.0896 m.
182
MACH]NES MAGNETBRI.]SHLESS AXIAL FLUX PEKMANENT
length of the statorturn with 15-mmbends(Fig. 3.16) is The average lroo x 2Lt * h"rnin* lt"rno*+ 4 x 0.015
: 0.2943 :2 x 0.0465 m + 0.052 + 0.0896 + 0.06

at75oC accordingto eqn (2.33) is The statorwinding resistance
rD r ,I -
234 x 0.2943 1 ltro x70 s)214 4 7 x 1 0 6x 2 x r x ( 0 . 9 1 2
The maximum width of the coil at the diameterDinisluw : rD;rf s1 : n0.I27 154: 0.0074 m : 7.4 mm. The thicknessof the coil is fr, : 8 mm. The number of conductorsper coil is Af : &y x l{6 : 2 x 26 : 52. The maximum value of the coil packing factor is at Din, i.e.
: klrri, q-
x N" :o o}?l:r" tt?t-u* 8x7.4
:0.732
The statorcurrentdensityis
-Jl-:6'28 t": = 2 x n0.912214
Af nm2
The statorwinding lossesaccordingto eqn (2.42) are A , P 1 u , : 3 x 8 . 2 2x I . I 2 2 : 2 2 6 . 2 W The eddy curent lossesin stator round conductorsaccording to eqn (2.61) ate n2 4T x 106 Lp":;#1b02 :90.2 W 2 1.152 x 0 . 0 0 0 9 1 2x2 0 . 2 5x 0 . C 0 7 x
where the mass of stator conductors(radial parts) is N1 ( *\ mcon: p6uTrllau, \41 Ot,,
!0991'2) : 0.75ks : 8800 x 3 x 2 . zz+(4 rr,, 0.0465)

\4/
The friction lossesin bearingsaccordingto eqn (2.64) are
W . 40 . 6 4 ) # : 1 8 . 2 L P y , : 0 . 0 6x 1 . 5 ( 3 +
AFPM MACHII{ESWITHOUT STATOR CORES The windagelossesaccordingto eqn (2.67) are
183
. / 300{)\:l l1 7 . 8 5 3 x l 0 . 1 . 2( r":: AP,,.in,l: ) lto.sx0.l15)s-(05x0.01b)51 " x z
6u/
r2.8W where : 0.5 x 0.22+ 0.005: 0.115 x 0.5Do6+ 0.005 R'o,,t, m
:2.77 x ror' R": L22:(:oo?!60=) x 0.11b2

1 . 8x 1 0 - b
" 'r :
-,-j.L. : 2 . 3 5 3x 1 o - 3 J2.77x 7os
The rotational(mechanical) lossesaccordingto eqn (2.63) are LP,ot: The output power is - 21 :5625.8W Pout: P".tr,- LProt: 5646.8 The shaft torque is 5625'8 : 17.g1Nm T"r. : "n- 2r x3000/60 The input power is Pin : P"hn * LP.LP": The efficiencyis 'l : 5625.8 o'943 sg6:,2: 5646.8+ 226.2+ 90.2 : 5963.2W IB.2 * 2.8 : 21 W
The leakage reactance can be approximately calculated taking into accountthe radial part ofconductors,end connectionand differentialleakagefluxes,i.e. ) r n = 0 . 3 q 1: 0 . 3 x 3 : 0 . 9 )r" ry)r":0.9
I84
AXIAL MAGNET BRUSHLESS MACHINES FLUXPERMANENT 3x3x0.091 x0.90192

0.0059for
, : )r,l
where accordingto eqn (4.23),the differentialleakagefactor16: 51u<997. reactance is The statorleakage
xr :4trx0.4nx10 6,. ,rn?L|$out

: 1.543 0
- 0.m6) (o n Jr|ul, x 0.e
: length of oneendconnection is 11": 0.5(h",n;.r*lt.,no*) where theaverage : m. 0.5(0.05 20 . 0 8 9 6 ) 0 . 0 7 1 + is to eqn(2.105) Theequivalent air gapin thed axisaccording .t :22.7 rnm : 2 1 ( 1 . 5 + 0 . 5x 8/) 1 . 0 * 2 .:l e "' 1.0451 L. to eqn(2.106) is Theequivalent air gapin theg axisaccording 0 . 5x s ) + 6 l : 2 3r r r n sL:21(1.5l* (2.114)and(2.115) are reactances to eqns Armature reaction according xo,t:2 x 3 x 0.4xtrx 10-6x15 'f / 2 3 4x 0 ' 9 0 1 9 \ 2 1
) otnn
() x [(0.5x 0.22f - (0.5x 0.727)2): 1.e8e Xaq X",t

))7
',,.n:
1.963 o
of PMs[96]. configuration wherekf a: kf n : 1 for surface (2.72)and(2.73) to eqns arerespectively reactances according Synchronous : 3.532 o X",t,:1.543 + 1.989 : 3.506 f) x"q:1.543 + 1.963
AFPM MACHINES WITHOUTSTATOR CORES The input phasevoltageis Vt: J@t-r I o R l \ 2+ 1 I " X , n 1 z
r85
: I (229.5 :240.by * 8.2x 7.722)2 + (8.2x 3.500)2 Theline-to-line voltage Vtr,-r : J3 x 240.b: 416.5 V.
The power factor is
cos@: T:
E1 I IoRr
229.5+ 8.2 x 1.122 : 0 . 9 9 3= 1 . 0 2405
For the corelessstatorAFPM brushless motor describedin Numerical example -I.1 find the rotor moment of inefiia, mechanicaland electromagnetic time constantsand axial magnetic attractive force between the backing steel discsof the twin rotor. Solution The following input data and resultsof calculationof Numerical example 5.I arc necessary: r inputphase voltageV : 240.5Y r input frequency f : 750 Hz r aft gapmagneticflux densityBrrs : 0.607 T r Statorwinding resistance per phaseRt : I.I22 Q r d-axissynchronousreactance Xscl:3.532 Q : q-axis synchronous reactance f sa r torqueconstantkr :2.792 Nm/A r Electromagnetic torque7a : 19.97Nm . speedn : 3000 rpm r power factor cosd : 0.993 r PM outer diameterDo6 : 0.22 m r PM innerdiameter Din :0.727 m 3.500 0
I86
MACHINES MAG]{ET BRLTSHLESS AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT
r shaftdiameter D"h - 2R"h :0.03 m r numberofpole pairsp : 3 r polewidth to-polepitchratioo ; :2lr r axial height of PM (onepole) h,u :6 mm
r massof twin rotor without shaftm, : 3.4k9 r massof shaft wlsh : 0.64 kg r specificmassdensityof PMs {)pL,t: 7700 kglms r specificmassdensityof mild steelpp" : 7850 kg/m3 1. Rotor moment of inertia The activesurfaceareaof PMs (one side)accordingto eqn (2.56) is
m2 sp v : ? !p .zz2 - 0 .1,27\:0.01614
1T4
The massof all PMs is 'ttLp1,1 :2 x 0.006: 1.49kg x 7700x 0.01614
The massof backing steeldiscsis ,3 f . 4 - I . 4 9 - 1 . 9 1k g m F e : m r - T n P A: The shaft moment of inefiia is
J"h: **+:
:' o.o72x 1o-3 kgm2 0.640':3
of inertiaof PMs is Themoment
J P n:r * r n , " #
D 7 , ,+ , D?^
2 ^ . ^ 0 . 2 2-2 0 . 1 2 7 :
, nnT
o'otk 2s m 2
The moment of inertia of backing steeldiscsis
JF, ''r'ot#:
D2
t D2,
t'91ff
0.222-r 0.032
o ' o l l 'k g u r 2
The resultantmoment of inertia of the rotor is kgni2 J, : J"h I Jv'p1I Jpo,: 0.072x 10-3 + 0.012+ 0.0118: 0.02386
AFPM MACHINESWITHOL]T STATOR CORES 2. Mechanical and electromagnetictime constants
187
Since the d-axis current f ad.: 0, the angle betweenthe q axis and stator cuffent t! : 0. For the power factor cosd : 0.993 the angle betweenstator currentand terminalvoltaged : 6.78". The load angleis 6:d-,$:6.78_0:6.78" At the first instantof starlingthe EMF Ef : 0. Assuming the load angle at startingis the sameas for nominal operation,the stator current accordingto eqns(2.80), (2.81)and(2.82)is
r0shd. -
--
- 7 . I 2 2x 0 . 1 1 8240.5(3.50 x6 0.993 ) 0 x 3.506

3.532x3.506+L1222
-rJ "'t , 59.04 A
'o ass nn qq-
- 0 x 7.122 240.5(1.r22 x 0.993 x 0.118) + 3.532

3 . 5 3 2x 3 . b 0 6 + r . 1 , 2 2 2
n vA atn
1 ,," r,:/b g n |, n P :6 4 .g2L

where sin/ : 0.118 (cosd : accordingto eqn (2.26) is 0.993). The electromagnetic startingtorque
: krlo"t"s : 2.192x 27.A: 59.2Nm TrJrt The no load speed assuming lineartorque-speed curveaccordingto eqn (2.126) is ns 3000 : 4526.9rplrl : 75.44 revf s I _ I'LW l*g2
The mechanical time constant is
T-,,h r,'rU: 0.02386'"Jl#: o. [9]s

The d- and q-axis synchronous inductances are
Lsd- -4t -:r.bil22r7bo: o.oo375 H t1T

.I
L"q
x"2;i
= 0.00372 3.50f'2n150 H
188
MACHINES MAGNETBRUSHLESS ANAL FLUX PERMANENT
The electromagnetictime constantof the stator winding is T,z l n : L"d' 6 : 0'00375 : o.oo334s In2
The mechanical-to-electromagnetictime constantratio is T*""h - 0.191 - b 7. . 2 T.t,n 0.00334 3. Axial attractive force tretween backing steel discs of the twin rotor Assuming that the two twin backing steel discs are perfectly parallel, the axial magnetic attractiveforce betweenthem can be found on the basis of eqn
(s.39)
0 FtOGz -- 2365.5 - "'"-" 0.01614 N F" ' 2uo
pressure is The magnetic F, r).: Sptt - 1 4 66 0 1 . 2 kPa Pa = 146.6 0'01614 2365.5
The backing steeldisc thicknessis
v r 'l d -
TfLFe
2pp,r(D!,,
D?") 14 m 0.0033 3.3rnm
1.91 - 0.7272) x 2 7850r(0.22'2 I4
stiffnessof the disc and outer diameterDout : 0.22 m can provide adequate under the action of 146.6kPa magnetic pressurein the axial direction.
Chapter6
AFPM MACHINES WITHOUT STATOR AND ROTOR CORES
6.1
Advantagesand disadvantages
With the availability of high energymagnetsthe statorsand rotors of AFPM brushlessmachinescan be fabricatedwithout ferromagneticcores 197, 138, the ef139,2031.A completelycoreless s the massand increases designreduce this, design.Besides ficiency of the machineas comparedwith a conventional a corelessAFPM brushlessmachine does not produce any normal attractive force between the stator and rotor. It also does not produce torque pulsations at zero current state. There is a limit to the increase of the electromagnetictorque that can be achievedby enlargingthe machinediameter. Factorslimiting the single disc solution for largertorquesare designare listed in Section2.1.6. A reasonable doubleor triple-discmachines. The disc-type PM brushlessmachines without stator and rotor cores were and first manufactured commercially in the late 1990sfor servomechanisms industrial electromechanical drives [138], solar powered electrical vehicles 1203]as well as micromotorsfor computerperipheralsand vibration motors for mobilephones[85].
6.2
Topology and construction
The AFPM brushlessmachine without any ferromagnetic core is shown in Fig. 6.1. The machineconsistsof a twin rotor (3) with rare earthPMs (2) and nonmagneticsupporting structure. The steel-freestator (armature)winding (1) is located betweentwo identical parts of the rotor. The stator polyphasewindas "flower petals" (Fig. 3.16) !391. ing fixed to the frame (6) is assembled Multi-turn coils are arranged in overlapping layers around the shaft-axis of the machine. The whole windine is then embeddedin a hich mechanicalin-
190
Figure 6.1. 2-PMs,3
Disc type corelessPM brushlessmachine: I - corelessstator (armature)winding, twinrotor,4-shaft,5 bearing,6- frame.
Figure 6.2. Segmentalconstntction of a disc type corelessPM brushlessmachine: (a) single (b) three-module module (segment), assembly.
tegrity plastic or resin. Sincethe topology shown in Fig 6.1 doesnot use any feruomagneticcore with slots, the machine is free of cogging (detent) torque and core losses.The only eddy currentlossesare lossesin the statorwinding conductorsand metallic parts (if they exist) that reinforcethe stator coreless winding.
AFPM machineswithout stqtor and rotor cores
(a)
,ffi
191
machines with PMs ar8-poleAFPM brushless of a three-phase, Figure 6.3. Construction winding;(c) onehalf ol the twin rotor; (d) ranged in Halbach array:(a) PM ring; (b) stator twin rotor. windingandcomplete stator
Figure 6.1. 3D magnetic flux density distribution excited by an 8-po1etwin rotor with PMs arrangedin Halbach array.
(modular)machineis shown as a segmental machinedesigned The coreless adjustedto desiredlevel by power easily be can The output shaft in Fig. 6.2. addinsmore modules.
192

{a} 900
(b)
(c)
45o
Figure 6.5.
Arrangement of the twin rotor PMs in 90", 60", and 4b" Halbach array.
To obtain a high power (or high torque) density motor, the magnetic flux density in the air gap should be as high as possible. This can be achieved by using PMs arrangedin "Halbach array" (Figs 3.15, 6.3 and, Fig 6.4). The magnetic flux density distribution excited by Halbach arrays is describedby eqns(3.42) to (3.46).ln practice,the anglebetweenmagnetization vectorsof adjacent magnetsis 90", 60" or 45o (Fig. 6.5).
6.3
Air gap magneticflux density
Fig. 6.6 showsthe resultsof the 2D FEM modelling of the magneticfield in the air gap of a corelessAFPM brushless machine. NdFeB magnetswith remanentflux density B, :7.2 T and coercivity H.: 950 kA/m havebeen considered.The thicknessof eachPM has been assumed 6 mm, the coreless statorwinding thicknessis l0 mm and one-sided air gap thicknessequalsto 1 mm. With the aid of Halbach anay a high peak value (over 0.6 T) of the normal componentof the magneticflux density has been excited. This value is sufficient to obtain a high electromagnetictorque. The peak value of the flux densitycanbe evenhigher for the optimizedmagneticcircuit of an AFpM ma-
AFPM machineswithout stator and rotor cores
193
1,m
(b)
t5
6
,^
I
-Nonlal +'fancenl
I
q
F
\ \
1
E d
Figure 6.6. Normal and tangential components of the magnetic flux density in the centre of the air gap of a double-sided corelessAFPM brushelssmachine excited by Halbach arraysof PMs: (a) 90"; (b) 45".
chine. In pmctice,60" and 45" Halbacharraysproducesimilar peak magnetic flux density(Fig.3.22). The peak value of the nolmal componentof the magnetic flux density is higher than that in a standardarangement of surfacePMs. PM structurewith discsaddedto the double-sided The backing ferromagnetic gap do not increase the flux densityas much as Halbach nonmagnetic aTarge array excitationdoes.
6.4
Electromagnetic torque and EMF
torque of a corelessAFPM brushlessmachineswith The electromagnetic Halbach array PM excitation can be calculatedon the basis of eqns (2.25), (2.26), (2.27), (2.120) and (2.121). Similarly, the EMF can be calculatedaccordingto eqns(2.29),(2.30),(2.I 18) and (2.119).
194
Figure 6.7. Exploded view of the SEMA AFPM brushlessmachine. Courtesy of Lynx Motion Technologlt, Greenville,IN, U.S.A.
6.5
Commercial coreless AFPM motors
CorelessAFPM machine architectureknown assegmented electro-magnetic array (SEMA) hasbeenproposedbyLynx Motion Technology, Greenville,IN, U.S.A. for electric motor, actuatorand generatorapplicationsrequiring high power density and high efficiency !a01. Applications that require an electromechanical drive with high power density, high efficiency and low torque ripple include precisionmotion control, naval propulsion systemsand acoustically sensitive applications.SEMA technologymay also find applications in generation distributed systemsand energy storage systems, such asflywheel motor generator systems. Motors with high torque and efficiency are demandedfor gearless electromechanical drives. The use of direct drive motors without speed reducers gear eliminates noise,oil leaks,positioningerrorsfrom backlashand lack oftorsional stiffness. The statorcorelessand toothlessdesign (Fig. 6.7) not only eliminatesthe cogging torque but also increases the area availablefor conductors. It also boostspeak torque capability and allows PMs to be more effectively utilized thermally conductive lla0l. The statorcoils are fully pottedin high-strength, epoxy resin. Suchconstructiongivesthe machinestructuralintegrity and effectively damps the high frequency vibration when the motor is PWM invertedfed. Machines with corelessstator winding perform excellently at constant speed,variable speedand at reversals.
AFPM machines without stator and rotor cores
195
Figure 6.8. In-wheel motor, PM ring and stator winding of a corelessAFPM btushlessmotor for solar-poweredvehicles. Courtesy of CSIRO, Lindfield, NSW, Australia.
,
s 4:& ;5 ls gE
r3
.,
6
s.iq
!'
3:.
,4. ot t9
{.1 g:
az
statorwinding motor with film coil coreless Figure 6.9. Explodedview of the AFPM brushless and twin PM rotor. Courtesv of EmBest^Soeul, South Korea.
196
AXTALFLUX PERMAI,{ENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES
Table 6.L Design data and parameters of a three-phase, 10-kw, 750-rpm disc type AFpM brushless machinewith ironlessstatorcore Designdata Output power Pot,W Speedn, rpm Number of phases m1 Input current 1, A Input frequencyf ,Hz Number of stators(modules) Number of pole pairs p Number of coils (3 phases) Number of turns per phase Coil pitch Wire diameter, mm Axial thicknessof PM hx1,mm Axial thickness of the winding f-, mm Air gap (one side) g, mm Air gap magnetic flux density B,,n under load, T Current densiry Almmz ka,: D,;,,1Do"1 ratio [5] Rotor outer diameter,o1lr, mm Winding packing factor at r :0.SD.tn Winding temperature,oC Cooling system Classof insulation
10,000 '7 50 3 (Wye) 28.4 100 2 8 24 100(onemodule) I slot 6x7.2 6 10 1 0.58 4.175
tr,16
t/yJ
360 0.65 75 natural

f
CSIRO klecommunications and Industrial Physics, Lindfield, NSW, Australia manufactures in-wheel coreless AFPM brushless motors for solar poweredvehicles1203].solar-powered vehiclescompetein the world Solar challenge solar car race organizedevery two years in Australia between Darwin and Adelaide,which hasbecomea well-known intemationalevent. cslRo provides in-wheel AFPM brushlessmotors both with surfacepMs glued to steeldiscs and with PMs arrangedin Halbach array. The motor structure, PM disc and statorwinding are shownin Fig. 6.8 [203]. Fig. 6.9 showsa coreless brushless motor with film coil statorwinding and twin PM rotor manufactured by EmBest, Soeul, South Korea.The coreless statorhas a foil winding at both sides. The 8-pole PM rotor is designedas a twin extemal rotor.
AFPM machines without stqtor and rotor cores
197
(a)
aoo
4oo
(b)
l.0i
T,6(1) r00
.1. tf"'
,\p u(l) 2oo
| (l) -
ily"'
AP 100 l0 010201040 0140 current. A
_'1l
0.75
0.9
0.8
olrozoro40 0140 cunent. A
Figure 6.10. Calculated performance characteristics of a 10 kW coreless AFPM brushless motor accordingto Table 6.1: (a) shaft torque 7"1, line-to-line voltage [7., winding losses AP,,,,additionallossesLPoaa,andmechanicallossesAP",,versusstatorcurrentatn:750 rpm - const; (b) efficiency 4 and power factor pJ versus stato. cunent at n : 75A rpm : const.
6.6
AFPM coreless Casestudy:low-speed brushless motor
A low speed,three-phase, Y-connected AFPM brushless motor rated at 10 kW 750 rpm, 28.5 A has been designedand investigated. The rotor doesnot have any ferromagnetic core and consists of trapezoidal coils embeddedin a high mechanicalintegrity resin. Averagequality sinteredNdFeB PMs with B, : I.2 T and H, : 950 kA/m have been used. The double-discconstructionis similar to that shown in Fig. 6.2b. The designdata and calculated parameters are given in Table6.1. All parameters exceptthe air gap magnetic flux density B-n and synchronousreactanceX"d : Xsq X, have been calculated analytically. The magnetic flux density and synchronousreactance has been calculatedusing the 2D FEM. The resistance R1 : 0.175 0 and : perphase synchronous reactance X" 0.609 O are for two stator modules connected electricallyin series.The EMF constantkB : 5.013 Vs and torque constantkr : 2.394Nm/A havebeencalculated for one statorsegment.
6.6.1
Performancecharacteristics
The currentdensity4.175 Almm2 in the statorwinding at rated load is low and a totally enclosedmotor can even operatewithout any forced air cooling. The recommended cuffent density for encloseda.c. motors with class F of insulation ratedup to l0 kW is from 4.5 to'/ R/mm2 [63]. The calculated characteristics are shown in Figs. 6.10 and 6.11. It can be seenfrom Fig. 6.11 that the maximum-to-rated current ratio for torquespeedcharacteristic is 1.3. In Fig. 6.11 the voltage increases linearly up to approximately rated speedand then is kept constant.
198
MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHTNES AXIAL FLI]X PERMANENT
200
200
116Gp)
150
v1
;i;;
z
r0il
100
50
0 0nk14
l0
t2
.14
rev/s speed, Figure 6. I L Shaft torque, cuffent and phasevoltage versus speedof a 10 kW corelessAFPM brushless motor accordingto Table6.1.
6.6,2
Costanalysis
in [96]. Averagepricesof materialsfor The cost model hasbeenpresented are as follows (in US dollars: $): silicon sheet electricalmachineconstruction steelcp" : 1.25 $/kg, isolatedcopperconductor(magnetwire) c6, : 5.51 : $/kg, sinteredNdFeB PMs cp,y : t5 $/kg and steel bar for the shaft cste,et PMs. The total sheetsteeland 2.6 $/kg. The activematerialsare conductors, volume of the steelbar to the volume of shaft is 1.94. The coefficienttaking into accountthe cost of machining of the shaft is 2.15. The cost of labour involved in the assemblyof active parts has not been estimated.
Table 6.2. Mass and cost of components of a disc type corelessPM brushlessmotor rated at 10-kW.750-mrn
ltem Winding Statorplasticmaterial PMs Shaft Frame,end bells, and bearings Components independentof the machine shape Total
Mass,kg
Cost,$
1 0 .3 1 1.01 12.38 5.48
(active parts) 22.51
55.84 7.09 185.66 59.4s 165.00 140.00 613.05
t99
Table6.3. Mass and cost of components of a cylindrical PM brushless motor with laminated core rated at 10-kW 750-rpm
Item
Winding Core PMs Shaft Frame,end bells, and bearings Components independent of the machineshape Total
Mass, kg 8.51 30.98 1.57 5.12
41.06(active parts)
Cost, $ 46.9 72.49 23.55 62.07 i 65.00 r40.00 51 0 . 0 1
Table6.2lists the massand costof components of the 10 kW 750 rpm corelessmotor of disc construction. Table6.3 lists the massand costof components of the equivalent cylindricalmotor with laminatedstatorand rotor cores.Componentsindependent of the machineshapeare the encoder, terminal leads,terminal board,andnameplate. The 10 kW coreless AFPM brushless motor costs $6 I 3.05 (PMs cost $ 185.66)while a classicalPM brushless motor of cylindrical construction with the sameratingscostsonly $510.01(PMs cost $23.55). The contributionof PMs to the total costsof a coreless motor is predominant.
6.6.3
Comparison with cylindrical motor with laminated stator and rotor cores
Table6.4 compares the designdata and perfomance of a l0 kW, 750 rpm coreless AFPM brushless motor and the equivalent10 kW, 750 rpm PM brushlessmotor with laminated statorand rotor cylindrical cores. In both motors the numberof phases is 3, numberof polesis2yt:16, and input frequency is 100 Hz. The analysis and the FEM simulation have shown the advantagesof the coreless disc type PM brushless motors in terms of performance and massof active materials. They have higher efficiency and power density when comparedwith conventional PM machines with laminatedcores. The efficiencyof the l0-kW AFPM brushless motor is l.2o/o higher (0.925 versus 0.914) and power density (output power to mass of active materials) is 82o/o higher (444.25Wkg versus243.55Wkg) because the massof active materials is 45o/olower than that of an equivalent PM brushless motor with cylindrical ferromagneticcore. Atzerc current statethe normal forces between the stator and rotor do not exist. However.the normal forces betweenthe rotor PM discsare large.
200
AXIAL FLLTX PERMANENT MAGNETBRT]SHLESS MACHINES
Table 6.4.
tOIS
Comparison of parametersand performance of 10-kW, 750-rpm PM brushlessmo-
Parameter Input voltage(line-to-line),V Shaft torque, Nm Efficiency, % Power factor Air gap magnetic flux density, T Stator winding current density, Nmm2 per phaseat 75"C, Q Statorwinding resistance Synchronousreactance,Q Mass of PMs, kg Mass of active rnaterials,kg Power density (only active materials), W&g Cost excluding labour,U.S.$
Coreless disctype 22',7.6 131 92.s 0.991 0.5 8 4 . 15 7 0.1'73 0.609 t2.38 22.51 444.25 613.05
Cylindrical with laminated core 220.0 133 91.4 0.96 0.78

I 1Aa
0.037 0.75u 1.57 41.06 243.55 5l 0.01
Thesenew types of machinesare coggingtorque free. Owing to the lack of ferromagneticcoresthe hysteresisand eddy cunent lossesin thoseparts do not exist. The costof materialsand components of the disc tlpe l0 kW coreless motor is 20oh higher than that of a cylindrical motor with laminated core. On the otherhand,the cost of tooling will be much lower as a coreless motor doesnot require stamping and stacking tools. The high cost of PMs limits commercial applicationsof corelessAFPM brushlessmotors to small size machines,special servo drives, airborne apparatus (lightweight construction)and electromechanical drives where the cogging torqueripple and normal forcesmust be reducedto zero.
6.7
Casestudy:low-speed coreless AFPM brushless generator
The AFPM brushless machine(Table6.1) hasbeenanalysed asa standalone a.c. generator. The open circuit characteristic, i.e. EMF (line-to-line) as a function of speedis shownin Fig. 6.12. This characteristic is linear. The AFPM generator hasbeenconnected to the inductiveload Zr : R,r * j Xr : 7 + j0.628 O. The curent-speedcharacteristic for generating mode is shownin Fig. 6.13. The line voltageversusspeedis shown in Fig.6.14,output and input active power in Fig. 6.15,and efficiencyandpower factor in Fig. 6.16. The voltageis
201
250 200 150 100
nn(nJ
l0 0 ni speed, rev/s
t5 15
Figure 6.12. Open circuit characteristic: line-to-line E,MFversusspeed.
50
-t ot
t",, ('
') |
l0
l5
u .oeed::v/s
r)
Figure 6.13. Currentversusspeedfor generating mode.
a nonlinearfunction of speedand depends on the value of the load impedance zl and power factor. For inductive load (RL) the power factor decreases as the speedincreases.
6.8
Characteristicsof coreless AFPM machines
Table6.5 showsspecifications of coreless AFPM brushless motorsfor solar poweredvehicleswith surfacePMs glued to a steel yoke and PMs arranged in Halbach anay (CSIRO, Australia) respectively. The steady-stare efficiency curyesfor surfacePMs and Halbach array areplotted in Fig. 6.17. The maxi-
202
MACHINES AXIAL FLI]X PERMANEI:IT MAGNETBRUSHLESS
1s0
.t-, 9^ lv_,rn
\| iJI roo
I
50
5
I
l0
l5 15
speed,rev/s
Figure 6.14. Line voltage versus speedfor generatingmode.
1 .1 0 4 I 0000
,"r/
8000
Pgo,, (ni)
,/ ,/ /
e,
l-r",)
'gtn
l0 o ni speed, rym
l5 l5
Figure 6.15. Output power Psout. and input power Psn, for generatingmode.
mum efficiencyis obtainedwhen the inverterappliesa sinusoidalvoltagesynchronizedto the rotor position. The inductanceof the statorwinding is low and most inverlers require additional seriesinductance. The 8225 corelessAFPM motor (Table 6.6) has been developedby Lynx Motion kchnology, Greenville,IN, U.S.A. for air-handlingapplications,in which systemefficiencyis a high priority. The family of Lynx 225-mm diameter motor designs offers a broad range of possible system configurations for requiring both high efficiencyand high speedand position servoapplications ratingsof theE225 motor are basedon air-cooled105"C torque. Performance AFPM machines The EB13coreless winding at25oC ambientairtemperature.
203
r.05
o
rts(n i) prg (ni)

F
0.5
5 n
I
l0
l5 15
rpm speed, Figure 6.I 6. Efficiency 4n and power factor pf n for generating mode.
;e
'o
200 400 *t ::,'r,i;fi"],'ff
1400 1600 1800 2000
Figure 6.17. Efficiency as a function ofoutput power ofa 3-phase,1.8-kW coreless AFPM brushlessmotors for solar-powered vehicles: (a) rotor with surfacePMs; (b) rotor with PMs arrangedin Halbach array. Courtesy of CSIRO, Lindfleld, NSW, Australia.
has been designedfor power generationapplications(distributedgeneration systems)where high efficiencyof the systemis important. Performance ratings of the E813 machine are basedon 130"C winding at 40oCambient air temperature. Both 8225 andE8l3 machines haveextremelylinear torqueconstantk7 independent of speed.Other applicationsof Lynx coreless machines include servo applications, precision robotics, marine propulsion,generators and weaponstunets.
204
Table 6.5. Comparison of three-phase1.8-kW corelessAFPM brushlessmotors with surface and Halbach PM excitation manufactured bv CSIRO. Australia
Parameter Output power, W Efficiency, % Number of poles Nominal speed,rpm Maximum speed,rpm Nominal torque, Nm Maximum continuous torque at 1060 rpm and maximum winding temperature,Nm Absolute maximum torque, Nm Torque constantper phase at sinusoidal excitatir:n Nominal phaseEMF, V EMF constantper phase at sinusoidal current, Vs/rad Nominal phasecurrent, A Winding losses, W Eddy current lossesin the stator winding, W Windagelosses, W Total losses, W Winding temperaturerise, "C Overload winding temperaturerise, "C Maximum winding temperature,oC Air gap at each side, mm Resistanceper phase, Q Mass of complete motor, kg Mass of framelessmotor, kg
PMs Surface andsteelyoke I 800 97.4 40 l 060 286s 16.2
Halbach arfay
1800 98.2 40 1060 2865 16.2
JI
50.2 0.39
*J
39 s0.2 0.56 62 0.56 9.6 27.6 2.7 2.1 32.4 14 40 110 2 0.0997
tJ.z
0.39 13.9 43.9 2.6 2.1 48.6 22 64 110 2 0.0757

to.z
r0.7
7.7
When coupled with a three-phaseH-bridge inverler, Lynx motors offer a highly efficient electromechanicaldrive with the high peak torque capability requiredfor the most demandinghigh-transient applications, e.g. fuel-cell air compressors.
The corelessAFPM motor with the samedimensionsas that describedin NumericalExample 5.1 has been redesigned to obtain the speedof 1000rpm to zt Io : 8.2 A (I"d : 0). The number of pole pairs has been increased
205
Motion kchnologt, Table 6.6. Specificationsof corelessAFPM motors manufacturedby L1,nx Greenville" IN" U.S.A.
Parameter Number of poles d.c. bus voltage,V Terminal voltage, V
Speed,rpm Torque, Nm Peak torque, Nm Current, A Peak curent, A Output power, kW Torque constant,Nm/A EMF constantper phase,V/krpm Electrical time constant,/rs Winding resistance at 100"C, f,) Winding inductance, g,H Rotormomenlof inenia.kgm2 Mass of motor, kg External diameter, m
E225AFPM motor l2 155 t17 rmsphase voltage H-bridge 6000 9.9 97.4 18.7 180 6.2 0.53 l9 0.348 0.204 71 0.0184 8.4 0.225
8813AFPMmotor 28 851) 571 peakline-to-line 2750 450 900 ll9 238 130 3.78 209 1.66 0.0265 44 9.16 295 0.813
p : 12, the number of coil sidesto st : 72 and PMs have been arranged in 90o Halbach affay with nLr : 4 PM piecesper wavelength. The number of statorwinding turns per phaseis l,h : 240, the number of parallel wires on, : B, the diameterof wire d* : 0.455 mm (AWG 25) and the coil pitch measured in coils sidesa'. - 3. Sinceboth statorand rotor do not have any doesnot exist and ksat : 1. All steelmagneticcircuit, the magneticsaturation other parametersand assumptionsare the sameas those in Numerical example 5.1 . Find the motor steadystateperformance,i.e. output power, torque and efficiencyat ratedcurrentIo : Iorr: 8.2 A. Solution parameters are the sameasthosein NumericalexThe following calculated Iat :46.5 Li: Di,n:0.727 ffi, D -- 0.1735r'rr, ample5.1: g: 1.5 rtfi11, : 0.75 R"h : 0.015m andn'LcorL mm, Rtorrl: 0.115m (for windagelosses), kg.
206
The numberof coils per phasefor a singlelayer windingis n,..: stl(2rn) :72lQx3) : 12.Thenumberofturnspercoil is Af,, : Ntln,:240172 : 20. The number of coil sidesper pole per phase(equivalent to the number of slotsper pole per phase) qt : stl(2p*t') - 721Q4 x 3) - 1. The pole pitch measured in coil sidesis r, : slf (2p) : 72124: 3 and the average pole pitch r : nD I Qp) : r0.7735124 : 0.023m The input frequency at 1000 rpm f" : n"p: 1000 x 12 - 200}J2 60
The wavelengthIo at the averagediameter and constantp for Halbach array is
l o : 2 r : 2 x 0 . 0 2: 3 0 . 0 4m 6
: ]I-: 1 3 8 .1 3/ m I J: + 1,,, 0.046
The magneticflux densityin the air gap accordingto eqn (3.42) is B , , g N B m o : 1 . 2 1 r * e x p ( - 1 3 8 . 3 x 0 . 0 0 6 ) ] s r n ( t l 4 : 0 . 6 0 9T

7T /4
The magneticflux accordingto eqn (.2.21) is
?lr uro - (a) I : o o, x 0222[r ' : 1 " "oo,,nr " - ' rru Br12
L \/3/l
The winding factor according to eqns (2.8), (2.9) and(2.10) is kd1:;sinn/(2x3) 1 : l i n uJc, 7
t s i n n / ( 2x 3 x 1 ) : r
':
i.:
kpr:si'(3;)
k,or:1 x 1:1
The EMF constant according to eqn(2.30)andtorqueconstant according to eqn(2.27)is kn:nJ2x12x240 b . 2 4 , y 1 $ e v l s ): 0 . 0 B Z 3 V / r p m x r x 0 . 0 0 0 4-1
k r : k / 'Z7T + : b . 2'zir 4!:2.5 Nm/A

TheEMF at 1000 rpm is : 87.34 Ef : kan,: 0.0873 x 1000 V
AFPM machineswithout stator and rotor cores The electromagnetic torque Lt Io - Ioq : 8.2 A is
201
Ta : krlo : 2.5 x 8.2 : 20.5Nm poweris The electromagnetic
t99o : 2148.6 : 2rn x 20.5 w Put,n ,o tt0 "7,1:

The length of the statorshorterend connectionwithout inner bendslr.min : (w"f r.)rDi"l(2p) - (313)r x0.127124: 0.017m andthe lengthof the stalkôr: 0.017x0.22f 0.I27 : withoutouterbends tor longerendconnection (Fig. m 3.16). 0.0288 The average length of the statorturn with 15-mmbendsis llooN2Lt'*ll"rn'i, lLl.rro, +4 x 0'015 :2 m x 0.0465 + 0 . 0 6: 0 . 1 9 8 4 + 0.017 + 0.0288
at 75"C accordingto eqn (2.33) is The statorwinding resistance

t) f Ll -
240 x 0.1984 : 0.7963 O 47 x 706x B x n-x (0.45* t}-s1'z14
The maximum width of the coil at the diameterD;' is uuu:: rDinf sy : of the coil is l- : B mm. m: 7.4 mm. The thickness 10.127172: 0.0055 : rtryx l{s1: 8 x 20: 160. The is Al, Thenumberofconductorspercoil maximum value of the coil packing factor is at Din, i.e.
k1'nin:'4*: l,,,LD,u
The stator cur:rentdensity is
nnui.l : o'731 lon 6 x C.D

:6.45 Af mm2
8.2
Jr,,:
B x n0.452 l4
The statorwinding lossesaccordingto eqn (2.42) are AP,, : 3 x 8.22x 0.7963: 160.6W accordingto eqn (2.61) are The eddy cuffent lossesin statorround conductors A,p. arr- : n2 47 ^ 106 20G x0.000452x 0.75 x 0.60g2x 1.152: 3g.3 W 4 Sftoo
208
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAG]{ET BRLISHLESS MACHINES
The friction lossesin bearingsaccordingto eqn (2.64) arc
: 6.1 L P y,:0 .0 6x 1 .5 (3 .4 \[' + 0.0+1400

tlu
The windagelossesaccordingto eqn (2.67) are 1 r 1OOOr3 L P , i n d - - 0 . 0 1 3 r 1 . 2( z o ' " 1 1 1 f Lr\o . sx 0 . i l 5 ) 5 - ( o . sx 0 . 0 1 5 ) 5 1 2 60 / \
r 0.18\[r where
n": r.2ffffi
'f :
x 0.1152: x 1oa e.233

3.87
,,/g.2',r,.Iff:0'013
The rotational(mechanical) lossesaccordingto eqn {2.63) are L P r o t : 6 . 1* 0 . 1 8: 6 . 2 8W The output power is Pout : P.trn - LProt : 2748.6* 6.28 : 2742.3W The shaft torque is 2142'3 T"r" : "n-2rx1000/60 The input power is Pi,: P.t^ * LP* * LP":2148.6 + 160.6+ 39.3: 2348.5 W : 20.40 Nm
The efficiencyis
n : 2 3 4 & s: o' 912
2142.3
209
A three-phase, 15-kW,3600-rpmcoreless AFPM motor with Halbacharray PM twin rotor hasthe statorwinding resistance per phaseRr - 0.24 f), stator winding leakagereactanceX1 : 0.92 O and armaturereaction reactances Xod. : Xoq : 0.BBO. The input phasevoltage is [ : 220V, power factor cos4! : 0.96, angle betweenthe stator current and q axis \F : 5", EMF constant kr : 3.363V/(rev/s),eddycurrentlosses in statorconductorsLPe,: 184 W and rotationallossesLP,ot: 79 W. Find the internal voltage fl excited by the resultant air gap flux and the stator d- and q-axis current adjustedfor eddy current losses. Solution The phasordiagram showing the EMFs Ey and E; is drawn in Fig. 6.18. The EMF E7 excited by the rotor magnetic flux
H I : k e, : 3 . 3 6 3 t
The synchronous reactance is Xsd,: Xsq:
:210.78 V
Xoa* Xt : Xo,t * Xr : 0.BB + 0.92 : 1.80
The angle betweenthe stator current and input voltage r/ - arcsin 0.96 : 16.26". The load angle betweenthe voltage and EMF Ey is 6 : rf W: : 76.26 5 7I.26". The statorcurrentsaccordingto eqns(2.80), (2.81) and (2.82\ are:
'ad
r.- -
- 0.24sin - 201.78 220(I.Bcos 11.260 11.26o) x 1.8 :4.5A 1 . 8x 1 . 8+ 0 . 2 4 2 2 2 0 ( 1 .c 8o s 1 1 . 2 6* 0 1.8 s i nI L 2 6 " ) - 2 0 L 7 8x 0 . 2 4 :24.5 A 1 . 8x 1 . 8+ 0 . 2 4 2 I o : 1 / L b 2+ A l r 2 : 2 4 . g A
'aq
r-
Thestator windinglosses according to eqn(2.42)are LPt',: 3 x 24.92 x 0.24:445'6 W The inputpoweris - 3 x 220x 24.9x 0.96: 15763.0 Pin : rnlVlIacos@ W
210
ANAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES
blgure 6.18. Phasordiagram of u .o..t.r, AFPM synchronous motor (eddy current 1" is in phasewith the intemal voltage Ei). Numerical example 6.2.
power accordingto eqn (5.1) is The electromagnetic Petrn:15 763 4 4 5 ' 6 1 8 4: 1 5 1 3 3 . 3 W
The outputpower accordingto eqn (5.3) is Pout: 15 133.3- 79 : 15 054.3W The efficiencyis ?: 1 50 5 4 . 3 : o'955 15 z63J
The internal voltage E; excited by the resultant air gap flux according to the phasor diagram(Fig. 6.18)is
En:@
: : 206.87 x 0.88)2 V + (24.5 1fQOt.fA* 4.5 x 0.88)2
AFPMmachines without statorandrotor cores The angle d; betweenthe EMF Ei and g-axis is
2Il
24 si*%*) - arcr,n d;: ar"r (ro, , ",,(o!;i*",) to4Aod \f .t t /

The eddy currentshuntresistance accordingto eqn (5.32) is )nG R72
- , or"
R":3?
-6e7.75Q
The currentin the vertical branchof the equivalentcircuit (Fig. 5.3) found on the basisof the phasordiagram(Fig. 6.18) Ei.c I." a : - t s i n d ; :
- 206.87 -0.031A rr,^sin5.97":
t", :
*cos
: d,.
: 0.295 A 5.97" rryrcos
tlo+ t!,n = Ei ft:
(-0.031)2 : 0.296 A + 0.2952
I.'
246'8T
,* ^cos
: 0.296 A 5.97"
The stator current adjusted for eddy current lossesfound on the basis of the phasor diagram(Fig. 6.18)
: IL.a
Ezcos6i - Ef Xo,]
EisinSt R"-
206.87 cos5.972- 2 0 1 . 7 8 0.88 E; sin d;

'aq
v -
2 0 6 . 8 7s i n 5 . 9 7 2
697.75
r4.5A
Aae
E; cos dr _ 206.8T sin 5.972 R" O.BB
206.87 cos 5.972 = 24.8 A

697.75
ro, -
(I'"a), A + (IL)2 : \f Lb2+rLB2 x 25.2
Chapter7 CONTROL
In the previous chaptersit was shown that there is a direct relationship between the rotor speed and the frequency of the phase voltages and curents of the AFPM machine, It was also shown that the magnitude of the induced phasevoltagesis directly relatedto the frequencyand hencethe rotor-speed of the AFPM machine. Therefore, for variable speedoperation of the AFPM machine both the frequency and magnitude of the supply voltage must be adjustable.This requiresa solid-state convefterto be usedbetweenthe flxed a.c. or d.c. supplyand the terminalsof the AFPM machineas shownin Fig. 7.1. To have good position andlor speedcontrol of the converter-fedAFPM machine drive, the torque and thereforethe currentof the machinemust be controlled. For currentcontrol, informationof the phasecurent as well as the position of the rotor is necessary. Thus, both the currentand rotor position of the AFPM machine is sensedand fed back to the controller as shown in Fig. 7.1. The controller in its turn controls the supply voltage and frequency of the AFPM machine via the solid-stateconvefier (inverter). This chapterfocuseson all the control aspects of the AFPM machinedrive of Fig. 7.1. The control of the two types of AFPM machinesconsidered in previous chapters,namely the ttapezoidal and sinusoidal AFPM machines,is dealt with separately. Finally, position sensorless control is briefly discussed and somenumerical examplesare given.
7.1
Control of trapezoidalAFPM machine
TrapezoidalAFPM machinesare surface-mounted PM machinesand are characterised by their trapezoidal or quasi-squareEMF waveforms. Example of theseEMF waveforns are shownin Figs 7.2a and7.2b,which are the open circuit phasevoltagewaveformsinducedby PM flux of a small 1 kW, slotted trapezoidalAFPM machineat half and rated speedrespectively. It can be ob-
214
AXIALFLUX PERMAIVENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACH]NES
Fixed AC or DC supply
Solid-State Converter (SSC)
Figure 7.1. Converter-fedAFPM machine drive.
served,firstly, that at rated speedthe frequency and the magnitude of the EMF are double what they are at half rated speed. Secondly,and very important, it can be seenthat the shapeof the EMF waveforrn is not sinusoidal,but trapezoidal with a flat-toppedvoltage of about 120 electricaldegrees.It is during this period of 120 electricaldegrees that the phaseis excitedby meansof the solid-stateconverter. This period is therefore called the conductionperiod, as cunent is flowing in that phaseduring that period as shown in Fig. 7.2c. Note that the time of conduction or the time of occurrenceof the flat-topped voltage is directly relatedto the position of the rotor; the time of conductioncan thus exactlybe determined by meansof a simple,low resolutionposition sensor. period onecanconsider During the conduction the inducedback-EMFphase voltage as a d.c. quantity due to the flat voltage waveform. With a three-phase machinethe phasevoltagesare 120electricaldegrees out of phase,which implies that the conductionperiods of two phasesare always overlapping(see Fig. 7.2) and that two phasesare alwaysactive. In the caseof AFPM machine drives with 180 electricaldegreeconductionperiods,e.g. [31], then all three phasesare active. A different convefiershould be used in this case. In this sectiononly thosetrapezoidalAFPM machinedrives that have 120 electrical degreeconductionperiodsare considered as they are commonly used.
7,1.1 Voltageequations
machine always active (the With two phasesof the Y-connectedthree-phase third phase is switched off by means of the solid-state converter), the power machinecan be represented by the circuit of the trapezoidalAFPM brushless electric circuit of Fig. 7.3a. Here, phasesA and B are activeand phaseC is switchedoff(shown in dottedlines). In this circuit R1 and L" arerespectively the phaseresistanceand phase synchronousinductance. The synchronousinductances in the d and q-axis are equal, i.e. L"4 - L.sq- L". The voltages efA, efB and eyc are the EMFs per phase. As phasesA and B are in their conductionperiods,both e1e and ey s are at their flat-toppedvalues. Hence,
Control
215
20 15 10
od
-10
-20
(a)
40 30 20 > 16
0 . 0 0 8 0 0 1 2 0.0'16 0.02 Time (s)
0.024
= -10 s
-24 -30 40 0.008 0.012 0.016 a.a2 Time (s) 0.024 0.028
0.032
(b)
(c)
Figure 7.2. Open-circuit induced phasevoltage waveforms of a l-kW trapezoidal AFPM machine obtained from measurements:(a) at half speed (30 Hz); (b) at rated speed (60 Hz); (c:) theoretical EMF and phase current waveforms.
efA: El!'' unaeJB: -Ef') wherenl!'l t" the flat-toppedvalue of the trapezoidal voltage waveform(fig. Z.Zc1. Combining the resistances, inductances andinduced voltages results in theequivalent of Fig.7.3a circuitof Fig. 7.3b inwhich Eyr-r is takenas a d.c.voltageequalto E1r,-L : 2Ef'),
R.p : 2R1, Lo : 2L", ia : ioA voltage equation of this circuit is -ioB and uo : urL-L. The dynamic
216
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAG]{ET BRUSHLESS MACHINES
" ll-l.
Figure 7.j. TrapezoidalAFPM machine connectedto the solid-stateconverterwith two phases active: (a) electricalcircuit; (b) combinedequivalentcircuit for the analysis.
u,p
2R1ioa + 2L"q9!
a[
+2Ey')
(7.1)
R I L-ro+ ' pio ,t r Llt-t
Applying a d.c. voltage up : V, acrossterminals A and B by meansof the solid-state converterwill imply that ideally in the steadystate,a d.c. current io : IL"q) will flow throughthe two phasewindingsaccording to the following steady-state voltageequationderivedfrom eqn (7.1'),i.e.
Vp: R'pIL"q) + Eyr-r
(7.2)
power The inducedvoltageE yr-L is givenby eqn (2.I l8), the electromagnetic : E f r, ;I["q) andthe developedtorque is given by eqn of the machine is P.1,rn (2.120).Note that da: I\sq) andEyr I are instantquantities that can change with time, similar to a brush-typed.c. machine.
7.1.2
Solid-stateconverter
The completepower circuit connectedto the three-phase trapezoidalAFPM brushless machine is shown in Fig. 7.4. In this circuit the fixed three-phase a.c. supply is first rectifiedby meansof a three-phase diode rectifier to obtain a.c. a fixed d.c. voltage. The d.c. voltage is then inverted to a three-phase trapezoidalvoltage. With the diode rectifier no power can flow back to the fixed a.c. supply if the AFPM machine is operating in generatormode. This means that any generatedpower from the machine must be dissipated at the d.c. link of the converter.This is done by switching a braking resistanceat the power must d.c. link as shown in Fig. 7.4. lf it is requiredthat the generated
Control
217
flow back to the fixed a.c. supply,then use must be made of a so-calledactive rectifier.In the rest of this sectiononly the switchingand control of the d.c. to a.c. inverterof Fig. 7.4 is studied,assuminga fixed d.c.-link voltage.
SSC
AC supply
Command
feedback
Figure 7.4. Solid-state a.c.-a.c. converter and equivalent three-phaseAFPM machine connection.
The three-phase invefter of Fig. 7.4 has six power electronictransistorswitches. Nowadays Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistors(IGBTs) or MoS field effect transistors(MoSFETs) are very popular for use as switches for the inverter. The power transistorswitchesare switchedon and off at a relatively high switching frequency(typically from I to 20kHz or evenhigher). Either the top transistorof an inverter-legis switched on and the bottom transistor is switchedoff, or vice versa,or both transistors are switchedoff. It was explainedin the previoussections that only two phases of the converter-fed trapezoidal AFPM machine drive are active at any time. The third phaseis switched off by switching offthe top and bottom transistorsof the inverter-legconnected to that phasewinding. The three-phase inverterof Fig. 7.4 alsohas six antiparallel diodes to make current flow possible when a switch is turned off (this is due to inductive stored energy) and also to make the generator (braking) operationof the drive possible. The circuit diagramsof Figs 7.3 and 7.4 show that the trapezoidalAFPM machine drive can be analysedby consideringonly the two active phasesof the machine and the two active switching legs of the inverter. The circuit then reduces to the generalcircuit of Fig. 7.5. One method of controlling the power semiconductorswitchesof the inverler shown in Fig. 7.5 is explainedas follows. consider in the forward speeddirection that the voltage Eyr*r and the average current io@us) : I[uq) are positive,then the average supplyvoltageup@rg) also hasto be positiveaccording to the steady-state equation,eqn (7.2), i.e. up(ood : Vp ) Eyr_r. A positive averagesupply voltage can be obtainedby switching on transistor Tu
2t8
MACHINES AXIAL FLUX PERMAI{ENTMAGI{ET BRUSHLESS
,,-l
"-]
+ *:-)
la
V,
Figure 7.5. Equivalent circuit ofconverter-fed trapezoidalAFPM machine (two phasesactive)
(PWM-switching)transistors Tu and7l of Fig. 7.5 and pulse-width-switching at duty cycles D and (1 D) respectively,such that in the steady-state DV4: up(ous) where
(7.3)
D:bL
ts
+ fn . t s co
(7.4)
andto,.is the switching-ontime, f" is the switchingperiod and, f is the switch" waveform and the switching ing frequency of the transistors. This switching of the machine across the terminalsof the two phases of the supplyvoltage?rp is the switchingperiod average are shown in Fig. 7.6(a). As is shown up@,g) as of the volta1e up. Note that in Fig. 7.6 the drive is not in the steady-state with up@u!t) change the average voltage the instant averagecurrent io@us)and time. Also note that the drive systemonly reactson the averageof the supply voltage and not on the high frequency componentsthereof, as the switching frequency is relatively high and the time constantof the mechanical systemis relatively large. Let us consider next the flow of cuffent in the converter and the machine in motoring mode. When transistorsTu and To of Fig. 7.5 ate switched on, cuffent flows from the d.c. supply through Tu andthroughthe machinewinding andTr, and then back to the supply. If ?l, and T, arc switched on, the curent then free-wheelsthrough diode D, and through the machine andTr. In this caseno current is flowing from or to the d.c. supply. An example of the phase
Control
2t9
winding and d.c.-link current waveformsin motoring mode is shown in Fig. 7.6a. As mentionedbefore io@r,fi is the instant averageof the phasecurent
i,o.
In generating(braking) mode with E I r L positive, the duty cycle D of eqn (7.3) is adjustedin sucha way that upGo to become g) < E yr _ L to allow i o@,ry) negativeas shown in Fig. 7.6b. ln this caseDo is alwaysconductingand the current either flows through 71,when switched on, or through D, to the supply when switchedoff. An exampleof the d.c.-link curent waveformin generating mode is shownin Fig. 7.6b. When operatingthe machinein the reversespeeddirection, in which case Eyr,L is negative with respect to the polarity given in Fig. 7.5, transistor2,, is switchedon during the conductioncycle and transistors I and T, arepWMswitched.In this casethe supplyvoltageun(auo) is negative and the curent can be controlledagainto be positiveor negative in the sameway as in the forward speedmode. The advantageof the above switching method is that only one inverter-leg is switchedat a high frequencyat any time, keepingthe switching lossesof the invefier low Which inverter-leg of Fig. 7.5 shouldbe selected to be PWMswitchedis simply a logic decisionthat depends on the sign (positiveor negative) of the supply voltageu,@,s). Note that l)p(ouilis controlleddirectly by the controllerof the drive (Fig. 7.1).
7.1.3
Current control
For good speedcontrol of any drtvea.fasttorque control is necessary. According to eqn (2.120)the torqueof the trapezoidal AFPM machinedrive can be controlled directly by controlling the stator current io and hence the instant averagecurrent io@oti explainedin Fig. 7.6. Close examinationof the currentsof Fig. 7.6 revealsthat the required information regardingthe curtent 'io1oon1 is also presentin the averaged.c.-link current i,I1ors1, i.e. if the sample-measurement of current i,4 is at the right instant. The current of all the phases of the machinecanbe controlledby just controllingthe d.c.-link current i46us1.Thus,only one currentsensoris necessary. One aspectof this method of currentsensing, however, must be kept in mind. If the machineis operating, e.g. in forward motoring mode or reversemotoring mode, then in both cases the cumenti,t1o,,s1 will be positive.This creates a problem from a controlpoint of view as the reference current io,(,r,,s)* will be, say,positivefor forward motoring mode, but negativefor reversemotoring mode. Howeveq this problem can easily be solvedin the controllerby alwaysmultiplying the d.c.-link current signalwith the sign (positiveor negative) of the controliedsupplyvoltage up(oug)* signal. A block diagram of the single sensorcurrent controller is shown in Fig. 7.7. The currentcontrolleractson the comparison betweenthe desiredcurrent
220
t,
MACHINES AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRTJSHLESS
'o ', vd
l
I p(^9,
---1 T:
D"i
lo
Id
(a)
(b)
Figure 7.6. Voltage and cuffent waveforrns of a converter-fedtrapezoidal AFPM machine: (a) mode (seeFig. 7.5). motoring mode; (b) generating
andthen controlsthe supply d.c.-link cuffent i,J(aua), io1oud*andthe measured ou@utvoltage by controlling the signal uolorsy*.The PWM generatoroutputs the PWM signal in terms of a logic I or 0 to the programmablelogic device (PLD). The sign (positiveor negative)of up6,,s)* is also an logic input (1 or 0) to the logic device.Threelogic position signalssn, s6 arrdsc are also inputs to the PLD. These three signals are received from three Hall-effect sensors mounted in the machine. The signals supply information about which two phasesmust be active according to the rotor position. The outputs of the PLD switches. directly control the switchingof the six power semiconductor
Control
221
Two aspectsin the block diagram of Fig. 7 .7 have not been referred to yet. The first is that a speed voltage signal is added to the output of the cuffent regulator. This is to decouple the current regulator from the effects of speed variation. The gain, 1{i, representsthe gain of the solid-state invefter. The secondaspectis that the d.c.-link currentis sampledat certaintimes to get the average valte'i61oon) as shownin Fig. 7.6.
Figure 7.7. Blockdiagram of single sensor current controller fortrapezoidal AFPM.
To determine the parametersof the current regulator the transfer function of the current control systemmust be obtained. According to Fig. 7.3b and eqn (7.1), the dynamic voltage equationof the machine in terms of average is components
up(oud : n, Rpioloos) * L, ,lti,t',6 * E7t-r
(7.s)
where up : up(o"-g) * Itr,'io : io(oug) i i,r.,andu, andi," arethe ripple voltage and ripple current respectively(seeFig. 7.6). ln Laplacetransformeqn (7.5) becomes : (Eo * Lrs)i.o1ouel(s) up(at,s;(s) + Eyr-r(s) (1.6)
With the use of the decoupling speedvoltage signal in the current control systemof Fig. 7.7, the speed voltageterm E f r r(s) of eqn (7.6) hasno effect on the current regulator'sresponse.Hence,the control block diagram of the currentcontrol systemcan be represented by the block diagramshown in Fig. 7.8. In this block diagram the current regulatorcan be, e.g. a gain or a PIregulator. The gain 1{,; representsthe voltage gain of the solid-stateconverter
222
(inverter) asmentionedbefore. The transfer function of the current control system can be determinedfrom the block diagram of Fig. 7.8 and the parameters ofthe currentregulatorcan be designed accordingto classicalcontrol system methods.
Figure 7.8. Block diagram of decoupled cuffent control system.
7.1.4
Speedcontrol
With the cuffent control systemin place, as explainedin section7.1.3, a speedcontrol loop can be appliedaroundthe currentcontrol loop. The electrical and mechanicaltorque balanceequationsfor the systemare as follows: Talous1ft) : k7,1.io1ore; (s)
(7."1)
T a l o u s ; ( r-)f r ( " )
:(B+
J.s)c,:(s)
(7.8)
is the load torque,B is the equivalent total dampingofthe system, where ";(s) J is the equivalent total moment of inertia of the system and a is the rotor speedin radls. For a two-pole machinethe angularmechanicalspeedis equal to the angularfrequencyof the statorcurrents.Note that eqns (7.7) and (7.8) refer to the instant averagecomponentsof current, torque and speed,and not to the high frequency ripple componentsdue to the inverter switching. From (7.7) and(7.8) and from Fig. 7.8, the speedcontrolblock diagramof equations the systemcanbe represented asin Fig. 7.9. Hence,the transferfunctionof the speedsystemcan be determinedand the parametersof the speedregulator can to obtaina certainspeedresponse. A speedsignalcan be obtained be designed positionsensors installed from the signals of the three Hall-effect electronically in the machine.
7.1.5
High speed operation
(2.118),(7.2) and (7.3) show that as the speedof the machine Equations increases, the EMF Eyr-t, the voltage urdorlt)and the duty cycle D will in-
Control
zz)
Figure 7.9. Block diagram of speedcontrol system.
crease till the speedis reachedwhere D becomesunity. The speedwhere , the speed wherethe outputvoltageof the conbecomes unity is simultaneously a maximum. This speedis often called the basespeed verter(inverter)reaches of the drive. Field or flux weakeningin the high speedregion of the machine surface to keep E yt,- r : constant is not possiblewith high-energy-product higher than the basespeed,Eyr-r ) V,t, mountedPMs. Therefore,at speeds and control of the current and torque of the machine is lost. In fact, the current slightly abovethe basespeed.This and torque rapidly drop to zero at speeds implies that the speed-range of the trapezoidalAFPM machineusing surface to increase the speedsubstantially mountedPMs is very limited. Techniques beyondbase speedare: (a) changesmoothly from a 120" current conduction period, as discussed earlier in this chapter,to a 1B0osix-stepconductionpethe current wave with respectto the EMF riod [17, 89, 208] and (b) advance operationthe currentwave is conwave [125]; notethat during sub-base speed trolled to be in-phasewith the EMF waveform as shown in Fig. "1.2c. The in mamay be the following: (i) an increase disadvantages of thesetechniques chine torque ripple, (ii) dangerof converterswitchesbeing exposedto high DC-1ink voltages if for some reason the converter switches are switched-off (at this condition the high EMFs are rectifiedby the six diodes at high speeds the inverter to a high d.c.-link voltage)and (iii) a higher resolutionposition of sensoris necessaryfor the smooth advancingof the current wave as the speed increases. of A technique to obtain high speedoperation that avoid the disadvantages the above techniquesand obtain true flux weakening is to increasemechaniin speed;this technique cally the air gap of the AFPM machinewith increase if is not possiblein commercialRFPM machines.However,it is questionable this techniqueis economicallyviable.
7.2
Control of sinusoidalAFPM machine
SinusoidalAFPM machinesare designedto have sinusoidalor near sinusoidal EMF waveforms. Therefore, in variable speeddrive applicationswhere
224
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRT]SHLESS MACHINES
a solid-state converter is usedto supplythe machine(Fig. 7.i), the outputvoltageof the converter must be sinusoidalor sinusoidal PWM modulated.Hence, the current in the machine is sinusoidalor else the current regulatorsof the drive will force the phasecurrentsto be sinusoidal. This sectionfocuses on the control aspects of the sinusoidal AFPM machine drive. First, the modelling and equivalentcircuits of the sinusoidalAFPM machine are described.Secondly,the current and speedregulatorsof the drive are dealt with. Finally, the hardwareof the sinusoidalAFPM machinedrive is considered.
7.2.1
Mathematical model and dg equivalent circuits
The phasevoltageequations of any three-phase a.c. electricalmachinecan be written as . . ulAB(': ,,
nItaABC ,
dt
(7.e)
where tb.qsc is the total stator magnetic flux linkage of phaseA, B or C * eqn (5.20). Eqn (7.9) is expressed in the so-called ABC stationary reference frame where the circuit variables (voltage, current and flux linkage) are expressed in a reference frame that is fixed to the stationary stator. For synchronous machines,like the AFPM machine, it is very convenientto kansform or refer the stationary stator variables to a reference frame that is fixed to the rotor. In this transformation the stationary ABC statorwindings of the machine are replacedby fictitious dgOwindings that rotate with the rotor. To explain this, let us considerthe cross-section of a two-pole AFPM machine as shown in Fig.7.10a (side view) and Fig. 7.10b (front view). Fig. 7.10ashowsthat the PMs are embedded into the rotor steelyoke, but the magnets in the sinusoidal AFPM machine may also be on the surface of the yoke like in atrapezoidal AFPM machine. With the magnetsembedded,the AFPM machine is not a pure PM machine anymore, but a combined PM-reluctance machinebecausethe electromagnetic torque has two components:PM synchronoustorque and reluctancetorque. Fig. 7.10 explains the ABC and dq winding layout of the machine. The rotating d and q-axis windings are in quadratureof each other and their magnetic axes are aligned with the d and q-axis of the rotor. In this case the d-axis of the rotor is chosento be alignedwith the centrelines of the PMs and the g-axis betweenthe magnets. The position of the rotor and dg-windings with respect to the stationaryABC windings is definedin Fig. 7.10 as the angle between the rotatingd-axis andthe phase, -axis. Note, that in Fig. 7.10b the direction of the flux (O) is into (or out ofl the paper (z*direction), while the current is in the ry-plane.
Control
225
d - axis
I L
o,
iru--{a/
nttt iotr .'
--"t, '
(b) Figure 7.10. StationaryABC androtatingdq windings of a simple two-pole AFPM machine: (a) side view; (b) front view (PMs are shown in dotted lines).
To transfer the circuit variables from the stationary ABC refercnceframe to the dqOreferenceframe, or vice versa,the Park transformation
: lKpllf ascl lfano)
(7.l 0)
226
and inversePark transformation
t lf anc): lKp) lfonol
( 7 .l l )
are used [86], where llfpl is accordingto eqn {5.26) and lkpl-i is the inverse matrix of lKp). In the above eqns (7.10) and (7.11), faqo and f asg are the dq} and ABC vanablesof voltage, current or flux linkage respectively. In eqn (5.26) the angle 0 is the electricalangledefinedin Fig. 7.10. With a constant rotor angular velocity cuthe angle 0 : at. For a balanced three-phase AFPM machine it is only necessary to considerthe d and q-axis circuits as the zero-sequence circuit is playing no role in the performance of the machine. Applying eqn (7.10) to the voltageeqn (7.9) leadsto the dq voltageequations (5.5) and (5.6) of the balancedAFPM machine (omitting the zero-sequence component).In eqns(5.5) and (5.6) u is the electricalspeedof the rotor, and tlta and tftnarc the d and q-axis flux linkages. Let us considerthe following three cases of operatingconditionsof the AFPM machine: (I) The first case is when the machine is open circuit and is mechanically driven at a certain speed cu. The dq stator currents, thus, are zero and only the magnetsare active. From Fig. 7.10 rt is clear that the magnet flux will only link the d-axis winding and not the q-axis winding. In this casetf,tn: 0 and rha : tbf , and from eqns(5.5) and (5.6) ura : 0 and u4: a$1' (ff The secondcase is when both the magnetsand the d-axis winding are not active, but d.c. (steady-state) current is flowing in the q-axis stator winding. The dq stator windings and the rotor are at a rotating speedof u.,. Clearly with no magnets and no d-axis current,lba : 0. With positived.c. q-axis current,i.e. ion: t/2loq, then ,ltn: t/lL"nloowhere ;,", is the q-axis winding synchronous inductance. Note that the relation between $q and ion is nonlinear due to magnetic saturation;L"o wlll thus vary with saturation. From eqns (5.9) and (5.10) it follows in this casethat ,rn : Rfi,r,, and u1g: -wL"ndor,
(III) In the third caseonly the d-axis winding is active in terms of a positive : uEloa. Therefore d.c.currentflowingof io,1 rlrq:0asthemagnetsare not active anddon: 0, and da - J2L where.L"4is the synchronous "41o,1 inductance of the d-axis winding. Again, the relationbetweenda andi,oa is nonlinear and L"4 will vary with saturation.In this casefrom eqn (5.9) and (5.10)u1n: aLr4'io4andu6 : Rliod. If the magnetsand the dq stator windings are active, then the above three cases can be summarized.by eqns(5.7) and (5.8). From eqns(5.5) to (5.10)it follows that the electromagneticpower of a three-phase machine is given by
Control
227
Perrn: ioaw'{q) : - |)qi"a)
|O"nrr1to
}r(.rbo'i"n
(7.r2)
The factor 3l2has been explainedin Section5.13. The developed torque of the machineis expressed by eqn (5.13). The first term in eqn (5.13) expresses the torque componentdue to PM excitation,while the secondterm expresses the reluctancetorque component. For surfacemounted AFPM machinesit can be assumedthat L"6: L"q, hencethe torque is directly proportionalto ior. In the caseof an embedded AFPM machinelike in Fig. 7.10a it is clear that L"d 1 -L"n,which implies that i,o4in eqn (5.13) must be negativein order to generate a positivereluctance torque. Fig. 7.1la showsthe phasordiagramsof the motor for i,o4: 0 while Fig. 7.1lb showsthe phasordiagramof the motor at unity power factor.
q-axls
q-4"\rs
- aL,riu,
(a)
(b)
Figure 7.1L Phasor diagrams of and overexcited AFPM motor: (a) for i."a : 0; (b) at unity power factor.
by eqns(5.17) The inductances in the d and q-axis windings are expressed as and the magnetflux linkage T/1is further expressed
4't
L"aif
(7.13)
in the d-axis and zy is where Lo4is the armaturereaction(mutual) inductance a fictitious magnetisingcurrent representingthe PM excitation. The flux linkage and mutual inductance between the d-axis winding and the fictitious permanentmagnet (field) winding need further explanation. For
228
AXTALFLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES
the d-axis winding we have the following equation(ignoring crosscoupling effectswith the q-axis winding and ignoring any statorslottingeffects):
dr!a dt
Ls "d-- - - l l -
dio,l , , dlt t Lfd , dl "'dl
(7.14)
(LrI Loa)4:,0 * t,o*

dt
d,r
where Loa is given by eqn (2.109) and L1 is a leakageinductance.17 is the fictitious magnet(field) winding current. L y4isthe mutual inductancebetween the d-axis winding and the fictitious magnet (field) winding given by r .*k,1NyQa1 _ - k,rN1Ola "JdI* t,
(7.1 s)
where k-f NJ and fo.rl/r are the effective turns in series of the fictitious magnet-field and d-axis windings respectively. o4,r and @yaare the proportions of flux producedby the d*axis and magnet-fieldwindings respectively that link with the oppositewinding. Note that in this caseo/d is equalto oy of eqn (2.19). From eqn (7.15) the flux linkage of the d*axis winding due to the field winding, Ty';, is given by $f : k-t l/rOfa : Lyaly (7.1 6)
However,this flux linkageis alsoexpressed by eqn (7. l3) and is represented in the d-axis equivalent circuit of Fig. 7.12b. Hence,from eqns(i .13) and(7.16i) L,, ir - ,'"II "
Lod.
(7.171
Furthermore, the d-axis inductance Lo4 is given by eqn(2.109)as

ua,o
r. , -*
k.*1N1Qu,1 Ioa
( 7r .8 )
where Qo4 is the d-axis flux passingthe air gap, linking the rotor. The total flux of the d-axis winding, (D4, is given by
iDa : Ol -f Qod,
(7.1e)
whereQ7is the leakage flux. Now, if O;i of eqn (7.15) [this is the proportionof the flux produced by the d-axis winding that links the field windingl is equal
Control
229
: kQad,where to kQo6,i.e. @ay 0 < k < 1 (i.e. not all the d-axis flux linking the rotor necessarilylinks the fictitious magnet-field winding), then from eqns (7.15)and(7.l8) it followsthat
Lad:l##fr)',,
and fuilhermore from eqn (7 .17) that . 'r: lk*1Nykl -
(7.20)
| 1rffiltr
(7.21)
Hence,if the effectiveturns of the d-axis and field windings arethe sameand k : l, then Loa is equal to L ya and i,1 is equal to Iy. Using eqns(5.7), (5.8) and (7.13) and assuming z1 is not varying with time, (5.6) (5.5) eqns and can be written as rtvl - Rfio4 + (Lr * t"o)T - a(Lt I Loq)ioq (7.22')
uvn: Rf io, * (Lt + L")*
* u(h
-l aLoaiy I Lo,1)zoa
(7.23)
circuits of On the basisof eqns(1.22) and(7.23) the completedq equivalent the sinusoidalAFPM machinecan be drawn as shown in Fig. 7.12. It should be noted that the modelling accordingto eqns (7.22) and (1.23) is basedon assumptionsthat (a) thereare no core losses; (b) the magnetic circuit is linear, i.e. there is no saturationof the magnetic circuit; (c) there is no cross magnetisation or mutual coupling between the d- and q-axis circuits; (d) there are no stator slotting effects (smooth stator core).
7.2.2
Current control
The equivalent AFPM machineshown inFig. T.I2 circuits of the sinusoidal can be usedto designthe current regulatorsfor controlling the d and g-axis currentsof the machine. Applying the principle of speedvoltage decoupling,
230
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGAIET BRUSHLESS MACHINES
(a)
Figure 7.1 2.
(b)
The d and q-axis equivale nt circuits of the sinusoidalAFPM brushless machine.
as for the trapezoidalAFPM machine (section7.1.3), the dq culrent control systemof the sinusoidalAFPM machinecan be represented by the block diagram of Fig . 7.13. Here, the d arrd q-axis current regulators act on the enors betweenthe desiredand actualdq currentsof the machine.The speedvoltage terms are added(or subtracted) to the outputs of the regulatorsto determinethe dg machine voltages. Within the machine model the speedvoltages are subtracted (or added) again,hencethe regulatorsact only on the RL*parts of the equivalent circuits. The block diagrams of the decoupled current controllers can thereforebe simplified to those shown in Fig. 7.14. With the equivalent circuit parametersof the machine known, the transfer functions of the d and q-axis cuffent controllers can be determinedand the d and q-axis current regulatorscanbe designed accordinglyto obtaintherequired dqcurrentresponse.
7.2.3
Speed control
It is always good in terms of efficiency to control the drive at maximum torque per ampere. For the surfacemounted (nonsalient)AFPM machine, whereit canbe takenthat Lsd,: L"n, it is clearfrom eqn (5.l3) that maximum torque per amperefor this machine is obtainedby keeping iod : 0. However, for embedded(salient-pole)AFPM machineswhere L"a * -L"n,maximum torque per ampere is obtained by making io,1negative,that is by controlling the current phasor at some current angle V as shown in Fig. 7.15 (see also Fig. 7.11b). Note from Fig. 7.15 that negativetorque is obtainedby keeping both'ir,1, and 'ion negative, or in the case of the nonsalient machine, only ,io, is negative. In the sub base speedregion (a < ,) of the drive, where there is enough voltage available so that the current regulators do not saturate,the machine is controlled to operateat maximum torque per ampere. For the nonsalient AFPM machine this implies that the current angle V : 0, while for the salient-pole machineiF : Vo (seeFig. 7.15), which is an (average) optimum anglefor all load conditions.
Control
231
dq Cument controller
Lu,l
i +
-t
@L,qiq
aLri,,
Figure 7.13. Block diagramofd and q-axis currentcontrol systemofthe AFPM drive irnplementing speedvoltagedecoupling.
R,+ lus
(b)
Figure 7.14. Decoupledd and q-axis cuffent control systems
However,in the high speedregion (a > wu),the EMF voltagewLo4i,y : largerthanthe possible outat!y of eqn (7.23)(seealsoFig. 7.11b)becomes put voltage of the inverter. The current regulators therefore start to saturate,
232
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHI],{ES
culrent control is lost and the torque of the machine rapidly drops as the speed increases. To avoid this torque decrease and to ensurea wider high-speed region one has to deviate from the maximum torque per amperecontrol and start to inject a largernegative d*axis currentto reducethe g*axis terminalvoltage (Fig. 7.1lb) as the speedincreases. This implies that the currentangle v must be increased as shownin Fig. 7.15,keepingthe currentamplitudeequalor less than the rated curent amplitude dependingon the load. At a maximum current angle,V-, the speedrangecan be extended much more if the currentangleis held constantat tlr : v- and the amplitude of the phasecurrent is reducedas shownin Fig. 7.15. Note from Fig. 7.1lb that as the curent angle rlr increases the apparentpower of the machine decreases and the power factor improves. The above current control strategy can be used for both salient and nonsalientAFPM machines.It must be noted,however,that the speedrange obtained with the above control method dependsvery much on the value of the stator phase inductance of the machine (see Numerical example 7.2). If the phaseinductanceis relatively small (this implies a low per unit statorphase reactance), as is the casewith slotless and air-coredAFPM machines, the high speed rangeof the machineis very limited. From above,thus, the current of the machine can be controlled by controlling the magnitude of the current and keeping the current angle constantat an optimum value,and advancing the currentangleat higher speeds. To simplifz this control method, the current angle \Ir is defined as a positive angle between 0 to 90". The current angle is also taken as a function of the absolute value of the speed,lo'1.Furlhermore, a currenti7 is defined,which controlsthe torque of the machine and is proporlional to the current amplitude of the machine. Hence.
i o,t : iaq
sin tl.t l17'l ri7 cos V for
iI/ > 0
('7.24)
Substitutingeqn (7.24) into eqn (5.13) and noting that Lra{L"o, the electromagnetictorque is
Ta - 3ptb f i7 cos(V)+ f,nQ"n - L",t)ir.lirl sirr(2V)
(7.2s)
It can be seenfrom the first term of eqn (7.25) that there is a linear relation betweenthe PM torque componentand the cumenti7 for a given current angle V. The secondterm of eqn(7 .25) is the reluctancecomponentof the torque. It is found for reluctance machines[32] that the inductance differenceA,L : Lsct L"a is not a constant at a ceftain current angle, but varies inversely with load current z7 due to saturation and cross magnetization. The cross
Control
a1a
Figure 7.15. Currentphasorcontrol ofthe AFPM drive in the low and high speedregionsof the machine.
magnetization or crosscouplingis the magneticcouplingbetweenthe fictitious d and q-axis windings of the machine. It is thus a fairly good approximation to assumefor this componentof the torque a linear relation betweenreluctance torqueand currenti7 for a given cuffent angle V [134]. Thus, eqn(7.25) can be simplified as
Ta x kyli,y * k7y.1i7 x k7i1.
fbr
V : consta?Lt
(7.26)
where lryl and k7r"1 zte the PM torque and reluctancetorque constants,respectively, and k7 : krf * kr,d. Note from eqn (7.26) that to generate a negativetorque, ri7 must be negative;V is taken in the control as a positive quantity between0 to 90". ln the casewhere V : 0, then k7r.1 : Q, kr : Kr f : 3prl, i,7 - ias. r 12 and, With the current control strategyin place and with the torque as a function of current as given by eqn (7.26), a speed controller for the AFPM machine drive can be implemented aroundthe currentcontrolleras shown in Fig. 7.16.
234
The block diagramof Fig. 7.16 describes the basicprinciple of the currentand speed control of the AFPM machine drive. The speed regulator acts on the error betweenthe desiredand measured speedof the systemand controlsthe current i7 of eqn (7 .26). The maximum curuentof the machine is limited by the limiter as shownin Fig. 7.16. The currentangleV is, as a positivequantity, a function of the absolutevalue of the speedof the machine,lu.'1. as shown in Fig. 7.16. In the low speedregion the angle IF is kept constant.In the speed region abovethe base speed(a > ai the angle V is increased with speed. In the very high speedregion the angle I[ is kept constant again. With the current and curuentangle V known, the desired dq cunents, ,io,1* and ior* , are determinedby eqn (7 .24). With the measuredspeedand measureddq currents as the other inputs, the current controller outputs the necessarydq voltages accordingto the block diagram of Fig. 7.13. Thesevoltagesare transformed to ABC voltagesusing the inversetransformationgiven by eqn (7.11), and are then put through the PWM generatorto control the inverter and hence the terminal voltagesof the machine. It must be notedthat the speedcontrol methodof Fig. 7.16 is only one way of controllingthe speed of the PM brushless motor and is recognized as a basic method. Severalother techniquesand algorithms for wide-range speedcontrol ofPM motor driveshavebeenproposed and can 122,53,126, 152,164,249J be appliedto the speedcontrol of the sinusoidalAFPM brushless motor drive. The important aspectis the preventionof saturationof the dq cunerftregulators in the high speedregion of the motor. To designthe speedregulatorof the systemof Fig. 7.16 a few approximations can be made to simplifz the model of the speedcontrol drive. Firstly, the mechanicaltime constantof drive systemsis in general much longer than the electrical time constant of the drive so that the latter can be ignored. Togetherwith this, a good approximation is to assume that the currentcontrollers are forcing the actual currents equal to the command (desired) curents, i.e. iod": iod*, ioq : ioq*, andiy : i,r*. Applying further eqn (7.26),the speed control systemcanbe simplifiedto that shownin Fig. 7.17. From the simplified control system the approximate transfer function of the system can be determined and the speed regulator can be designedto obtain the required speed response.
7.2.4
Hardware of sinusoidal AFPM machine drive
For the sinusoidalAFPM brushless motor the samesolid-state converteras for the trapezoidalAFPM brushless motor can be used(Fig. 7.4). A more detailed diagram of the hardwareof the sinusoidalAFPM brushlessdrive system is shown in Fig. 7.18. The fixed a.c. supply voltage is rectified by meansof a diode rectifier or voltage-source controlled(active)PWM rectifier to obtain a fixed d.c. voltage. The d.c. voltage is then invertedby meansof a voltage-
Control
235
LR
s;
ili fll
.i:
-f^ ia
>:-
236
AXIAL FLUX PERMAI,IENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES
Figure 7.17. Biock diagram of simplified speedcontrol system.
source PWM inverter to a three-phasea.c. voltage of variable frequency and magnitude. The difference between the trapezoidal and sinusoidal drives lies in the PWM switching-control of the inverler bridge. In the caseof the trapezoidal AFPM motor drive, quasi-squarePWM voltages are applied, whereas in the case of the sinusoidalAFPM motor drive, sinusoidalPWM voltages are applied and the phase currents of the stator are sinusoidally regulated as described in the previoussections. The peak value of the fundamental frequency voltage component of the invefter-legs of Fig. 7.18 with respect to the neutralpoint l/ is clearly jV6. ns the fundamental frequency voltage componentsof the inverter-legs are 120" out of phase,the maximlrm rrns line-to-line voltage of the inverter at the fundamentalfrequency with sinusoidal PWM is
VrL-Lô"
:--
'/5vo: 0 . 6 1 2 V a Jt2
(7.27)
This result showsthe limitation on the maximum rms outputvoltageof the inverter. This affects,amongstother things, the maximum speedat which rated torque can be delivered by the drive (seeNumerical example 7.2). The currentsin the threephasesof the AFPM machine drive are sinusoidally regulated. There is, however, a ripple in the phase currents due to the PWM switching. It can be shown that the peak-to-peak ripple in the phase curent, L,'ip-p, is directly proportionalto
Lir-, -
t rhls
=Vo,
('7.28)
where /" is the switching frequencyof the inverter and Ly,nthetotal load inductanceper phaseofthe inverter. The ripple current is thus inverselyproportional to Lon and,f ,. Note that Lph can be increasedby the addition of an extemal inductor in serieswith the stator (armature) of the AFPM machine as shown
Control
LJI
af?
in Fig. 7.18. Careful consideration shouldbe given to the selectionof Lrt" and As the air gaps of AFPM machines,specificallythose AFPM machines "f". with corelessand slotlessiron-coredstators,are relatively large, the internal phaseinductancas of thesemachinesare relatively small. Thus to keep the ripple current in thesemachineswithin limits, the switching frequency/" is requiredto be high. With power MOSFETs the switching frequencycan be madehigh (say /" < 50 kHz), but with IGBTs in the medium-to-largepower rangethe switchingfrequencyis very much limited to l, < 10 kHz. In sucha casethe phaseinductance must be increased. The high ripple currentthat can occur in most of the AFPM machinedrivesis often overlooked.A high ripple currenthas seriousconsequences on the curent rating ofthe inverterand the torquequality and acousticnoiseof the efficiency,statorwinding temperature, AFPM brushless motor. For rotor position feedbackof the sinusoidalAFPM drive a position sensor Resolvers are often usedfor this as they are with high resolutionis necessary. Integrated and analogcircuitry robustand can be usedin harshenvironments. (seeFig. 7.18). controller to interface the resolverwith the digital arenecessary Digital interfaceoutputsof up to 16 bit resolutionare possible. Normally 12 bit resolutiongivesmore than enoughaccuracyfor position feedback. A11the measuredinformation of voltage, current and rotor position are fed to the digital controller as shown in Fig. 7.18. The controller outputs PWM signalsvia fibre optic links to the inverterbridge. Digital signal processors (DSPs) are nowadaysfrequently used as drive controllers [227]. Examples of dedicatedfixed point DSPs from kxes Instrumentsinclude TMS320F240 (150 MHz). These (20 MHz), TMS320LF2407A(40 MHz), TMS320F2B12 ( l0 or l2 bit resolution) 16 A/D channels DSPshave 12 or 16 PWM channels, and operateat frequencies of between20 to 150 MHz. ln anotherrecentdevelopmenton drive controllersInternationalRectifierintroducedtheir motion control chipsetIRACO2l0 [99]. This chipsetusesa high speedconfigurable field programmablegate array (FPGA), tightly coupled to gate driver and current senseinterface chips. In this way flexible drive control algorithms are implemented in FPGA hardware,rather than in software,
7.3
position control Sensorless
It is obvious that information of the rotor position of the AFPM brushless motor is absolutelynecessary for proper cuffent and speedcontrol. For trapezoidal AFPM motors a low resolution position sensor may be used, but for The sinusoidalAFPM motors a high resolutionposition sensor is necessary. to the machineand electhat is mechanically connected useof a position sensor the electromechanical drive system to the controllerreduces trically connected reliability and increases its cost. Moteover, in some applicationsinsufficient po,sitionconspacemay makethe use of a position sensordifficult. Sensorless
238
AXIAL FLLIX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES
I
vd
Figure 7.18. Hardwareof sinusoidalAFPM drive system.
trol techntques,in which an accurateinformation of the rotor position can be obtainedwithout the needof a mechanical sensor, are superior. Variousmethodsand techniqueshavebeenproposedthe last two decades for position control of PM brushless the sensorless motors. Most of thesemethods are based on the measurementof the voltage andlor current of the machine. Thus, insteadof using a mechanicalsensor, electricalsensors (not mountedin the machine but placed at the solid-stateconverter)are usedto obtain the rotor position signal. ln this way, the position of the rotor is determinedindirectly, as measured electricalquantitiestogetherwith the model of the machineare used. Stateobservers, filters and other calculationsare used to estimatethe mechanical position of the rotor. The methodsof sensorless controlcanbe classified into two types: (i) methods that arebasedon the back EMF estimationl2l, 82,242f, and(ii) methods that makeuseof the magnetic present saliency in the machinell27 , 154, 155, 209]. The EMF measurement is not suitablefor low andzero speedoperation of the motor as the induced voltage is proportional to the rotor speed.At stand still, the induced voltage is zero and there is no position-information anymore in the stator quantities. The secondmethod, which makes use of the magnetic saliency,is more suitablefor the detectionof the rotor position at low speeds and standstill. With this method either test voltagepulsesare applied to the machine or additional high-frequency signals superimposed on the fundamental voltages (or cunents) are injected. The injection of the revolving high-frequency voltage vector is commonly used. All thesemethodscan be used successfullyfor the position sensorless control of AFPM motor drives
Control
239
if the high-frequency injection sensor[187]. However,it is still questionable type AFPM brushless motors as lesscontrol methodcan be appliedto coreless thesemachineshavepracticallyno magneticsaliency. Fig.7 .19 explainsthe basicprinciple of the highfrequencyvoltageinjection position control technique. High frequency voltage signals are insensorless jected to the systemby adding them to the dq voltage signalsu14 and u1,7 of the drive. The currentresponse of the drive systemto thesevoltage signalsis so asto obtainthe high monitoredby bandpassfiltering (BPF) the dq cut:rents, These high frequency current and ion7r. frequency current componentsi,o41, componentscontain information about the rotor position as they are affected by the magnetic saliencyof the machine. These currents,togetherwith the high frequencyinjected signalsare usedby an observeror position estimator to estimatethe rotor position 0^. A low passfilter (LPF) is furthermore usedto extract from the dq currents the fundamental current componentsios and ion, which are necessaryfor the fundamental current controller of the drive (Fig. 7.13). The frequencyof the injectedvoltagesignalsmust be much higherthan the fundamentalfrequency,but also much lower than the switching frequency of the inverter,and is typically between500 Hz and2k}{z.
High liequency vof tag on -j ",rr1""t rotor position cstirnaior
position control. voltage injection sensoriess Fipre 7.19. Highfrequency
A small, 35-W 4300 r/min, 12 pole, Y-connectedair-cored,trapezoidal AFPM brushless motor is usedas part of a reactionwheel for a micro-satellite (seeFig. 7.20). Reactionor momentumwheels are used on satellitesto keep as, e.g. the satellitesteadyand to orientateit. Orientationcontrol is necessary the photovoltaicpanelsmust be pointed at all times to the sun for maximum
240
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGI{ETBRUSHLESS MACHINES
power generation.The motor has a statorphaseinductanceof -L" : 3.2 Lr,Hand a phaseresistance of fi1 : 22 rn0. The motor is fed by a 3-phase MOSFET inverter withVa: 14 V and is under square-wave cufrent control as described in Section7.1.3. Assumingthe voltagedrop acrossa MOSFET switch during switching-onas I V, calculate: (a) the switching frequency /" of the invefter; (b) the extemal phaseinductancerequired for a maximum peak-to*peak ripple currentlessthan 0.5 A if f" :40kHz.
Figure 7.20. Small corelessAFPM brushlessmotor. Photo courtesy of the Lrniversib,of Stellenbosch, South Africa. Numerical example 7.l.
Solution First, an approximate equation for the maximum peak-to-peak phase current ripple of the motor must be derived. For the circuit shown in Fig. 7.5 during switching-on,i.e. with the transistors fl, and Q switchedon, assuming ideal transistorswitchesand assumingthe drive is in the steady-state, the voltageequation(7.l) canbe written as
v4 :
- E.rt L RrIu- R,pi,+ tod',i d,t
(7.2e)
where the phasecurrent 'io : Io + ir, Io is the steady-state averagecurrent and z, is the ripple current.Putting eqn (7.3) and neglecting the voltage dropRri,, eqn (7.29) can be brought to di, Va - DVa rt , "P ,rt
(7.30)
Control From eqns (7.4) and (7.30) the peak to-peak ripple current Ai, is
241
Aa,
n;' _Va(l
-
- D)for, - D)D _Va(l
Lo
LrI"
(7.31)
The maximum peak-to-peak ripple curent will occur at a duty cycle of D 0.5, hence
Li,ô, = J!-
4LPJ "
(7.32)
(a) Switching frequency.Using eqn (7 .32) and taking into accountthe voltage drop acrossthe transistor switches,the switching frequencyfor a maximum ripple currentof 0.5 A is
+N Js -
"
w -2
;-; *4L pl\zrmox
t4-2
4.x(2x3.2x 10 6) x0.5
: 937.5 k}fz
(b) Externalinductance. Eqn(7.32) givesthe following additionalphaseinductance required to keep the ripple current lessthan 0.5 A at f u : 40 kHz: _1
Lph(atid)
x ,
Va-2
4f ,Li,,,o"
f_
14-2
4 x 40 000x 0.5
-3.2x10-o : 71.8pH (7.33)
Theseresults show the low phase inductanceproblem of corelessAFPM brushlessmotors when fed from solid-stateinvefters. Either the switching frequency of the inverter must be high or relatively large extemal inductors must be addedin serieswith the phasewindings of the machineto keep the ripple currentwithin limits. Usually,externalinductorsare used,as a high switching frequencycauses the power lossesin the inverterto be high.
Consider a 75-kW,460-V,105-A,Y-connected, 700-H2,1500 r/min, 8-pole AFPM motor with single PM rotor disc and double slottedstatorsconnected in series. The equivalentcircuit parameters and flux linkage of this machine are:R1: 0.034d), L"d - Lsq : 2.13 mH,'$f : 0.538Wb. The machine is under dq cunent control by using, amongst other things, a three-phaseIGBT voltage-source inverterwith d.c.-link voltageVa - 755 V. Find: (a) the maximum speedand the developedpower of the drive with the machine at rated current and the machinecontrolled at maximum torque per ampere;
LAL
1Aa
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNET BRUSHLE SSMACHINES
(b) the per unit high speed of the drive developing the same power as in (a) with the drive at rated current, rated voltage and using an advancedcuffent angle.
Solution (a) Maximum speedand electromagneticpower With a surface-mountedAFPM machine maximum torque per ampere is obtainedwith i,oa: 0 A. Thus, at ratedstatorcurrentioq : t/2 x 105 : 148.5 A. To obtain maximum speedthe output voltage of the invefier must be at a maximum,i.e. from eqn(1.27)thermsphase voltageVl :0.612x 7551\/3 : 266.8 V. Thus, the peak phasevoltage, V1,, : 1/1 x 266.8 : 377.3 V and T note that Vr^ : tluu2 I ,to'. By consideringthe drive in the steadystate and ignoring the resistive voltage drop, from eqn (7.22), eqn (7.23) and Fig. 7.11we have
: Vrrnsin d = -a L"nion u1-d"
v
(1.34)
u1n: Vlpcos6 x wtf;y From this

Land =
. ubot tlo
(7.3s)
-2.13x10*3x148.5 0.538
'v.f
and d = -30.45"
Using eqn (7 .34) the angular frequencyis V1- sirrd

w-_ Lsqx,q
: - 2 . 7 3x 1 0 - ' x 1 4 8 . 5 604.5racl/s
3 7 7 . 2v s i n ( - 3 0 . 4 5 )
and the mechanical speedO : S\alptr : 7443 rpm. The maximum speed with maximum torque per amperecontrol is thus just less than the rated speed of 1500r/min of the machine.Using eqn (7.34), an approximateequationfor electromagneticpower (7 .I2) can be found as follows: the steady-state
P,r* era Iu1 o;"n=irW)sind

.)
Z
(7.36)
r 72.45 kW x sin(-30.45)
243
which is alsojust lessthan the ratedpower of 75 kW of the machine. (b) Per unit high speed The speed of the AFPM brushless motor canbe increased beyondbasespeed by increasingthe current angle !I, as shown in Fig. 7.1l(b), keepingthe peak value of the sinusoidalphase current Io : consto,nt. Note that lorn :
V f. ).. t Lad' + Laq'.
At ratedconditionslorn :148.5 A andVlr, : 377.i|V. The samepower as in (a), i.e. 72.45kW must be obtained.Hence,it is clear from eqn (.7.36)that d will be the sameas in (a), i.e. d : -30.45". With the machineconsidered as 100%efficient,the electromagnetic power is equalto the input power,i.e. P,L,nx where cos@! 6
|Vrn,In- "or
72 450
(3lz)x377.3x148.5
: 0.862
and
Q x 30.45" (leading)
Theq-axis current i:on cannowbe calculated as : 72.2 ioq: Io,ncos(ldl A + 4) * cos(30.45 + 30.45) Usingeqn(7.35)thatis still valid,theangular frequency is
,r aY -
7r- sin d
- L sqlaq
x sin(*30.45) 377.3 : radls - 2 . 7 3 x 1 0 - 3x 7 2 . 2 1243
and the mechanicalspeedO : S\alptr : 2967 rpm. Taking the mechanical : speedof 1443 rpm in (a) as the basespeed, the per unit speedts 297211443 2.0 p.u. Hence,the samepower can be developedby the drive at two times basespeedby advancing the currentangle V frorn zero to almost 610. It must be notedthat this increase in speedis very much dependent on the q-axis synchronousinductanceLrn as can be seenclearly from all the equationsused above. If .L"nbecomesrelatively smal1, the speedincrease will be much less. The per unit phasereactance of the aboveiron-cored,slottedAFPM machine is r" - 0.53 p.u. For slotlessand coreless AFPM machines the per unit phase reactance is much less(typically 0.1 p.u.) and the speedincrease will be little.
Simulatethe dq andABC currentresponse ofthe drive systemof l{umerical example7.2. Assumethat
244
.t fU
I
IJ
; i1 " ," 1, 1 ;
r t-
r'-l'
fi
+ *-?
4^ .E6
Od
BT
or
Control (a) the speedis constant at 1000 rlmin1' (b) the drive is operating at maximum torque per ampere; (c) the switchingfrequencyof the inverteris 1.5kHz; (d) the dq currentregulators consistonly of a proportional gainK":
245
3 ViA.
Solution Various software, such as PSpiceand Simplorer, can be used for simulating converler-fed electricalmachinedrives.Assumingthe switchingofthe inverter asideal,Matlab-Simulinkhasbeenusedin this exampleto simulatethe curent response of the drive.
200 150 100 50
g
0
o
-50 -100
-200
(a)
200
175 150 125 100
I
Time (s)
75
50
E
d-axis
25 0
0 Y 25+ .50 l 0.005
(b)
Figure 7.22. Simulated current response for step input in the q-axis current ioo: (a) phase currentsi.A,iatj andi,,c:; (b) dq currentsiaa andi,,r. Numericalexample7.1.
246
A block diagramof the simulationset-upis shown in Fig. 7.21. The simulation is done as "continuous",i.e. without any samplingand so forlh like in a digital control system.The currentcontrol is done inthe dq reference frame using the currentcontrollerof Fig. 7.13. For both the d and q-axis regulators of Fig. 7.13 a gainK" is usedas shownin Fig. 7.21. The decouplingis doneas shownin Fig. 7.13 with the actualdq currentsand speedas inputs.For simulation of the invefter,the drl voltagesaretransformedtoABC voltagesby using eqn (7.11). To generate the PWM phasevoltages, the ABC vollagesare comparedwith a 1.5kHz trianglewave (amplitudeof Val2), by using a subtractor (sum) and comparator (relay). The relay outputs+V,t 12. The generated PWM voltages,uABCN,are with respectto the d.c.-link midpoint l/ of the invefier (seeFig. 7.18), and haveto be converted with to true phasevoltages,u7165r",, respect to the floating neutralpoint n, of the machineas follows:
uAn: nlln :
]{rror '5{rr"* t5lrr" **
uBN
ucN)
uC,^/- uA-^/) u/.^\r- uB,^r)
(7.37)
lJc,n -
The next stepis to either solvethe machineequationsinthe ABC or in the dq referenceframe. Using the dq referenceframe, the true PWM phasevoltages must be convertedback to dq voltagesas shown in Fig. 7.21. Using the maan:d z,rncurrentscan be determinedand fed chine model of Fig. 7.13, the 'i6,4 back to be comparedwith the input command currents as shown. To obtain information of the actual phasecurrents,the ioy andio,ncunents are transformed to ABC currents. The whole block diagram of Fig. 7.21 can be set up in Matlab-Simulink using the Simulink blocks. For the machine model, eqns(7.22) and (7.23) can directly be set-upin Simulink using integrators.To simulatethe inverter switching,the relay block can be used.Al1 the other sourceand mathematical function blocks are availablein Simulink. The simulatedresultscan be output in various ways, in this caseto the Matlab workspace. All the machine parametersare known from Numerical example 7.2. The mechanicalspeedis taken as constantat 4I9 radls (1000 rpm). For maximum torque per amperethe dq commandcurrents'iod.*: 0 and'ioo* : 148.5 A are given as step inputs to the system (Fig. 7.21). The d,q and ABC ct;rrerf. responses of the drive for a step input in i,or* are shown in Fig. 7.22. The effect of the switching of the inverter on the current waveforms is clear. In this builds up to the rated cumentin lessthan 5 ms. This case,the q-axis cur:rent amongstotherson the value of the proporlional gain I{". The effect depends
Control
247
of the decouplingon the currentresponse can be self-studied by removing the decouplingsignalsin the simulation.
Chapter 8 COOLING AND HEAT TRANSFER
8.1
Importance of thermal analysis
During the operationof an electricalmachine,heatis generated dueto power lossesin electricand magneticcircuits and mechanical(rotational)losses.To ensure a long operational life for the machine,theselosses must be removedas far aspossiblefrom the machineso that the temperature limitationsestablished for the machinematerials,suchas insulatingmaterials, lubricantsand pMs are complied with. In addition to the consideration of the machine'soperational life, a lower operatingtemperature reduces extra winding lossesintroducedby - eqn (3.47). the temperature coefficientof the electricresistance whereas extensive research has beendevotedto the thermal studiesof conventionalelectricalmachines, AFPM machineshavereceivedvery little attention f 118,279,231,2321. Owing to the fact that AFPM machines possess a relatively large air gap volume and quite often have multi-gaps, the general perception is that AFPM machineshave better ventilation capacitythan their radial field counterparts [48, 96]. Sincethe externaldiameterincreases ratherslowly with the increase of output power,i.e. Do,,1x iE""t 196],the existingheatdissipationcapacity may be insufficient to cope with excessive heat at certain power ratings, so that more effectivemeansof cooling haveto be enforced.Thus, quantitativestudies of the heat dissipationpotential of AFPM machineswith vastly different topologiesis important.
8.2
lleat transfer modes
Heat transfer is a complex phenomenonpresenting formidable analytical difficulties. Heat is removed from an electrical machine by a combination
250
MAGNETBRLTSHLESS MACHINES AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT
to the ambient air and surof condttction, radiation and convectionprocesses roundings.
8.2.1
Conduction
When a temperaturegradient exists in a solid body, such as in the copper, from steel,PMs or the insulationof an electricalmachine,heat is transferred to the low-temperatureregion the hightemperature region of temperature86o7 of temperature 8"o6 accordingto Fourier's law,which is given as:
LP": -nou#:
- 8"om) (onot
(8.1)
where AP" is the rate of heat conduction,A is the areaof the flow path, I is the length of the flow path and ,k is the thermal conductivity of the material. The latter is experimentally determinedand is relatively insensitiveto temperature are Thermalproperties of typical materialsusedfor AFPM machines changes. givenin TableB.l .
Table 8.1. Material
Selectedthermal properties of materials Grade
p
Kg/m"
c.p Ji(kg "C)
k W(m "C) 0.0267 0.63 0.33 0.5 360

z)l
(20"c)
Air Water Mica Epoxy resin Copper Aluminum Steel Pure Alloy (cast) 1% Carbon Silicon Permanentmagnet SinteredNdFeB
1.1'77 1000 3000 1400 8950 2700 2790 7850 7700 7600to 7"100
1005 4184 813 1700 380 903 883 450 490 420
168 52 20-30 9
8.2.2
Radiation
with a temperature The net radiant energyinterchangebetweentwo surfaces and the temperature, the emissivity the absolute is a function of difference geometry of each surface. If heat is transferredby radiation between two gray surfaces of finite size, 41 and 42, and temperature, t?1 and tSz (in Celsius degree),the rate of heat transfer,A,Pr, may be written as
Cooling and Heat Transfer

( t9, + ) ?tt 1 L7 ta
I l I
251
_\vt -u-
^ D 4rr '
( ,9.,
\u2-.to)
)7'l\4
.tAt'AtFtz'ezAz
!-3 l-'.
(8.2)
where o is the stefan-Boltzmann constant,F12is the shapefactor which takes into accountthe relative orientation of the two surfacesand e1 and, e2 are their respective emissivities which dependon the surfaces andtheir treatment.Some selected emissivities relatedto AFPM machinesare siven in Tableg.2.
Table8.2.
Selected emissivities relevantto AFPM machines Surfacecondition Polished Black White Ernissivity,a
Material
Copper Epoxy
0.025 0.87 0 .u 5 0.2-0.3 0.57 0.2-0.7 0.9
Mild steel Cast iron Stainless steel Permanentmagnet, NdFeB Uncoated Oxidized
8.2.3
Convection
convection is the term describingheat transferfrom a surfaceto a moving fluid. The rateof convective heattransfer, APr, is given accordingtoNewton's law of cooling as:
LP,, : - 8,r,rd,) hA(9 7,o1
(8.3)
where /z is the convectionheat transfercoefficient,which is a rather complex function of the surfacefinish and orientation,fluid properties,velocity and temperature, and is usually experimentallydetermined.The coefficienth increases with the velocity of the cooling medium relativeto the cooledsurface. For a surfacewith forced ventilation,the following empirical relation may be used[147],i.e. hy : h,"(l * r:6.y61 (8.4)
where h'y and. h,,, arethe coefficientsof heat transfer for the forced and natural convectionrespectively, t' is the linear velocity of cooling medium and cp.x 0.5 to 1.3is an empiricalcoefficient.
252
AXIAL T'LUXPERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES
Someimportant formulae for evaluatingconvectiveheattransfercoefficients of AFPM machinesare discussed in the followins sections. Convection heat transfer in disc systems The rotating disc system plays a major role in the cooling and ventilation of the AFPM machine. Accurately determining the convection heat transfer coefficientsneedsthorough theoretical and experimentalinvestigationbecause of the complexityof ffow regimes. In this section the convection heat transfer coefficients in different parts of the AFPM machine are evaluated,exploiting a number of existing models.
laminar
lent turbu
laminar
(a) Figure 8.1. flow
(b)
Free rotating disc: (a) in laminar flow, (b) transition from laminar to turbulent
Freerotatingdisc The averageheat transfer coefficient at the outside surfaceof a rotating disc may be evaluated using the formula developedfor a free rotating disc [241], i.e. kh-:Nu
(8.s)
where -R is the radius of the disc and the averageNusselt number ly'u is given accordingto the differentflow conditionsas follows: (i) For combinedeffectsof free convectionand rotation in laminar flow (Fig. 8.ta) [241]

) ^ l
253
A/u: r{n".*Grla
(8.6)
,_r, u2
(8.7)
where fie is the Reynoldsnumberaccordingto eqn (2.65), p is the coemcient of thermal expansion,z is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid and Atl is the temperaturedifference betweenthe disc surfaceand surrounding air. (ii) For a combination of laminar and turbulent flow with the transition at a radiusr" (Fig. 8.lb) [241]
"s - t 00(!!P :0.0l5Re ly'u .R,

where
(8.8)
r.:(2.5x105u1Q)r/2
(8.e)
The angularspeedQ : 2trn when n is the rotationalspeedin rev/s. It is instructiveto comparethe heat transfer capabilitiesbetweena rotation disc and a stationarydisc. If we considera steeldisc, which has a diameterof 0.4 m and rotatesat 1260rpm., the convection heattransfercoefficientmay be calculated as 41 W/(m' "C), which is aboutten timesthat of the samedisc at standstill. Altematively, one can say that the effectiveheat dissipationareaof the same disc can be increased by a factor of 10 when the disc rotatesat the specific speed. Rotor radial peripheral edge The heat transferconelationsfor the radial peripheryof the rotor disc are similar to those of a rotating cylinder in air. In this case the averageheat transfer coefficient is givenas
he: (.kf D",)t{u
(8.1 0)
where Do6 is the outer diameterof the rotor disc, the average Nusseltnumber is given by
1v u : 0.133 R e T rP r t / 3
,) /a
(8.il)
254
AXIAL FLUX PERMANEI{T MAGNET BRUSHLESS MACHIAIES
andReynolds numberat the discperiphery is : QDf;,rlu Re71 (8.12)
Note that a uniform temperaturedistribution in the cylinder is normally assumedwhen eqn (8.10) is used. SinceDo is proportionalto the angularspeed 0, it may be concludedthat the rotor periphery plays an increasinglyimportant role in the heatdissipationas f,) increases. Rotor-statorsystem As seenin Fig. 8.2, an AFPM machineconsists of a numberof rotatingand stationarydiscs. The heat transfer relations betweena rotating and a stationary disc are of paramountimportance in the thermal calculations. Due to centrifugal effects,there is a forced flow betweenthe two discs,which increases the local heat transfer rate comparedwith that of a free disc. The relative increase will dependon the gap ratio, G : g I R, where g is the clearance betweenthe rotor and the stator and -R is the radius of the disc, the mass flow rate and the rotational speed of the system[91]. Having radial channelsand thick impellers,an air-cooledAFPM machine may be regardedas a poorly designedfan from a fluid flow perspective. Its tangentialvelocity componentis much larger than the radial component. Thus, the heat transfer rate near the rotating disc shows more dependenceon the rotationalReynoldsnumber, Rer, givenby eqn (2.65). Owen [89] provided an approximatesolution for the flow betweena rotating and a stationary disc, which relates the averageNusselt number to the moment coefficientof the stator-side rotor face, Cr.o, by the following equation:
l/z:
Re,C,nofn
' C n , o R e ' r ': 0 . 3 3 3 ) r

where ,\7 is a twrbulence pqrameter given as a rate, Q, as follows \r : A-4 :;.Rer s
(8. l 3)
functionof volumetricflow
(8.14)
By replacing )7 in eqn (8.13) with eqn (8.14), the averageNusselt number becomes
255
n ly'tr : 0.333 * ruR,
(8.1 5)
As discussed in [190], it hasbeenshownthat for a smailgap ratio (G < 0.1) the flow in the air-gap spacebetween the rotor and stator can be treated as a boundary layer. Whilst it is not absolutelytrue that the convective heattransfer coefficientfrom the statorto the air flow is close to that of the air flow to a rotatingdisc, the sameheattransfercoefficientmay be assumed in the thermal circuit simulation.
8.3
Cooling of AFpM machines
Dependingon the size of the machineand the type of enclosures, different arrangements for cooling may be used. From a cooling perspective, AFPM machines may be classifiedinto two categories as follows: t machineswith se(-ventilation, in which cooling air is generated by a rotating disc, PM channelsor other fan-alike devicesincorporated with the rotatingpart of the machine,and t machineswitlt external ventilation, in which the cooling medium is circu_ latedwith the aid of externaldevices, for an example,a fan or a pump.
8.3.1
AFPM machineswith self-ventilation
The majority of AFpM machinesare air-cooled. compared with conventional electrical machines,a pafiicularly advantageous ieature of disc-type AFPM machinesfrom a cooling perspective is that they possess inherentselfventilalion capability. Fig. 8.2 showsthe layout and active components of a typical AFPM machine.A closeexaminationof the machinestructure reveals that an air streamwill be drawn through the air inlet holes into the machine and then forced outwards into the radial channel as the rotor discs rotate. .fhe PMs in fact actas impeller blades.The fluid behaviourof the AFpM machine is much like that of a centrifugalfan or compressor. The ideal radial channel According to the theory of an ideal impeller,a numberof assumptions have to be madeto establish the one-dimensional model of the ideal radial channel [7 1, 207]: (a) thereare no tangentialcomponents in the flow throughthe channel; (b) the velocity variationacrossthe width or depthof the channel is zero; (c) the inlet flow is radial, which means that air entersthe impeller without ore-whirl:
256
2 Figure 8.2. Exploded view of an AFPM machine: 1 PM, and 4 - epoxy core. rotor disc, 2 statorwinding, 3
(d) the pressureacrossthe bladescan be replacedby tangentialforces acting on the fluid; (e) the flow is treated as incompressibleand frictionless. Figure 8.3 showsa radial channelwith the velocity triangles drawn at the inlet and the outlet. It can be observedthat the pressures at the inlet p1 and the outlet p2, and friction tri, make no contribution to the sum of the momentum, D Mo. If gravity is ignored, the generalrepresentationof conselation of momentum takes the following forrn 12371: )J z Arr l1" o = ;L/ ')pdV Q i x ul r I lt | ( r ' * i ) p l u ' . r i ) d A dt'J.u'
J,."
(8.16)
where r- is the position vector from 0 to the elemental control volume dV and u-is the velocity of the element. For steady-state, one-dimensionalair flowing betweenthe entranceand exit of the channel,eqn (8.16) may be simplified as: : To : (Eo,t x u'z)mz- (En, x u*1)rn1 Y, Un (8.17)
where rn2 : rnt : pQ, ut : QRm andu2 : ARout.The input shaft power P;r, is then given by:
_ Ri") : pee2(R7,, hn: ToO
(8.1 8)
257
Re-arranging the aboveequationgives:
( 8.1 e)
Basedon the principle of conservation of energy, the input shaftpower may be given as:
:,h(P-?# . Pin,
ry
- zr* r;z - u) * zz
(8.20)
If the potential (.22- zl) and internal energy (uz - L[) (friction) are ignored, eqn (8.20) may be written in the sameunits as eqn (g.19) as:
Pnn-,^ u||-ul * \ r p-'n- tU't Ptl g
(8.21)
If equations(8.19) and (8.21) are equatedand noting that w1 : ef A1 and w2 : Q f 42, whereAy and42 arc the cross-section areas of the inlet and outlet of the channelrespectively, the pressuredifferenceAp betweenthe entrance and exit of the radial channel(shownin Fig. 8.3) may be expressed as:
258
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGAIET BRUSHLESS MACHINES
- pt : pQ2(R3,, - R?,, Lp - pz |rh
#rrr,
(8.22)
Eqn (8.22) may be termed the ideal equation describing the air flow through the radial channel.
,.
I{elativeetlciy
'..i
;71i':" ' , i ,' ' i t ..
->c\ .j,tz\-) 'l , r, '/-;;
S]
i
i;..''.';.ii
i,;-t-':'4
Figure 8.4. The relative eddy in the PM channel.
il
r'f.', '"- ";/r' '-. ''il
"..
The actual radial channel The actual characteristicsof a hydraulic machine differ from the ideal case owing to two reasons:(i) the unevenspatial distribution of velocities in the blade passages, and (ii) the leakageand recirculationof flow and hydraulic lossessuchas friction and shock losses.Theseare completelydifferent issues lTll and shall be dealt with separately. Slip factor As a resultof the unbalanced velocity distributionof the leadingand trailing edgesofa PM channeland the rotationeffects[2A7l,thereexists,accordingto Stodola1182,2471, a relativeeddy within the bladepassage shownin Fig. 8.3. This resultsin the reductionof the tangential velocity components and is called s/rp, which is usually accounted for using a slip factor. For approximately radial blades,theStanitzslip factor k" (B0o < l3z < 90") is k":10.63tr1n1,
(8.23)
259
where B2 is the blade angle at exit and n6 is the number of the blades. When applying a slip factor,the pressure relation (8.22) becomes
- R?,) (k"RZ., Lp: pe2 . irh -
hrn'
(8.24)
Total flow
leakageflow Q/
Figure 8,5.
Leakage flow in an AFPM machine (not to scale)
Shock, leakageand friction ofthe boundarylayer (shockloss) Energylossesdue to friction, separation in the flow analysis. As illustratedin and leakageshould also be considered Fig. 8.5, if the total volumetric flow rate through the PM channelis Q1, the pressuredifference betweenthe PM exit and the entrancewill causea leakage or recirculation of a volume of fluid Q1,thus reducing the ffow rate at outlet to and leakage Q : Qt-Q1. The Ql is a functionof massflow rateand discharge path resistances.The leakageflow reachesits maximum when the main outlet flow is shut. loss term A,p1in for by introducinga pressure Theselossescan be accounted eqn (8.24) as follows 12071
- , R ? , )- r Lp* pQ2(k,R3,
p,I ;t \^ 1 , 1 2
hrn'
* Lpt
(8 2s)
260 System losses
AXTAL FLUXPERMANENT MAG]NET BRUSHLESS MACHINES
As theair passes through theAFPM machine, thesystem pressure lossdue to frictionmustbe taken into account. Thesumof these losses is eiven bv:
Lpr,: +>,+
4.,fl; z:l
^/-r2
rL
(8.26)
where ki and A,; are the loss coefficient and the cross section area of the flow path e respectively.
D1
Abrupt expansion
--1
-_l
-1 _:
u
,_)
Tapering enlargement
Elbow
t\
Roundbend
*]: [=
Short tube
/;\
vl
aflI
Pipe to annulus bend
LJ
Figure8.6. Systemlosses of AFPM machine.
There are a number of sections throughwhich the air flows in the AFpM machine (seeFig. 8.6). They are: ( I ) entry into the rotor air inlet holes; (2) passage through rotation short tube; (3) bendingof air from pipe to annulus(90o); (4) round bend air passage (90');
CoolingandHeat Transfer (5) contractionofair in the taperingpassage; (6) bending of air through the 90o elbow; (7) entry to the permanentmagnet channels; (8) expansion of air throughthe taperingenlargement; (9) abruptexpansion ofthe air on the exit ofthe channel; (10) expansion as the air leaves the openingofthe parallelrotor discs.
261
The loss coeffrcients associated with each sectionin eqn (8.26) are given in 173, 1 82]. When the section is not circular,use is made of the hydraulic , 157 diameterto characterise the crosssection. The hydraulic diameteris defined as Dn : 4Alp where -,4is the cross-sectional areaof the flow path and p is the wetted perimeter. The loss coefficientfor a pipe is given by ),L ld where ,\ is a friction factor obtained as a function of Reynolds number R,e and surfaceroughnessfrom a Moody diagram [ 175]. To facilitate numeric calculations,the Moody diagram may be represented by [57]:
^ X Y:
: :
B {(B /8 e )1 +2(x + r;-8 1 -! rn {(7 l R e )o s .zr11n} - 1} 16 +o { 2 .4 5 7 {37ffirJlRe}1(,

(8.27)
^n- r-\ where Re : 41f and where7 is the equivalentsandgrain roughness [57].
Characteristics It is now possibleto relatethe theoretical predictionobtainedfrom the ideal flow model to the actual characteristic by accountingfor the various losses discussed above. Assuming that the AFPM machine (shown in Fig. 8.1) operatesat a constant speedof 1200 rpm, the ideal developed pressure characteristic for a radial channelis a function described by eqn (8.22) as shown in Fig. 8.6. After introducing the slip factor, the resultant curve is shown as a dotted line as eqn (8.24). It was not possibleto obtain a suitablecorrelationin the literature[222] for the pressure loss due to shockand leakageas was the casefor the slip. The calculatedcharacteristic curve without consideringshock and leakage losses, i.e. eqn (8.24) Apy" shown in Fig. 8.7, is significantlyhigher than the experimental one. The shaded areain Fig. 8.7 represents the shockand leakage losses. It can be seenthat at low flow ratesthe shock and leakagelossesare greaterbut tend to zero at the maximum flow rate. This hasbeen discussed and experimentally validated tn [232].
262
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGN ET BRUSHLESS MACHTN ES
500
ideal curve {eqn(S.22))
4tx) Ap
lPal 240
/ I { e q nt 8 . 2 6 t ) eqn (8.24)*APy .".,. experimrntalcrrre /'
300
0
Figure 8.7.
0.006
Q (m3ls)
t).012
0.{.}18
Lossesand characteristiccurves at 1200 rpm
The derived characteristics the pressurerelationsof a single rodescribes tating PM disc facing a stator. For a double-sided AFPM machinewith two identical coaxial rotating discs (Fig. 8.2) operating on the same stator, the characteristic curve presentedin Fig. 8.7 represents only half of the AFPM machine. The characteristic curve of the whole machinemay be obtainedby adding flow rate at the samepressure,which is similar to two identical fans in parallel. Flow and pressure measurements Due to the nature and complexity of thermofluid analysis, the form of the systemcharacteristics curve canat best be established by test. Dependingon the machine topologies and size, the measurements may be taken either at the air inlet or outlet. The AFPM machine under test is normally driven by another motor. Fig. 8.8 showsthe experimental amangements of the flow measurementsat the machine outlet, in which a dischargeduct is set up to provide good conditions for observingthe flow. Along one side of the duct, severaltapping points were made for measuringthe static pressurewith a pressulegauge (manometer).Near the outlet of the duct, provision was made for measuring probe. velocity using a hot-wire anemometer To vary the flow rate, the test duct was fitted at its outer end with an obstruction. The test was startedwith no obstruction at the end of the discharseduct.
263
Figure 8.8. The experimentalset up. 1 - manometer, 2 * AFPM machine,3 - discharge duct, 4 prime mover (drive machine),5 - pressuretapping point, 6 - wind speedprobe. Photo courtesy of the University o/'Stellenboscl, South Africa.
The only resistance was then the duct friction, which was small and could be readily computedout of results.As the end of the duct was obstructed progressively,the ffow was reducedand the staticpressure increased to a maximum at zero volumetric flow rate. The staticpressure differenceAp is measured as a function of volumetricflow rateQ : A' u for differentmotor speeds, where u is the linear speed. The air flow-rate measurement can also be carried out by measuringinlet air pressuredifferenceAp, which is then used for calculatingmassflow-rate rn accordingto the following equation:
;n:
,/2pA4tA4
(8.28)
where ,46 is the crosssectionareaof the inlet duct. Fig. 8.9 showsthe setupof the flow measurement. A speciallydesignedinlet duct with a bell mouth was mountedto the inlet (hub) of the AFPM machine.A few tapping points were madeon the inlet duct for pressure measurements. The pressure drop through the bell mouth and inlet duct may often be assumed negligible.
264
AXIAL FLUX PERMAINENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES
Figure 8.9. Flow measurementat the air intake of AFPM machine. 1 Prime mover (drive machine),2 - inlet duct, 3 bell mouth, 4 manometer, pressure and 5 tapping point. Photo courtesy of the University of Stellenbosclr,South Africa.
8.3.2
AFPM machineswith external ventilation
For medium to large power AFPM machines,the loss per unit heat dissipation areaincreases almost linearly with the power ratings. Thus the forcedcooling with the aid of external devicesmay be necessary.Some common techniques are described as follows.
AFPM machine air discharge duct with fan
air flow direction
Figure 8.10. AFPM machinewith externalair cooling
Cooling and Heat Tran.sfer
265
External fans LargeAFPM machines may requirea substantial amountof air flow per unit time in orderto bring out the heatgenerated in the statorwindings. Depending on the operationconditionsobtainedon site, eitheran air-blastor a suctionfan may be usedas shownin Fig. 8.10. In both cases, intakeandiordischarge ducts are needed to direct and conditionthe air flow. Sincethe inlet air temperature, for a given volumetric flow rate, has a significant effect on the machine temperature,this cooling arrangement can also help preventrecirculationof hot air shouldthe machineoperatein a confinedspace(e.g. small machineroom). For high speedAFPM machines,a shaft-integral fan may be a good option. Fig. 8.11 showsthe assemblyof a large power AFPM machinedevelopedin the Departrnent of Electrical and ElectronicEngineeringat the University of Stellenbosch, SouthAfrica, in which the rotor hub part seryes as both cooling fan and supporling shucture for the rotor discs. It can be seenthat the "blades" of the hub are not curved as the machine may operate in both directions of rotation.
stahn'
right rotor disc
Figure 8.1I.
Configuration of the AFPM machine with shaft-integral fan.
Heat pipes The conceptofa passive two-phase heattransferdevicecapableoftransferring large amount of heat with a minimal temperaturedrop was introduced by R.S. Gauglerof the GeneralMotors Corporationin 1942.This devicereceived little attentionuntil 1964,when Grover and his colleagues at Los Alamos National Laboratory, NM, U.S.A., publishedthe resultsof an independent investigation and first used the term heat pipe. Since then, heat pipes have been employedin many applicationsranging from temperature control of the permafrost layer under the Alaska pipeline to the thermal control of optical surfacesin spacecraft. A typical heatpipe consists of a sealed container with wicking material.The containeris evacuated and filled with just enoughliquid to fully saturate the wick. A heat pipe has three different regions,namely (1)an evaporator ot heat
266
AX]AL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACH]NES
addition region ofthe container,(ii) a condenser or heatrejectionregion, and (111) an adiabatic or isothermalregion. lf the evaporatorregion is exposedto a high temperature,heat is addedand the working fluid in the wicking sffucture is heateduntil it evaporates. The high temperatureand the correspondinghigh pressure in this region causethe vapourto flow to the cooler condenser region, where the vapour condenses, dissipatingits latent heat of vaporisation. The capillary forces existing in the wicking structurethen pump the liquid back to the evaporator.The wick structurethus ensuresthat the heat pipe can transfer heatwhetherthe heat sourceis below the cooledend or abovethe cooledend.
finned surface
Figure 8.12. AFPM machinecooledby heatpipes
A heat pipe presentsan alternative means for removing the heat from the AFPM machine. The heat pipe in an AFPM machinemay be configuredas shown in Fig. 8.12. Heat is transferred into the atmosphere throughthe finned surface.The finned surfaceis cooledby air moving over the fins. The heatloss removedby the heatpipe, LPno, is given by 12l0]:
*A _p ,n p thot - 0,:rrl,L
1r1 E;",,4t^-r E..r,t,^""td * il;il;AII
(8.2e)
where $7ro7 is the averagetemperatureof the elementsthat surround the heat pipe in the stator,t9.op1is the averagetemperatureof the air cooling the finned is the convective surface,h6o7 heattransfercoefficienton the insidewall of the heat pipe in the statoE46o1 is the exposedarea of the heat pipe in the stator,
CoolingandHeat Transfer
267
h"o6 is the convectionheat transfercoefficienton the inside wall of the heat pipe in the finned area,A.opl is the exposedarea of the heat pipe at the flnned surface,\f t , is the efficiency of the finned surface,hln is the convectionheat transfer coefficient on the surfaceof the fins and As1n is the total exposedarea ofthe finned surface. Direct water cooling Dependingon the conditionsat the site of operation,it is often necessary to use forced water circulationto cool the statorwindings directly,especiallyfor large power AFPM machines.An externalwater pump is requiredfor forcing water circulation. A longitudinalsectionof a water cooleddouble-discmotor hasbeenshownin Fig. 2.7. For coreless winding AFPM machines, the winding coils may have a rhomboidal shapeso that the spacebetweenthe two active sidesof eachcoil may be utilisedforplacing a coolingwaterduct [41]. The heat removed through cooling pipes can be calculatedby using eqn (8.29). However,the heat transfercoefficients,h,6o1 and h,"o14, arecalculated using the following relationships: (i) for laminar flow, i.e. Rea - ff < ZOOO. where u is the flow velocity and d is the diameterof the water'pipe, the Nusselt number may be obtained using following empiricalrelation [114]
: r.B6(Re6Prll IYu,1 f*li th)o'n
(8.30)
whereIo is the lengthof the waterpipe, trr, andpt* arethe dynamicviscosity of water at inlet and wall temperaturerespectively. (ii) for turbulent flow. i.e. Re6 : calculate a d s[ 2 3 ] # , 2000, the Nusselt number may be
l{ua - 0.02gRe,to'8 Prn where

n
(8.3 r)
_ ! 0.4 L 0.3
for heating of the water, for cooling of the water.
8.4
Lumped parameter thermal model
Lumped-parameter circuits,consistingof a network of thermalresistances, thermal capacitances, nodal temperatures and heat sources,have been usedextensively to representthe complex distributed thermal parametersof electrical machines 6, 147,2191. 17
268
AXIAL FLUX PERMAI,IENT MAGNETBRI]SHLESS MACHINES
8.4.1
Thermal equivalent circuit
Athermal equivalentcircuit is essentially an analogyof an electricalcircuit, in which the heat (analogousto current) ffowing in each path of the circuit is given by a temperaturedifference (analogousto voltage) divided by a thermal resistance(analogousto electrical resistance).For conduction,the thermal resistancedependson the thermal conductivity of the material, k, andthe length, l, and cross-sectional area,A6, of the heatflow path and may be expressed as
nu: |-
(8.32)
AdK
Thermalresistances for convectionis definedas:
R.:h
(8.33)
where A. is the surface area of convectiveheat transfer between two regions and h is the convectioncoefficient. The thermalresistance for radiationbetweentwo surfaces is
1l AtIt>
R,:
-_f 1A1
T t A)
o[('sr+ 273) + (82+ 273)11("r + 273)2 + (Oz + 273)21
(8.34)
It is seenthat the radiation thermal resistance in eqn (8.34) dependson the difference of the third power of the temperature,the surface spectralproperty e and the surfaceorientation taken into accountby a form factor F. The thermal circuit in the steady state consists of thermal resistancesand heat sourcesconnected betweenmotor componentnodes. For transientanalysis, the thermal capacitances are usedadditionallyto accountfor the change of internal energy in the various parts of the machine with time. The heat capacitance is definedas: g : pVct,: mcu
(8.35)
where c., is the heat capacity of the material, p is the density, and V and m, are the volume and massof the materialrespectively. Fig. 8.13ashowsa sectional view of an AFPM machinewith a corelessstator. [t can be observed that the AFPM stator is symmetrical from a heat transfer perspectiveand each half of the machine from the centre line mirrors the other half. It is therefore reasonable to model only half of the machineas shown in Fig. 8.13b. The heatsourcetetms AP1- , LP., LPpnt andL,P,ol standfor winding losses (2.42), eddy cur:rent lossesin one half of the statorwinding (2.61),lossesin PMs (2.54) and rotational losses(2.63) per one rotor disc respectively. C",
269
tr
(a)
(b)
Figure 8.13. The thermalresistance machine with coreless stacircuit ofan AFPM brushless tor.
C^ and C, are the thermal capacitancesof stator, PMs and rotor steel disc in Table8.3. respectively. The heatresistances usedin the circuit aredescribed
Table8.3. Definition of thermal resistances
Symbols
R.t
11 c2
Definition
Convection resistancefrom stator end-winding to open air Convection resistancefrorn stator to air-gap Convection resistancefrom air-gap to permanentmagnets Convection resistancefrom air-gap to rotor disc plate Convectionresistance from rotor disc to open air Convection resistancefrom rotor radial periphery to open air Radiation resistancefrom stator end-winding to environment Radiation resistancefrom stator to permanent magnets Radiation resistancefrom stator to rotor disc Radiation resistancefrom rotor radial periphery to environment Conduction resistancefrom PMs to rotor disc
R.z
Ru.t Rcs R.a Rrt R,Z
/i,: R"t
Rat
8.4.2
Conservationof energy
If conservation of energy is applied, the rate of internal energychangein part each of a machine(also calledcontrol volume)may be written as follows:
270
LI Af -
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES C4o : A,P,, L P o uI r m;ni;, - titoulio,l (8.36)
where L/ is the internal energy,riz is the mass flow rate and z is the enthalpy andC is the thermal capacitance of a control volume. For steady-state conditionr, #
0 : L1,. -
: 0 and therefore,
LPout *'rit,in:iin, - it,o,,1io,,t
(8.37)
Theseequations are appliedto eachpart (the statoqair gap,PM and rotor disc) of the AFPM machineto obtaina setof equations with the temperatures of the parls being the only unknowns. This set of equations is rathercomplexbut is readily solvedusing for example,the Gauss-Seidel iteration It shouldbe noted (m,iriin-rnouyior,7) that the tenn in the aboveequations represents internalheat removed due to the air flow pumped through the machine. This air flow is of paramountimportance to the cooling of the machine.The determination of the air gaptemperature in the thermalequivalent circuit is only possibleif the mass flow ratethroughthe air gap can be somehowpredicted,hencethe necessity of usingthe fluid-ffow model described in section8.3.1.
8.5
Machineduties
Dependingon the load conditions,thereare mainly threetypes of dutiesor operation modesfor all the electricalmachines, i.e. continuous duty, short-time duty and intermittent duty.
8.5.1
Continuous duty
When an electricalmachineoperates for a long period so that the temperatures of various parls of the machine reach steady-stateat a given ambient temperature, this operationmode is called continuousdue. Due to the different physical properties,the final stablised temperatures in variousparts of the machinemay vary greatly. The machinecan be continuouslyoperated for an infinitely long time without exceeding the temperature limits specifiedfor eachcomponentof the machine.When only the solid partsof the machineare considered, the air flow term in the eqn (8.36) is ignored.The temperature rise versus time relationship in a control volume of the machine may be derived basedon the theory of solid body heatingas [47]:
8 , : L P n ( 1-
+ 0 oe - l "-i )
(8.38)
where B is the thermalresistance, r : RC is the thermaltime constant,C is the thermal capacitance, AP is the heat loss flow, and 8o is the initial temper-
271
aturerise of the control volume. In a casewhere t?. : 0" the aboveequationis simply: d.: AP R(l -
"-!)
( 8.3e)
According to the propertiesof an exponentialfunction, the final temperature rise r9.; : A,P . /?. Fig. 8.14ashowsthe typical transient temperature response of an AFPM machine operatedcontinuously.
S,+90
(b)
Figure 8.14. Characteristic temperature curves of AFPM machines for different operation modes: (a) continuous duty, (b) intermittent duty, (c) shorl{ime duty.
8.5.2
Short-time duty
Short-time duty meansthat machine operatesonly within a short specified period followed by a long period of rest or no-load condition. The operation temperature, time is so short that the machine does not attain its steady-state practically period and the machine retulxs to its cold state after a long of rest. Given the operation time f", the temperaturerise of the machine can be found by usingeqn (8.39)as
272
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGI{ETBRUSHLESS MACHINES
f " : A P R ( . 1 -e + ) : 8 q ( . 1 -
"-?)
(8.40)
Comparedwith continuousduty, it is obviousthat,r9.. < 8.f .This implies that the permissibleload for the samemachine in short time duty can be 1l 0 ti*", greaterthan that in continuousduty. Fig. 8.14cshowsthe typical "-?1 temperaturerise curve for short time duty machines.
8.5.3
Intermittent duty
The intermittent duty is characterisedby shorl-time operations alternated with shorl-timepauseintervals.Suppose a machineoperates for a shofi period of tonandthenstopsforaperiod of toyy,thecyclel",isthentqt:ton*tof f . The duty cycle d"o may be defined as:
n t .c,q
t uon,
-
(8.41)
tofJ
Lon t
The temperafurerise of the machine r9i during the to,nperiod can be calculated by using eqn (8.38) provided that thermaltime constantand the steadystate temperaturerise for continuous operation duty are known. During the tosy period, the machine loss AP : 0 and the machine'stemperaturedecreases accordingto an exponential function,i.e. r?;e t,,ttl' 6s1s1e the second cycle setsin. After many subsequent cycles,the machine'stemperature variationbecomes uniform and tendsto be within a ceftain limited range(seeFig. 8.14b). Under the sameload and cooling condition,the maximum stablised temperature of a machine in intermittent operation duty is smaller than that in continuous duty. Hence, similar to shorl{ime operation duty, a machine operatedin intermittent duty hasoverload capacity.
A self-cooled8-pole, 16-kW AFPM generatorwith an ironless stator as shown in Fig. 8.2 will be considered.The outer diameteris Do6 : 0.4 m and the inner diameteris Din - 0.23 m. The magnetwidth*to-pole pitch ratio a.4: 0.8 and thicknessof a rotor disc d : 0.014 m. The measured flow characteristic culvesare shownin Fig. B.15.At ratedspeed1260rpm, the total Iossesare 1569 W, of which (i) rotationallosses LP,ot : 106 W; (ii) eddy current lossesin the stator A.Pr,: 23 W; (iii) stator winding losses(rated) LPru:7440 W. Find: (a) Convective heattransfercoefficients of the disc system (b) Steady-state temperaturesat different parts of the machine.
ZIJ
Solution (a) Convectiveheat transfer coefficientsofthe disc system The dynamicviscosity,densityand thermalconductivityof air are assumed to b ep : 1 . 8 4 6 7 x [ U - ; P as . p : L 7 7 7k g / r n 3 a n dk : 0 . 0 2 6 2 4 W / ( m " C ) respectively in the following convective coefficients calculations. Convectioncoefficient:outsiderotor disc surface At ratedspeed, the Reynoldsnumberaccordingto eqn (2.65) is
Re oD2 p----our : 4p 1 . 1 7 7x
2nx1260160x0.42 : 336384.7
4x1.846x10-5
According to eqn (8.9) the transitionbetweenlaminar and turbulentflow takes place at
The average Nusseltnumberof the disc accordingto eqn (8.8) is
l y'u: 0 .0 t5 x R,i - 100 x (?
Uout
- *1 0 0* ( 2 ' = 0 , 1 7 2 ) ' : r x . n :0.015 x 336384.7

\ tJ.4 /
The averageheat transfer coefficient at the outer surfaceof the disc according to eqn(8.5)is o 0)614 k ; : 4 2 . 2 W / ( m ' zo C ) x l y ' u: : h -rr'| -: x 321.9 Doa 12 0.412 Convection coefficient: rotor disc peripheral edge The Prandtlnumberis takenas Pr :0.7 (Atmosphericpressure, 25 oC). The Reynoldsnumberat disc peripheryaccordingto eqn (8.12) is nZuL ReD-t ": 2n x 1260 It a2
,,
,--fr
: 134553u.d , s
The average Nusseltnumberaccordingto eqn (8.11) is : 0.133x Rer? x pr*: ,^y'u x O.7i : 1439.3 0.133x 1345538.8?
274
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGIVET BRUSHLESS MACHINES
The average heattransfercoemcient aroundthe radialperiphery according to eqn(8.10) is Er:

, k
i*
x N,
no'rain|
94.4W/(m2 "C) x 1 4 3 9 .: 3
1?0 1{}l 8{l f],

(t,l ) tltr
l{1{}rpn.r .llX.lrprn + {i(0 rptn .J 8fii.)rynn 1iii}t}rprr 120ilrpm A qxrr {} 14{}0
4{l 21)
i { '' 1r
tll __,: l ."o I
{ , -______________
Figure 8.15. Measuredcharacteristic curvesof the AFPM machine.Numerical example8.1.
Convection coefficient: rotor-stator system The volumetric flow rate of the machine at rated speedcan be looked up fiom Fig. 8.15. Assumingequalflow on both sidesof stator,the equivalent flow rate is taken as Q : 0.013 m3/s. The average Nusseltnumber accordingto eqn ( 8 . 1 5 i)s
- o ss:r ,,r,u ,;m:

; n'": 2k Dn*.
x 0 333
0.013
n 1 . 5 6 6 x 1 05 x Q . a l 2 )
:440
heat two discs Theaverage transfer coefficient between according to eqn(8.5)is Nu :2 x 0.02624 - bT.T x 440 w/(m2 "c; 0.4
275
(b) Steady-statetemperatures at different parts of the machine If the radiation from the rotor disc to ambient, the convection from the stator overhang to air flow, and the conduction resistancebetween magnetsand rotor are ignored,the genericthermal equivalentcircuit given in Fig. 8.13 is simplifiedas shownin Fig. 8.16.
hg,sou,
+ fr
R.
,/ halfstator
'
.'"'
rotor disc
Figure 8. I 6.
Simplified thermal equivaient circuit. Numerical example [l.I
Controlvolume | (hal.fof the stator) The convection heat transfer resistancebetween the stator and air flow in the air gap is
Rc1.:
E,"x[(D!.r-D?n)
:0.223 "C/W /o7.7xXQ.+'-0.23 2)
The radiationheattransferresistance betweenthe statorand rotor discsis

Erl :
l-r' 1 -+-.-+etAt'AtFtz'ezAz 1
of(dr+ 273) + (82+ 273))i('9r + 2nY + (82+ 27:t)21
in which the areasof both discs can be taken as the same,i.e. A1 - Az : D?") - 0.084 m2, the shapefactorFp - 1, the Stefan-Boltzmann i@2", constant o :5.67 x 10-8 W lQn2 K4),the emissivity of epoxyencapsulated
276
statore1 : 0.85. Sincepart of the rotor disc is coveredwith PMs, the emissivity of the rotor disc is defined based on the proporlion of different materials, i.e. - t , ) : 0 . 3 x 0 . 8 + 0 . 9 x ( 1 - 0 . 8 ): 9 . 4 2 2: f e a ,I i .y.-(1 ApparentlyRrr is a function of r91and 82, &niterativeapproach hasto be used to solve R"1 for different temperatures. According to conservation ofenergy,the steady-state energyequationfor control volume 1 can be written as
I
'2 ; (APr.
"" I AP.) - 1'n ll"r
r9'
r9.'
t9 " ''=
,9.
"'=
R,t
(8.42)
Control volume 2 (.airgap) The convection heat transfer resistancefrom air gap to the rotor disc may be takenasthe sameas that from statorto air gap, i.e. R"2 : R.c7.Themassflow rateir, : pQ : 7.177 x 0.013 : 0.0153kg. Assumethat the air temperature at the machine inlet is ambient temperature,i.e. 8;, : 8o and the air gap average temperature'82 : j($out * t\;r). The heat dissipated due to the air flow is - 0.-) :2rn c, (02 - 8a) houtiout - rnin'iin: h cp (.$out : 2 x 0 . 0 1 5 3 x 1 0 0 5x ( r l z - 2 0 ) The steady-state energy equation for control volume 2 is 8t-8z T Controlvolurme3 (rotor disc) The convectionheattransferresistance at the outsidesurfaceofthe disc is Rd - :-1rtlrrDoul2 42.4x n x0.4'2 :0.1877 "C/W 8z*r1z -2x0'0153x1005x(82-20)
:0
(8'43)
The convection heattransferresistance at the peripheryofthe disc is
_11 R*P:
i,
"
D.rt
oc/w g 4 4, n v g 4 v g 1 y 4 : o ' 6 0 2
Cooling and Heat Transfer The steady-state energy equation for control volume 3 is
277
b#.Wni^*.,-
'Bs- ,9u,
Rct)
8s-8o
Rc:lp
(8.44)
Having established the energyequations (8.42),(8.43) and (8.44) for eachpart of the machine,the steady-state temperatures can be found by solving these equations. Due to the temperature dependency of Rr1, a simple computerprogram using GaussSeidel iteration has been createdto find the solutions of the equations. The resultsare given in Table8.4.
Table8.4.
Predicted temperaturerises Temperaturerise, "C
Machineparts Statorwinding Rotor disc Air-gap flow
114.9 18.32 21.35
A totally enclosed AFPM brushless machinehasa power lossof 2500 w in the statorwinding at continuous duty. The machine'souterand inner diameters are Dout : 0.72 m and D;n: 0.5 m respectively.To removethe heat from the stator,use is made of heat pipes for direct cooling of the motor as shown in Fig. 8.12. The convectionheattransfercoefficients on the inside wall of heat pipes in the statorand in the finned areaareassumed to be 1000 W/(m2 "C). The averageconvectiveheat transfer coefficient on the fin surface is taken as 50 W/(m2 "C). The finned surfacehas an overall area of 1.8 m2 and an efficiencyof g2%. The length of heat pipe embedded in the finned surfaceis ly,in:1.5 m. Find: (a) Steady-state temperatureof the stator winding if the heat pipe with a diameterD1,r,: 9 mm is placedalong the average radiusof the stator (b) Steady-state temperatures of the statorwinding if the heat pipe is replaced by a 9 mm water cooling pipe, in which water (with an averagetemperature of 60"C) ffowsat 0.5 m/s.
278
Solution
(a) Steady-state temperature of the statorwinding if the heatpipe with a diamplaced eterDTro: 9 rnnt is along the average radiusof the stator Assuming the outsidewall of the heat pipe is in full contactwith the stator winding and finned surface,the exposedareaof the heat pipe in the stator will be
A7ro1: rD1rr.,
r(Dout + Dm)
: 0.009nx
n(0.72 + 0.5)
:0.0542 rrz
The exposed areaof the heatpipe embedded in the finned surfacewill be Acold.: rD6plf in: 0'0092 x 1'5 : 0'0424m2
Assuming the temperatureof cooling air over the finned area to be 8ro6 : temperatureof the stator may be obtainedby using eqn 30"C, the steady-state (8.29)
f statc,,r: fcord+ LPr"e(h#t,.t*
,#;*
Ty;,hyaAym
: 30*2500. ( r*#o*r+moo*olCIa**x*
,. *)
oc : 165'3
(b) Steady-state temperatures of the statorwinding if the heatpipe is replaced by a water cooling pipe of diameter d : I mm, in which water flows at 0.5 rn/s. The Reynolds number is first calculatedto determinethe flow regime. The properties of water at 60"C ?r p : 983.3 kg/mt. ro :4179 J/(kg "C), : x 4 . 7 10-a pas, k : 0.654W(m"C), pr : ltcplk : 4.7 x 10 a x F : 9 8 3 . 3x 0 . 5 x 0 . 0 0 9 1 4 . 7 x 10-r : 417910.654:3, Red: pudl(2St) 9474,5 > 2000, so that the flow is turbulent.Thus,the Nusseltnumberfor the heatingof the water is Nu61,: 0.\BRel'8 Pr0'4 :0.023 x 9414.50'8 x 304 : 53.9 while the Nusseltnumberfor the cooling of the water is - 0.023Re0u'8 IVn"6" P"0 3 - 0.023 x 9474.50'8 30::t: 48.3 " heattransfercoefficients The convection of the waterpipe insidethe statorh7.,o1, and in the finned areah,,,r,1r1, are calculated as
279
53.9
k Nu61, -ffi , -f : 0.654 x h'hot:
: 3916'7 w/(m2"c)
x k Nu,1. -ffi , : : 0.654 48.3 : 3509'8 hcoLd, w/(m2 "C) f The steady-state temperaturein the stator can be calculated as in (a) with the exceptionthat the heat transfer coefficientsare different : Scotd ,gstator + LPheG-++ "n'hhotAhot --], + --,L, )
h.o4A.old,0f,inhf.i,rtA.fm'
: 3 0 + 2 5 o o x( '
: BB,B "C
+ ) x 0.0542 3509.8 3916.7 x 0.0424 0.92x 50 x 1.8'
Chapter9 APPLICATIONS
9.1
Power generation
BrushlessPM electrical machinesare the primary generatorsfor distributed generationsystems. They are compact,high efficient and reliable self-excited generators.The distributedgenerationis any electric power productiontechnology that is integratedwithin a distributionsystem. Distributedgeneration technologies arecategorized asrenewable andnonrenewable. Renewable technologiesinclude sola1 photovoltaic,thermal, wind, geothermaland oceanas sourcesof energy. Nonrenewabletechnologiesinclude internal combustion engines, combinedcycles,combustionturbines,microturbines and fuel cells. AFPM brushless generators can be usedboth as high speedand low speed generators.Their advantages are high power density,modular construction, high efficiency and easy integration with other mechanical components like turbine rotors or flywheels. The output power is usually rectified and then invertedto matchthe utility grid frequencyor only rectified.
9.1.1
High speed generators
Although the minimization of windage lossesof high speedgenerators requires rotors with small diameters,a multidisc designhas the advantages of modular and compactconstruction,low synchronous reactance, good voltage regulationand very high efficiencyin the caseof coreless stators. A multidisc AFPM high speedgenerator is usually driven by a gas microturbine. The turbine rotor and PM rotors are mounted on the sameshaft. Such a generator hascompactconstruction, low massand very high efficiency. Accordingto TurboGenset Company,U.K., a 100-kW,60 000 rpm multidisc generator hasan outerdiameterof 180mm, lengthof 300 mm and weighsonly
282
MACHINES AXIAL FLLTX PERMANEI{T MAGNETBRUSHLESS
Figure 9. L U.K.
rhoGen'set,London, I 00-kW 8-disc AFPM synchronousgenerator.Courtesy of Zr.r
l2kg (Fig. 9.t)r. the high frequencyoutput is rectified to d.c. and then inis totally air cooled. vertedto 50, 60 or 400 Hz a.c. (Fig.2.20). The generator Armed forces are interestedin applicationsof microturbine driven PM synchronous generatorsto battery chargersfor soldiers. The low energy density of portable bagpack batteriesimposesa major constraint and challengeto fumachine in PM brushless ture infantry operations.With recentadvancement a lightweightminiaturegeneratorset canminimize the massof technologies, heavy batteries and charge them during field operations. A miniature generator can deliver electric power for a long period of time limited only by the fuel availability. Easy and rapid refueling can be done in the field by using, e.g. kerosene.Fig. 9.2 showsa tiny microturbineintegratedwith a miniature generator.At speed150 000 to 250 000 rpm and outer AFPM synchronous diameter of PM ring Do,rl = 50 mm, the generator can deliver about I kW electricpower.
9.1.2
Low speedgenerators
A low speed AFPM generator is usually driven by a wind turbine. Wilh wind power rapidly becoming one of the most desirablealternativeenergy offer the ultimate low cost solution as world-wide, AFPM generators sources of five-phase panels. Table 9.1 showsspecifications comparedwith e.g. solar
lULEV-TAP Newsletter,No. 2, 2000, wwwulev-tap.org
Applications
283
AFPM synchronousgeneratorsmanufacturedby Kestrel Wind Turbines (Pty) Ltd, Garteng, South Africa. A1l three types of Kestrel generatorsuse laminatedcores. The Kestrel 2000 is a double-sided AFPM generator with twin rotors. The Kestrel 600 generator rated at 400 W is in fact capableof deliv-
Figure 9.2. High speedAFPM synchronous generatorintegrated with the rotor of a microturbine. 1 SmCo PM, 2 - backing steelring, 3 - rotor of microturbine,4 - nonmagnetic retaining ring, 5 - stator winding, 6 stator core.
_cL
3 ,roo
t
uJ
o o
3 I rooo
-z:....
iI..........
N
Figure 9.3. Output power versuswind speedofKestrel AFPM synchronousgenerators.Courtesy of Kestrel fiiind Turbines. South Africa.
284
AXIALFLUX PERMANENT MAGNET BRUSHLESS MACHINES
Table 9.1.
Specifications offive phaseKestrel AFPM synchronousgenerators
Typeofgenerator
Rated power, W Maximum poweq W Number of poles 2p Generation steps Rated wind speed,m/s Cut in wind speed,m/s Rated rotational speed,rpm Rotor diameter, m Number of blades Type ofblade Tower top weight, kg Lateral thrust, N Speedcontrol Standardrectified d.c. voltage, V Protection
Kestrel 600 400at 12.5m/s 600at 14.5m/s 48 224 t2.5 2.5 11 0 0 1.2
o Basic aerofoil
Kestrel 800 800at 11.5m/s 850at 12mls 48 11 . 5 2.5 1010

_/.. I
Kestrel 2000 2000at 10.5m/s 2200 at I lm/s 200 10,5 2.2 925 3.6 3 80 450
48
3 Full aerofoil 35 300

Dynamic tail
23 2s0
Self stall 12,24, 36, 48
IP55
ffi
Figure 9.4. Stator and rotor of a medium power AFPM generator with inner coreless stator and twin external rotor: (a) stator coils, (b) rotor disc with NdFeB PMs.
ering power in excess of 600 W. Controlledby a shuntregulatorthe maxrmum chargingculrent is 50 A tnto a 12 V d.c. batterybank. At wind speeds of 52.2 km/h, which translates into 14.5mls (28.2knots)androtational speed of I100 rpm, the poweroutputis 600 W (Fig. 9.3).
Applications
'1t0
285
t
o 3
100
gso
5
j60 o
4""
5
o '; c " ' "n o
ti u
20 10 0 speed,rpm
Figure 9.5. Steady-state performancecharacteristics of a 10-kW AFPM generatorshown in Fig. 9.4.
Fig.9.4 showsa medium-powerAFPM generatorwith twin externalrotor and inner corelessstator for a 5-m blade diameterwind turbine. The stator systemconsists of l5 coils, one coil per phase. The thickness of coil is 12 mm and diameterof wire 0.6 mm. Each coil is individually rectified to d.c. to reducethe cogging effect and provide better control over the voltage. The rotor has 2p: 16 poles. Perfonnance characteristics are shown in Fig. 9.5.
9.2
Electric vehicles
Electric vehicles are divided into two generalcategories:hybrid electric vehicles(HEYs) andbatteryelectricvehicles(EVs). The switch from gasolineto HEVs and EVs would reduce the total primary energy consumedfor personal transportation.Traction electric motors for HEVs and EVs should meet the following requirements : r power rating: high instantpower,high power density; torque-speed characteristics: high torque at low speed for starling and climbing, high speed at low torquefor cruising,wide speed rangeincluding constant torqueregion and constant power region,fast torqueresponse; high efficiencyover wide speedand torqueranges;
286
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHT],,IES
Figure 9.6. Hybrid electric gasoline car: I - gasoline combustion engine, 2 - integratedmotorgenerator,3 - cranking clutch, 4 - gearbox, 5 - inverter, 6 - battery.
700
600
500
! aoo
at
5 300 200
---t-**-F"-*
electric molor to.que
enginetorque 100
0 2000 3000 speed,rpm 4000
Figure9.7. Torque-speedcharacteristicsofanelectricmotorandgasolineengine. Theelectric motor assists the gasolineengineat low speeds.
r high reliability and robustness under various operatingconditions,e.g. at high and low temperature, rain, snow,vibration, etc.; r low cost.
Applications
287
9.2.1
Hybrid electricvehicles
HEVs are now at the forefront of transportationtechnology development. vehicle with HEVs combinethe internalcombustionengineof a conventional the electric motor of an EV, resulting in twice the fuel economy of convenis usually located betweenthe tional vehicles. The electric motor/generator combustion engineand gearbox. One end of the rotor shaftof the electricmowhile the opposite enginecrankshaft, tor/generator is boltedto the combustion (Fig. 9.6). The gearbox the via clutch be bolted to the flywheel or end can electricmotor serves a numberof functions.i.e.: allowing the use of a smaller in vehicle propulsionwhen needed, assisting internalcombustionengine; operatingasa generator,allowing excessenergy(during braking) to be used to rechargethe battery; providing energythatultimately feeds alternator, replacingthe conventional low voltage,e.g. 12 V electricalsystem; the conventional startingthe internal combustionenginevery quickly and quietly. This alwithlows the internalcombustion engineto be tumed offwhen not needed, out anv delav in restartins on demand: r dampingcrankshaftspeed variations,leadingto smootheridle. the gasolineenginein In a hybrid electricgasolinecar the electricmotor assists the low speedrangeby utilizing the high torque of the electric motor, as shown hybrid electricgasolinecars(Fig. 9.6) are in Fig. 9.7. Currentlymanufactured motors or PM brushlessmotors. A PM with cage induction equippedeither In most motor can increasethe overall torque by more than 500/o. brushless the ratedpower of electricmotors is from l0 to 75 kW. Because applications, of limited spacebetweenthe combustionengine and gear box as well as the the flywheel effect, electric motors for HEVs are shorl and need to increase machinesarepancaketypehigh torque havelargediameters. AFPM brushless densitymotors and fit perfectly the HEV requirements.An AFPM brushless converter. with a powerelectronics machinecanbe liquid cooledand integrated in fl).rnrheel integrated Fig. is stored a HEV in 9.8 the energy In the shown with the AFPM machine. The vehicle may operatewithout an electrochemprocessis includedwithin the conversion ical battery. lf the electromagnetic flywheel, there is no external shaft end, becausethe power flow to and from to the stationaryarmature[3]. Thus, the machine is via electric connections complexvacuumsealsare avoided.
288
d.c.bus
Figure 9.8. HEV with flywheel energy storage: I - gasoline combustion engine, 2 - brushless generator, 3 - integrated flywheel-motor generator, 4 solid state convertet 5 d.c. bus,6 - electricalmotorizedwheel.
The moment of inertia and tensilestress are respectively r for a rotatins disc
J:
r for a rotating ring
T,^Rf,,,,
pQ2RZut
(e.1)
t:f,m@?,+ RZ,,),
{a?, I
R,inR66 + R?",r) (:9.2)
Applications
289
where p is the specificmassdensityof the rotating body, m is the mass,f) : 2trn is the angularspeed,Ro,1 is the outer radius and Ri, is the inner radius. The kinetic energyis r for a rotating disc
nr:
f,lrf
: n3 prlRt,tn2 J
(e3)
pd(Rtt Er: 13
Rt,)r,'
(e.4)
where d is the thicknessof the flywheel (disc or ring). Combiningtogetherpairs of eqns (9.1), (9.3) and (9.2), (9.4), the stored as energydensityin a flywheel can be expressed r for a rotating disc
87. 1r:-': m 3o a+p
Jlkg
(e.s)

R, rrL
R7,,, + R?o,,, o _ - 3 4 R7.* R;nRo6 * R7,,p
J/ke
(e.6)
(3%CrMoC)with o ry 1000 MPa Fora veryhighstrength steel, e.g.alloysteel energy density of a disctypeflywheelis andp :7800 kglm:r[3], the stored En : 500kJ, themass to store a kineticenergy ep : 96.I kJ/m3.If we need of thediscwill be 5.2kg. Battery electric vehicles 9.2.2 (rechargeable batteries BatteryEVs arevehicles thatusesecondary batteries or storage batteries) as their only source of energy.An EV powertrain can convedenergystoredin a batteryinto vehiclemotion and it canalsoreverse directionand convertthe kinetic energyof the vehicleback into the storage batterythroughregenerative braking.
290
Figure 9.9.
Single-sided AFPM brushless motor fitted to spokedwheel ll95l.
AFPM brushless motors are usedin EVs as in-wheel motors (Figs 6.8 and 9.9) [ 95,2031.The pancakeshapeof an AFPM motor allows for designinga compactmotorizedwheel. With the aid ofthe AFPM brushless motorthe differentialmechanism canbe replacedby an electronicdifferentialsystem[92]. The configurationshownin Fig. 9.I 0a illustrates the useof a pair of electricmotorsmountedon the chassis to drive a pair of wheels through drive shaftswhich incorporateconstantvelocity joints. In the configurationshownin Fig. 9.10b,the motors forming the electronicdifferential are mounteddirectly in the wheels of the vehicle. The electromechanical drive systemis considerably simplified, when the motor is mounted in the wheel, because the drive shafts and constantvelocity joints are now no longer needed. However, the resultant "unsprung" wheel mass of the vehicle is increased by the mass of the motor. Wheel motors of this direct drive configurationalso suffer overloadingbecause the speedofthe rotor is lower than would be the casewith a gearedalrangement.This leadsto an increase of the activematerialsvolume requiredin the motor. The disadvantages of conventional wheel motorscan be overcomeby using the arrangement shown in Fig. 9.11. The two statorsare directly attached to the vehiclebody whilst the PM rotor is free to move in radial directions.It can be observed that in this casethe wheel and disc rotor form the unsprungmass, whilst the statorsof the motor becomesprungmass supportedon the chassis
L"
fq?t l'
Applications
291
t0l
Figure 9.1(). Alternative forms of "electronic differential" drive schemes: (a) onboard motor, ft) wheel mounted motor.
,'l
of the disc-typemachinewith lower unsprungmass: Figure 9.11. Schematicrepresentation -wheel, 2 chassis. damper,6-spring, 7 shaft,5 discrotor, 3 -stator, 4
9.3 Ship propulsion 9.3.1 LargeAFPM motors

motors with disc type rotors usually have Statorsof large AFPM brushless threebasicparts [44]: r aluminum cold plate; r bolted ferromagnetic core; r polyphase winding.
292
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRI]SHLESS MACHTNES
13
1rl
1s
t6 I
Figure 9.12. Large power double disc AFPM brushlessmotor. 1 - pMs, 2 - stator assembly, 3 -housing,4 g shocksnubbeq 5 -shockmount,6-rotorshaft, T-rotordisc clanrp, shaft seal assembly, 9 - bearing retainer, 10 - stator segment, 1l centre frame housing, 12 - spacerhousing, 13 rotor disc, 14 - bearingassembly,15 - rotor seal runner, 16 rotor sealassembly. Courtesyof Kaman Aerospace, EDC. Hudson.MA, U.S.A.
The cold plate is a part of the frame and transfers heat from the stator to the heat exchangesurface. The slots are machinedinto a laminated core wound of steelribbon in a continuousspiral in the circumferential direction.The copper winding, frequentlyaLitzwke, is placedin slotsand then impregnated with a potting compound.The construction of a doubledisc AFpM motor developed by Kaman Aerospace, EDC, Hudson,MA, U.S.A. is shown in Fig. 9.121441. Specifications of large axial flux motorsmanufacturedbyKaman are given in Table9.2.
9.3.2
Propulsion of unmanned submarines
An electric propulsion systemfor submarines requires high output power, high efficiency, very salientand compactmotors[59, 180]. Disctype brushless motors can meet these requirements and run for over 100 000 h without a failure, cooled only by ambient seawater. Thesemotors are virtually silent and operatewith minimum vibration level. The output power at rated operating conditionscan exceed2.2kwlkg and torque density 5.5 Nm/kg. The typical rotor linear speedof largemarinepropulsionmotors is 20 to 30 m/s [lS0].
9.3.3
Counterrotatingrotor marine propulsionsystem
An AFPM brushless motor can be designed with the counterrotation of two rotors [35]. This machinetopology can find applications in marinepropulsion
Applications
293
Table 9.2. Design data of large poweq three phase AFPM brushlessmotors manufactured by Kaman Aerospace, EDC, Hudson,MA, U.S.A.
Quantity
Number of poles, 2p Number of windings per phase Output power P",r, kW Peakphasevoltage,V Rated speed,rpm Maximum speed,rpm Efficiency at rated speed Torque at rated speed,Nm Stall torque, Nm Continuous cunent (six step waveform), A Maximum current, A Peak EMF constant per phase,V/rpm Winding resistance perphaseat 500 Hz, 0 Winding inductance per phaseat 500 Hz, pH Moment of inertia,kgm2 Cooling Maximum allowable motor temperature,"C Mass, kg Power densiry kWkg Torque density, Nm/kg Diameter of frame, m Length of frame, m Application
PA44-5W-002 28 336 700 2860 3600 0.95 tt20 1621 370 500 0.24 0.044 120 0.9
PA44-5W-001 28 2 445 530 s200 6000 0.96 822 I2 8 8 370 500 0 .1 0 0.022
PA57-2W-001 36 746 73s 3600 4000 0.96 r980 2712 290 365 0.20 0.030 100 2.065
60 0.9 Waterandglycol mixture 150 195 2.282 4.215 0.648 0.224
195 1.723 5.743 0.648 0.224
Traction, Drilling indushy
340 2.194 s.823 0.787 0.259 General purpose
systemswhich use an additional counter-rotatingpropeller in order to recover energyfrom the rotationalflow of the main propeller stream. In this casethe use of an AFPM motor having counter-rotating rotors allows the elimination of the motion reversalepicyclicalgear. The stator winding coils have a rectangularshapewhich dependson the cross sectionof the toroidal core [35] (also see Fig.2.q. Each coil has two
294
Figure 9.13. Exploded view of the axial flux PM motor with counter-rotatingrotor: I - main propeller,2-counter-rotatingpropeller,3-radialbearing,4-outershaft,5-PMroto16 motor bearing, 7 - assemblyring, 8 - stator, 9 inner shaft.
Table 9.3. EMALS requirements [72]

End speed,m/s Marimum peak-to-mean thrust force ratio Cycle time, s End speedvariation, m/s Maximum acceleration,m/s2 Launch energy,MJ Maximum thrust, MN Maximum poweq MW
volume, mMass, kg
3
103 1.05 45 1.5 56 r22

l.J
133 < 425 < 225000
active surfacesand each coil surface interacts with the facing PM rotor. In orderto achievethe oppositemotion of the two rotors,the statorwinding coils have to be arrangedin such a manner that counter-rotatingmagnetic fields are producedin the machine'sannularair gaps. The statoris positionedbetween two rotors which consist of mild steel discs and axially magnetizedNdFeB PMs. The magnets are mounted on the disc's surface from the stator sides. Each rotor has its own shaft which drives a propeller,i.e. the motor has two coaxial shafts which are separatedby a radial bearing. The anangement is shownin Fig. 9.13[35].
Applications
295
9.4
Electromagnetic aircraft launch system
Military aircrafts are catapultedfrom the decks of aircraft carriers with the aid of steamcatapults. A steamcatapultusestwo parallelrows of slottedcylinto the shuttlethat tows the aircraft. The pistons ders with pistons connected the shuttleuntil the aircraft will takeoff. under the steampressureaccelerate havemany drawbacks172],i.e.: Steamcatapults r operation without feedbackcontrol; r largevolume(over 1100m3; andmass(up to 500 t); r occupationof the "prime" real estateon the canier and negativeeffect on the stability of the ship; r low efficiency(4 to 6%); r operationalenergy limit, approximately 95 MJ; r need for frequent maintenance. The electromagnetic aircraft launch system (EMALS) is free of the drawbackslisted above.The EMALS technologyemployslinear inductionor synchronous motors fed from disc-type altemators through cycloconverters.The electricalenergyobtainedfrom the carrierpower plant is storedkinetically in
stator Figure 9.14. AFPM synchronousmachine for EMALS. I - PM rotor assembly,2 -bearing,4-enclosure,5 -mountingflange,6 brake,T-shaftencoder. assembly,3
296
A,Y]ALFLUX PERMANEI{TMAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES
Table9.4.
Specificationsof AFPM synchronousmachine for EMALS [72]
Number of phases Number of poles Number of active stator slots Type of stator Number ol stator windings Generatorwinding Motor winding Maximum speed,rpm Maximum frequency,Hz Ouput power at maximum speed,MW Maximum line-to-lineEMF for motoring, V Maximum line-to-line peak voltage, V Maximum phase peak current, A Power losses, kW Efficiency Resistance per phase,mf) Inductance per phase,pH Statorcooling Coolant Flow rate, l/min Average temperatureof winding, "C Average temperafureof stator core, "C Type of PMs Remanence at 40"C, T Air gap magnetic flux density, T Tooth magnetic flux density, T Maximum energy storagecapacity, MJ Energy density, kJ/kg Mass,kg
fl
2'p: 4o s\ :24:0
double-sided slotted 2 air gapside bottomof slots 6400 2133 81 .6 1122 1700 6400 127 0.893 8,6 10.4 cold plate waterandgiycol mixture 151 84 6l sintered NdFeB 1.05 0.976 1.7 t21 1 81 . 6685
the rotors ofAFPM synchronous generators. The energyis then released as a pulsesto accelerate few-second and launchan aircraft.The cycloconverterbetween the AFPM generatorand linear motor raisesthe voltage and frequency. The EMALS operates in a "real time" closedloop control [72]. The requirementsare given in Table9.3. Specifications of the AFPM synchronous machine shown in Fig. 9.74 are given in Table 9.4 [721. The EMALS usesfour AFPM machinesmounted in a torque frame and grouped in counter-rotatingpairs to reduce the torque and gyroscopiceffect. The rotor of the AFPM machineservesboth as the kinetic energystoragewhen operatingas a motor and a field excitationsystemwhen operating as a generator. The electric power from the on-board generatorsis
Applications
297
(a)
ll fr a lnl
(b)
adi
!!i Tr, .drrd X
t 1i n . 4 -i4 ill
TOP OF TO{}LJ.ltNT
Figure 9.15. ECI drilling system: (a) general view, (b) power unit with AFPM synchronous motors, (c) PA-44 Kaman Aerospace AFPM motor. Courtesy of TescoCorporation, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
fed to the AFPM machine via rectifier-inverters. There are two separatestator windings for motoring and generating mode. The motor winding is locatedat provide the bottom of slotsto betterthermalconductivitybetweenthe winding and enclosure.
9.5
Motrile drill rigs
Drill rigs vary from small electric motor driven tools to large oil field rigs. The basic elementsof an aboveground drill rig are the power unit or motor, pump or air compressor for circulatingdrilling fluid to the bit and cleaningthe borehole,drill head, hoisting drums and cables,derrick, mounting platform or deck and assortedequipment such as hammers for driving and removing casing,portablemud pit, racks for stackingthe drill rods and samples,small tools for coupling or uncouplingand hoisting the drill string, etc. The power unit (motor) performs the following functions:
298
AXIAL FLUX PERMANE]VT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES
Table 9.5. Specifications of ECI drilling systemswith AFPM synchronous motors manufactured by TbscoCorporation, Calgary,Alberta, Canada
ECE drilling system
670 5,909 4.34

5 q65
1007 6,270 4.34 9,490 11,389 7,860 187 3,730 6.4

a.-)
Drilline unit withoutswivel

Mass, kg Operating length, m (including 2.8-m links and elevators) Make-up Torque (lpical), Nm Breakout torque, Nm Max. Drill Torque, Nm Max. Speed,rpm Power system (mechanical module) Approximate mass, kg Length, m Width, m Power system (power module) Approximatemass,kg Length, m width, m
7,592 5,098 187 3,340 6.4 2.3

1 545
4 1)(l
6.35 mm 2.311
6.30 2.30
r operates a drive weight mechanismfor percussion or churn drilling or provides rotary motion to tum augersand coring equipment for rotary drilling operations; r operates a winch for raising and lowering the drilling and samplingequipment; r providesdownwardpressure for pushingboring and samplingequipment, or lifting and dropping a hammer to drive casing or sampling equipment. For most drilling and samplingoperations, the power sourceis the power takeoff from the truck motor on which the drilling machineis mountedor from a separate enginewhich is assigned or attached as an integralcomponentof the drilling rig. It is estimatedthat approximately 90% of the motors are gasoline or dieselenginesand 10oh are compressed air or electricmotors. A drive train gears which consistsof or hydraulicpumps is usedto convertthe power supply to speedand torque for hoisting and rotating the drilling equipment. Most units have a transmissionwhich allows 4 to B speedsfor hoisting and drilling. ln general,the hoisting capacityof the drill rig govems the depth of the borehole. A rule of thumb for selecting the power source is that the power which is required to hoist the drill rods should be about three times the power which
Applications
299
is requiredto turn the drill string. For high elevations, the power loss is about 3ohfor each300 m. Largepower AFPM brushless motors (Table9.2) areespeciallysuitablefor portabledrilling equipment because of their compactdesign,light weight,precise speedcontrol, high efficiencyand high reliability. ln the ECI lightweight top drive drilling system(Fig. 9.15) manufactured by kscct Corporation, Calgary, Alberta, Canada,the traditional induction or brushtype d.c. motorshavebeenreplaced with high performance liquid cooled AFPM synchronous motors. This systemis compatiblewith most 600 V a.c. rig power systems. The producthighlightsinclude: s Kaman PA44 AFPM synchronous motors that (Table 9.2) have been successfullytestedto 609 triaxial loading, making them the ideal choice for rough drilling environments ; r AFPM synchronous motors which allow a high level of precisionin speed and torque control not availablewith other motors; r a modulardesignthat allows drilling to continueat reduced power with one motor; r direct connectionto the rigs a.c. bus and interfacewith the existingpower supply with minimal degradationto the rig powen r the entire ECI systemcan be transpoftedin three standard6-m seacontainers. Specifications of the ECI drilling systemare given in Table9.5.
9.6
Elevators
The concept of gearless electromechanicaldrive Jbr elevators was introduced in 1992 by Kone Corporation in Hyvinkiiii, Finland [103]. With the aid of a disc type low speedcompactAFPM brushless motor (Table9.7'),the penthouse machinery room can be replacedby a space-saving direct electromechanicaldrive. In comparison axial flux cageinductionmotor with a low speed motor has a doubledefficiencyand a of similar diameter, the AFPM brushless three times higher power factor. Fig. 9.16a shows the propulsion systemof the elevatorwhile Fig. 9.16b showshow the AFPM brushless motor is installedbetweenthe guide rails of the car and the hoistwaywall. Table 9.6 containskey parameters for the comparisonof different hoisting motor is a clear winner. technologies The disc type AFPM brushless [103]. passenAFPM brushless motors for gearless Specifications of single-sided ger elevators given are in Table 9.7 [103]. Laminatedstatorshave from 96 to
300
AXIAL FLUX PERMANEA|T MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES
Figure 9.16. MonoSpace7nl elevator:(a) elevatorpropulsionsystem;(b) EcoDiscTnl motor Courtesy of Kone, Hyvinkziii, Finland.
Figure 9.17. Double-disc AFPM brushlessmotor for gearlesselevators. Courtesyof Kone, Hyvinkdd, Finland.
Applications
301
120 slots with threephaseshort pitch winding and classF insulation. For example,the MX05 motor ratedat 2.8 kW 280 V 18.7Hz hasthe statorwinding resistance Xt : 10 Q,2p :20, sheave Er : 3.5 f), statorwinding reactance diameter 340 mm and weighs180kg.
Tahle9.6. Comparisonofhoisting technologies for 630 kg elevators [03]
Quantity Elevator speed,m/s Motor shaft power, kW Speedof motor, rpm Motor fuses,A Annual energy consumption, kWh Hoisting efficiency I Oil requirements, Mass,kg Noise ievel, dB(A)
Hydraulic elevator
Warm gear elevator
Direct PM brushless motor elevator
0.63 I 1.0 1500 50 7200 0.3 200 350 60..65
1.0 5.5 I 500 35 6000 0.4 3.5 430 7 0 . . .5 7
1.0 95 to 3000 0.6 0 t70 50...55
Table 9.7. Specifications of single-sided AFPM bmshless motors for gearless elevators manufactured by Kone,Hy",rinkiiii, Finland
Quantity Rated output power, kW Rated torque, Nm Rated speed,rpm Rated current, A Efficiency Power factor Cooling Diameter of sheave,m Elevator load, kg Elevator speed,m/s Location
MXO5 2.8 240 113 7.7 0.83 0.9 natural 0.34 480 I hoistway
MXO6
)- t
MXlO
o./
MX18 46.0 l 800

ItJ
360 96 10 0.85 0.9 natural 0.40 630 1 hoistway
800 80 18 0.86 0.91 natural 0.48 1000 i hoistway
138 0.92 0.92 forced 0.65 1800 4 machine room
302
AXIAL FLLTX PERMANENT MAGNETBRI]SHLESS MACHIAIES
Table 9.8. Specificationsof double-disc AFPM brushlessmotors manufacturedbv Kone, Hyvinkiiri, Finland
Quantity Rated output power, kW Rated torque, Nm Rated speed,rpm Rated current, A Efficiency Power factor Elevatorload, kg Elevator speed,m/s
MX32
58 3600 153 122 0.92 0.93 I 600
o
MX4O 92 5700 153

zoz
MXlOO 315 14,000 214 1060 0.95 0.96 4500 l3.5
0.93 0.93 2000 8
r&
Figure 9.18. Penny-motor.Photo courtesyof Mymotctrs& Actuator.s GmbH, Wendelsheim, Germany.
A double discAFPMbrushless motorfor gearless elevators is shown in Fig. 9.17[03]. Table 9.8listsspecifications data of double discAFPMbrushless motors rated from58to 315kW [03]. 9.7 Miniature AFPM brushless motors Ultra-flat PM micromotor, penny-motor the so called is shown in Figs9.1 8 and9.19[ a2]. Thethickness is 1.4to 3.0mm,outer diameter about12 mm, torqueconstant up to 0.4 p,Nm/mAand speed up to 60,000rym. A 400pm eightpole PM anda three-strand, 110-pmdisc shaped, lithographically produced statorwindinghavebeenused[42]. Plastic boundNdFeBmagnetsarea costeffective solution.However, themaximum torqueis achieved with sintered NdFeBmasnets. A miniature ball bearins hasa diameter of 3
Applications
303
ffi
Figure 9.19. Construction ofpenny-motor: 1 - shaft, 2 - soft steel yoke cover, 3 ring, 4 ball bearing, 5 - stator winding, 6 flange, 7 bottom steel yoke. PM Figure 9.20. Two-phase, four-coil, single-sidedl5-mm AFPM brushless motor. Photo courtesy of Moving Magnet kchnologies,,Sl, Besancon,France.
mm. Penny-motors find applications in miniaturizedhard disc drives,cellular phonesas vibration motors,mobile scanners and consumerelectronics. Moving Magnet kchnologies (MMf) two or three phase,miniature AFPM brnshless motors(Fig. 9.20) are well adapted to high volume low costproduction. In order to obtain rigidity the stator coils are overmoulded. The stator printed circuit board. Each part can be manis mounted on a single-sided ufacturedusing standardmoulding, stampingtechniquesand automaticcoil winding with a specificdesign for simple and efficient assembly.Three position sensingmethodsfor the closed-loopcontrol are used: (a) digital Hall probeslocatedin the stator,(b) EMF signal(sensorless mode) and (c) absolute position sensor(position sensor analogue mode). MMT AFPM miniaturerotary actuators(Fig. 9.21) havebeendesigned for automotive applicationsto provide an efficient, contactless,direct drive rotary motion on a limited stroke. Ring, disc and tile shapedPMs have been used. The main featuresof this family of actuatorsare:
304
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAG]VET BRUSHLESS MACHIAIES
Figure 9.21. Miniature two-phase,four-coil, 4-po1e,single-sided AFpM rotary actuator. Photocourlesy of MovingMagnetTechnologies. 57, Besancon, France.
r contactless actuationprinciple; r constanttorque independentof the angular position for a given cunent; r linear torque*current characteristic; r two directionsof rotation; r high torque density. Additional functions,suchas a magneticreturn spring or analogue contactless position sensing can alsobe implemented. Owing to the linearity of the torquecurrentcharacteristic and its independence ofposition, it is possibleto operate actuators in an open-loopagainsta spring or in a simple closed-loopmodeby using a position sensor.
9.8
Vibration motors
Advancesin cellular telecommunication have made mobile phones to be highly popular communicationtool in modern society. Sincea mobile phone is now a gadgetas necessary as a watch or wallet, small vibration motorswith diametersfrom 6 to 14 mm are manufacturedin unbelievablelarge quantities (Fi5.9.22). Thetrendsinvibrationmotors formobilephonesincludereduction of mass and size, minimization of energy consumption and guaranteedstable vibration alarmingin any circumstances [58]. There are two types of brushlessvibration motors for mobile phones:cylindrical or RFPM motor andcoin type or AFPM motor (Fig. 9.23). The unbalanced excitingforce generated by an eccentric rotor is
F : me{l :2trrnert2
(e.7)
Applications
30s
E mobrle Dhone demand
A aoplications of vibration motors
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2AA4
2AO5
Figure 9.22.
Worldwide demand estimate for mobile phones and vibration motors
(b)
Figure 9.23. CointypeAFPMvibration phones motorfor mobile [58]:(a) two coil motor;(b) rnulticoil motor. 1 - phase coil, 2 - PM (mechanically unbalanced system), 3 * ferromagneticyoke,4 cover, 5-baseplate, 6 shaft, 7-bearing, 8-detentiron [58].
where m, e and n denote the rotor mass, eccentricity and rotational speed respectively. The rotational speed is the most effective design parameter to increase the unbalanced exciting force [58]. Moving Magnet Technologies single-phase AFPM brushless vibration motors provide a strong vibration feeling and silent alert with a very simple design (Fig. 9.2q. Fabrication of MMT vibration motors is cost effective due to contactless design, scalable size and slim shape.
306
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAG},{ET BRUSHLESS MACHINES
Figure 9.24. Cost effective AFPM brushlessvibration motor. Photo courtesy of Moving Magnet kchnologies, Sl, Besancon,France.
9.9
Computerhard discdrives
The data storage capacity of a computer hard disc drive (HDD) is determined by the aerial recordingdensityand numberof discs. It is expected that the aerialdensitywill soon increase from 6 Gb/cm2- 38.7Gb/in2to 15.5 Gblcm2 - 100 Gb/in2. The massof the rotor, moment of inertia and vibration increase with the numberof discs. Special design features of computer HDD motors are their high starting torque, limited current supply, low vibration and noise, physical constraints protectionagainstcontamination on volume and shape, and scalingproblems. A high startingtorque, 10 to 20 times the running torqueis required,sincethe readlwrite head tends to stick to the disc when not moving. The starling current is limited by the computer power supply unit, which in turns, can severely limit the starting torque. AFPM brushless motors (Fig. 9.25) can develophigher startingtorquethan their radial field counterparts.The additional advantage is zero cogging torque. The drawbackof the single-sided AFPM HDD motor shown in Fig. 9.25a is the high normal attractive force between the stator with ferromagnetic yoke HDD AFPM motors the statordoes and rotor mountedPMs. In double-sided not have any ferromagnetic core and no normal attractive force is produced at zero-curent state.The statorhas a threephasewinding with coreless coils fabricated with the aid of a litographic method. In a typical design, there are two coils per phasefor 2p: 8 PM polesand threecoils per phasefor 2'p: 12 PM poles. To reduce the air gap and increasethe magnetic flux density, the so called pole fingers are created in the lower part of the hub and the rotor
Applications
307
10
Figure 9.25. Constructionof computerHDDs with AFPM brushless motors: (a) single-sided PM, 3 - shalt, 4 -beanng. 5 - hub, motor; (b) double-sided motor. 1 - statorcoil, 2 6 rotor ferromagnetic yoke, 7 stator feromagnetic yoke, B - baseplate, 9 - pole fingers, 10 nonmagnetic ring.
magneticcircuit is bendedby pressingit towardsthe statorcoil centres(Fig. motor with a 5l-mm 9.25b). According to [129], for a HDD AFPM brushless stator outer diameter, r^/r : 180 turns per phase and torque constant k7 6.59 x 10-3 Nm/A the currentconsuptionis 0.09 A at 13 900 rpm and no load condition. motors with ball bearingsis usually The acousticnoise of HDD brushless below 30 dB(A) and projectedmean time betweenfailuresMTBF : 100 000 hours. HDD spindlemotors are now changingfrom ball bearingto fluid dyFDBs produceless noise and are namic bearing (FDB) motors. Contact-free period of time. for an extended serviceable
Find the kinetic energyandtensilestress of the ring with dimensionsRo,t : d - 0.022mand densityP : 7800kg/mjl 0.142m, Rtn - 0.082m,thickness rotatingat the speedof 30 000 rym.
308 Solution
AXIAL FLUXPERMAI\|IENT MAGNET BRUSHLESS MACHINES
Themass of thering is - R7): rn : rpcl(R3,, - 0.0822) :7.25kg n7800 x 0.022(0.1 422
Themoment of inertiaaccording to eqn(9.2)is I : rnr.zstl.7422 : 0.092 kgm2 + 0.0822)
The rotational speed n : 30 000/60 : 500 rev/sand angular speed O : 2tr500: 3141.6 rad/s. Thusthekineticenergy according to eqn(9.a)is - 0.0824) : 480.74 En: n37800 x 0.022(0.1424 x b002 kJ Thetensile stress according to eqn(9.2)is 7800x 3141.(2 o _ ______J (0.0822 x 0.142 Mpa + 0.082 988.6 + 0.1.422): 3 Theenergy density according to eqn(9.6)is
Lli
480740 : 66.3 kJ/kg 7.25
The shape factorof the ring [3] is
: sooff$1su : 0.b23 kst,. "rI eo

Find the main dimensionsof a three-phase, 1200 W, 4-pole, 200 000 rym AFPM synchronousgeneratorfor a mobile battery charger.The total nonmagnetic air gap including magnetretainingring (Fig. 9.2) shouldbe g : 2 mm, numberof slots sy: 12, air gapmagneticflux densityBs : 0.4 T, line cument density A- : 16 000 A/m, PM inner-to-outer diameterratio k,1: 0.5, PM temperature 350"C. Vacomax225 SmCo PMs (Vaccumschmelze, Hanau,Germany) with Br2s : 1.04 T and H" = 760 kAlm at 20"C arc recommended. -0.035 o l"C,leakage flux coefThe temperature coefficientfor B, is a6: ficient opv : 1.3, EMF-to-voltage ratio e : 1.3 (Ef > V) andpole shoe width-to*pole pitch ratio a,; - 0.72 Solution The winding coefficients(2.8), (2.9) and (2.10) arc k41 : 7, k1t : 1 and k-7 - 1 since qr : 121(4 x 3) : 1. The coefficientkp accordingto eqn (2.20)is
Applications
309
t r , : 1 ( 1 + 0 . 5 ) (1 0 . 5 2:) 0 . 1 4 1
6
The outer diameterof PMs accordingto eqn (2.93) is

Dout
1 . 3x 1 2 0 0 : 0.055 m r20.74Ix 1 x (200000/60 x) 0 . 4x 1 6 0 0 0x 0 . 8x 0 . 8
The remanent magneticflux densityat 350"C accordingto eqns(3.2) is
l'r - r -0'035 Ii, : 7' '^ tuL ttu'

350
2o)l : 0.973 7
l
Since demagnetizationcurves for different temperaturesare parallel lines, the relative recoil magnetic permeability will be approximately the same as for 20"C (linear magnetization cule), i.e.
fL t'r'e c
1.04 - 1.089 0.4trx 10 6x760000
The PM thickness with the leakagecoefficiento1- included,can be calculated on the basisof eqns(3.13)and (3.9),i.e. , rt F,,"" hnr U;?ffig oI1[B*o 1.3 x 0.4 : 1'08909f3_ - 0.0028 rn 1j x 040.002
The innerdiameterof PMs is Din: k,tDout: 0.5 x 55:27.5 mm, radial length of PM l,r,r : 0.5(55.0 - 25.0) : 1"3.7 mm, averagediameterof PMs D : 0.5(55 .0 + 27.5) : 41 mm, average polepitchr : r4ll4: 32.3and average PM circumferential width bo : e..ir : 0.72 x 32.3: 23.3 mm.
A 10-kW 2200-rpm electric motor operatesat almost constantspeedaccording to the torque profile given in Fig.9.26. The overloadcapacityfactor ko"f : Trurr lTrh, : 1.8. Find the thermalutilisationcoefficientof the motor. Solution The required rated shaft torque is
. r, a.snr
Port
10,000
2rn
2r x (2200160)
: 43.4Nm
The rms torquebasedon the given duty cycle is
T)|,,,"(tv+t2+. . .+f,) : T?tt+:rltz+...+Tlt. or T:^"Lto:\rlti
310 Thus
Trrn"
l-r?t V Ito
252x 3 t 402 x8 + 652x 5 + 382x 30 + 152x 10
3+B+5+30+10
3 8 . 1N m The maximum torque in Fig. 9.26 cannotexceedthe rated shaft torque times the overload capacityfactorko4Trhr : 1.8 x 43.4:78.72 Nm. Also, the required 7"7." should be greaterthan or equal to fl--". The coefficientof thermalutilisation of the motor is
:#' ?ff " Trrovo
: B7'8% fioYo
Figure 9.26. Torque profile of the elechic motor accordingto Numerical example 9.3
Symbols and Abbreviations
A A o E B b be Cy Ci* Cs Cpm Cr. C"h Cccu cE cFe cins cp cptt
magneticvector potential line currentdensity;cross-section area number of parallel current paths of the stator (armature)winding vector magneticflux density magneticflux density;dampingof the system instantaneous value of the magnetic flux density; width of slot pole shoewidth cost of frame costof insulation cost of all other componentsindependentof the shapeof the machine cost of PMs cost of the rotor core cost ofshaft cost of winding cost ofcopper conductorperkg armatureconstant(EMF constant) cost of ferromagneticcore per kg cost of insulationper kg specific heat at constantpressure cost of PMs per kg
csteet cost ofsteel per kg cu heat capacity
312
D Dn D,t,t. E Ef Ei e F Ftz f fo F"r" f G g Gr g' fr H h hm 1 Io '
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAG}{ETBRUSHLESS MACHINES diameter;duty cycle of power semiconductor switches inner diameterof PMs equalto the inner diameterof statorbars outer diameter of PMs equal to the outer diameter of stator bars EMF (rnzs value);electricfield intensity EMF per phaseinducedby the rotor without armaturereaction internal EMF per phase instantaneous EMF: eccentricitv force shapefactor of two surfacesinvolved in radiation spaceand/or time distribution of the MMF armaturereaction MMF MMF of the rotor excitation system frequency; friction factor perrneance;gap ratio g f R air gap (mechanicalclearance);gravitational acceleration Grashof number equivalent air gap vector magnetic field intensity magnetic field intensity height; heat transfer coefficient height of the PM electric current stator (armature)current instantaneous value of current; enthalpy vector electric current density moment of inertia cumentdensity in the stator (armature)winding gain currentregulator inverter gain coefficient,generalsymbol; thermalconductivity skin effect coefficient for the stator conductor resistance reaction factor in d-axis reaclionfactorin o-axis
Symbols andAbbreviations kg l*,1 kat ks ky h koc.f kpt k"ot ky klrt L lrc Li 174 L|l M' m m rna, mf N Nu n no P P"lrn Pr" Pout Pr LP Carter'scoefficient inner-to-outer diameterratio ka: EMF constant kg : 6;6Q, form factor of the fie1dexcitation ky : B*,gf B*n stacking factor of laminations overload capacity factor ko.y : Trro* /7"h, pitch factor for fundamental saturationfactor of the magnetic circuit due to the main (linkage)magneticflux torque constantky : c7Q 1 winding factor k-1 : k4ykpt for fundamental inductance; length length ofthe one-sided end connection armaturestack effective length axial length of PM mutual inductance momentum numberof phases; mass massflow rate amplitude modulation ratio frequency modulation ratio numberof turns per phase;numberof machines Nusseltnumber rotational speedin rpm; independentvariables no-loadspeed active power electromagneticpower input power output power Prandtl number activepower losses DinlDaut distribution factor for fundamental
a l l
JIJ
LPtp" statorcore losses
314
LPtLP". LPp
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGI,{ET BRUSHLESS MACHINES statorwinding losses eddy current lossesin stator conductors friction losses
LPzp" rotor core losses
LPpm losses in PMs LP,ot rotational(mechanical) losses LP.,tnd windagelosses A,p p p, p a specificcore loss numberof pole pairs;pressure radial force per unit area wetted perimeter electric charge;reactivepower; volumetric flow rate
electriccharge Q".n, enclosed radius;resistance R Rt Rt, Rout Re ffirn $tpto armaturewinding resistanceof a.c. motors inner radius of PMs equal to the inner radius of stator bars outer radius of PMs equal to the outer radius of stator bars Reynolds number air gap reluctance external armatureleakagereluctance
ffip,vl Permanentmagnetreluctance apparentpower; surface S Sw s sr T Ta Trt,"I T*, Trt t U -- boLnt crosssectionareaof PM; SM : uuLnr or,9,x1 crosssectionareaofstator conductor number of stator slots equal to the number of statorteeth torque electromagnetictorque developedby the machine reluctancetorque mechanicaltime constant shaft torque (output or load torque) time; slot pitch internal energy
Td'u* synchronousor synchronizing torque
Symbo ls and Abbreviations
315
u V rr W W, I-u 'It)M X Xy Xod, f aa X",j, Xss
tangentialvelocity electricvoltage;volume instantaneous value of electricvoltage;linear velocity energy produced in outer space of PM; rate of change of the air gap energy stored magnetic energy energyper volume, J/m3;radial velocity width of PM reactance stator winding leakagereactance d-axis armaturereaction (mutual) reactance q-axisamature reaction(mutual)reactance d-axis synchronous reactance; Xsd: Xt * Xo.a q-axissynchronous reactance; X"q: Xt I Xoq
Z
a a.i 7 d 6; s \ 1 d ?y l ),r p lto Fr
impedan Zc :e R + j X ; l Z 1 - - Z : \ / R + T
complex attenuationconstantof electromagneticfield effectivepole arc coefficienta;: power (load) angle inner torque angle eccentricity emissivity; surfacespectralproperty efficiency equivalentsandgrain roughness rotor angularposition for brushless motors temperature;angle betweenIo and Io4 perrneance coefficientof leakage (specificleakage permeance) turbulent parameter dynamicviscosity magneticpermeabilityof free spacepo :0.4r relativemagneticpermeability < 10-6 H/m brf r fotm factor of demagnetizationcurue of PM material
l-L,rec recoilmagneticpermeability Itrrrec relativerecoil penrreabilityltr,ec : lrr""l Fo
316
u p
AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES number of the stator zth harmonic; kinematic viscosity reducedheight ofthe stator conductor specificmassdensity electric conductivity ; Stefan-Bol tzmann constant form factor to include the saturationeffect output coefficient
of
or
T
radiation factor averagepole pitch; thermal time constant magnetic flux excitation magnetic flux leakageflux power factor angle flux linkage V : l/O; anglebetweenIo and E1 flux linkage O :2rn angular speed angularfrequencya :2trf
o
Qy O1
v
4,
a
u)
Subscripts a au[J c cu Cu d e eIm eq erc e.rt Fe f .f r armature (stator) average conduction control volume copper direct axis; differential;developed end connection;eddy-current electromagnetic equivalent excitation external ferromagnetic field; forced friction; free
Svmbolsand Abbreviations
317
aff gap h
'l,n
hydraulic; hysteresis inner leakage magnet peak value (amplitude) normal and tangentialcomponents outpui, outer quadratureaxis rated; remanent;radiation; rotor reluctance rotational slot; synchronous; system;stator saturation shaft starting synchronous or synchronizing teeth; total useful convection ventilation windage yoke
I M
'tn frrt out o
T'
r , 0 , z cylindrical coordinatesystem reI

'rot
5
sctt sh st syn t u
,I)
uent uind
v
1 2
T , U , Z cartesian coordinatesystem stator; fundamentalharmonic; inlet rotor; exit
Superscripts inc (sq) (tt incremental squarewave ftapezoidal
318
AXTAL FL\.]XPERMANEAIT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHI],{ES
Abbreviations A/D AFPM AIFI a.c. BPF CAD CPU DSP d.c. EDM EMALS EMF EMI EV FDB FEM FPGA HDD HEV IC IGBT ISG LPF MMF MMT MOSFET MVD NdFeB PFM PLD PM analogto digital axial flux permanentmagnet American Iron and Steel Industry alternating current band passfiltering computer-aided design centralprocessor unit digital signalprocessor direct current electro-discharge machining electro-magneticaircraftlaunchsystem electromotiveforce electromagneticinterference electricvehicle fluid dynamicbearing finite elementmethod field programmable gateanay hard disk drive hybrid electricvehicle integrated circuit insulated-gate bipolar transistor integratedstarter-generator low passfilter magnetomotiveforce moving magnettechnologies metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) field effecttransistor magneticvoltagedrop neodymium iron boron pulse frequencymodulation programmable logic device permanent magnet
Symbolsand Abbreviat ions
3r9
PWM RFI RFPM SEMA SMC SmCo SSC
pulse width modulation radio frequency interference radial flux permanentmagnet segmented electro-magnetic array soft magneticcomposite samariumcobalt solid stateconverter
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Index
Acoustic noise,9, 237, 307 Active rectifier, 66, 2 17 Air conrpressor,204, 297 Air-cooled, 49, | 62, l1 4, 202, 254, 255, 282 Applicationsof AFPM machines Computer hard drsc drive (HDD), 152, 306 Counterrotating marine propeller, 292 Electric vehicle, 2, 285, 287, 289 Electromagnetic aircraft launch system (EMALS),295 Electronicdifferential,290 Gearlesselevators,2T,299 302 High speedgenerators, 281 Hybrid electricvehicle,285, 287 Low speedgenerators,281, 282 Microturbine, 66, 97, 281, 282 Mobile drill rigs, 297 Mobile phone, I 54, I 89, 304, 305 Power generatio n, 203, 240, 28 | Precision robotics,203 Propulsion system for submarine,292 Ship propulsion,29l Mbration motors, I 8l , 303 , 305 Wirrd generator, 1,282 - 285 Armature constant, (see EMF constant) Armature reaction.27, 57, 58, 64,96, 128, 110,
111
Iron core, 7, 125. 121, 128,237 M u l t i d i s cc o n s t r u c t i o n 8,, 1 9 ,3 2 , 5 5 , 2 8 1 Printed winding rotor, 4, 5, 114 Sine-wave excitation,51, 61, 136, 162 Single-sidedconstruct'ioll, 6, 27, 37, 89, 1 2 5 ,1 4 3 , 2 9 9 , 3 0 3 , 3 0 6 Square-waveexcttation, 62, 14 1 Wound rotor,4, 5 Battery electricvehicle,285, 289 Blowers,5, 97 Bottle-neck feature, I 7 Centrifugalforce,174 Coefficient of Additional core losses, 44, 45 Differential leakage, I 3 I Distortion,44,49 Drag,49,78 Leakage perrneances,131, 112 Skin effec1, 42, 43 Thermal expansion, 89, 253 C o i l s h a p e s1 , 0,153 Rhomboidal, 10, 36, 3'7,267 T o r o i d a l ,1 0 , 3 5 T r a p e z o i d a l1 , 0 ,3 5 - 3 7 , l 4 l , 1 6 2 , 1 9 7 Computer hard disc drive (HDD), 154, 306 HDD spindlemotol 307 Pole fingers,306 Control,213 Conduction period, 214, 223 Currentangle,230,232 234,242 Current control, 219, 221, 229, 230, 232 _ )11 )10 Digital signalprocessor, 237 High frequencyvoltage injection,239 positioncontrol, 237 -239 Sensorless Single sensorcurrent controller, 2 I 9 SinusoidalAFPM machine,223,224
Fotm factor, 58, 69 lnductance, 130, 159 Reactance, 61, 130, 147, I 59, I 84, 209 Armature winding resistance, 42, 157 Attenuation coefficient, 48 Axial flux PM machines with Coreless stator,7, 32, l2l , 153, I 94 Double-sidedconsruction, 6, 7, 10, 27 3 5 , 4 l , 5 4 , 1 1 1 ,1 2 5 ,t 2 6 , 1 7 4 ,1 9 3 , 262,283 Intemal PM ro1or,8, I Intemal stator,7,24, 153
338

Accounting for increase in losses,45 Carter factor, 8, 9, 46, 59, 106, 129 Distributron factor, 34 Form lactor ofdemagnetization curve, 93 of impedanceincrease,16, 23 Pitch factor, 34 factor,20, 59, 106, 134, 180 Saturation Stacking factol 80, 82 Failure of rotor-shaft mechanicaljoint, 2, I 9 F an, l, 2, 5, 50, 9'7,252, 254, 255, 262, 265, 282 Faraday's disc, 3, 20 F i l m c o i l w i n d i n g ,1 1 4 , 1 1 6 , 1 5 4 F i n i t ee l e m e n m t ethod, 45, 141,160,175 Axial-symrnetricelement,I 75 Boundaryconditions,141, 175 Dirichlet boundaryconditions,142 Neumann boundary conditions, I 42 Periodic boundary conditions, 14i Shell element,175 So'lver,142 Triangular element, 160 Virlual work method, 175 Fourier expansion,143 G a p r a t i o ,2 5 4 , 2 5 5 Gauss-Serdel iteration,270, 2'7 7 Halbach array, 109 lll, 121, 123, 153, 192, 193,196,201 Hall effects,220,222 Heat transfer, 179,249 Conduction,250,268 Convection,250 - 253,267,268 Emissivity, 250 Radiation,250,268 Shapefactor,25l Thermal conductivity, 250, 268 High speedgenerators,281 Microturbine,66, 97, 28 1, 282 Miniature generator set, 282 Turbocenset,28l Hydraulic diameter, 261 Inductance, 9, 62, 137, 143, 159, 160, 162, 202, 226,227 , 2 3 1 ,2 3 2 , 2 3 7 , 240 Armature reaction, 59, 130, 159,227 End winding, 162 Leakage,159,228 Mutual, 157, 159, 227, 228 Self,157 Synchronous, 128, 137, 141, 157, 159,
Speedcontrol, 154, 222, 230, 234, 237 Trapezoidal AFPM machine,213, 214 Convefier-fed AFPM machine &ive, 213 Cooling of AFPM machine,255 Direct water cooling, 112,267 Extemal fan,265 Extemal ventilation,255, 264 H e a tp i p e s ,2 6 5 , 2 7 7 Self-ventilation, 255 Cost model, 198 Current Armature (stator),45, 50, 52, 54, 59,62, 64, 102,103,1s7 d-axis, 143,226,232 Density3 , 8 , 3 9 , 4 1 , 5 4 , 7 2 , 1 1 2 ,1 9 7 Fictitious field, 157,227,228 Instant average,218, 219 q - a x i s ,I 3 9 , 1 4 0 , 1 4 3 ,2 2 6 , 2 2 9 ,2 4 6 R i p p l e ,12 8 , 2 2 1 , 2 2 2 , 2 3 6 , 2 3 7 Starting, 306 versus speedcharacteristic,200 Cycloconverters , 295, 296 D i s c m o t o r s ,3 , 3 2 , 5 6 Distributed generation system, 194, 203, 281 Flywheel motor-generator systems, I 94 Nonrenewable, 28 I Renewable,28l Duties (operation) Continuous duty, 270 Drty cycle,272 Intermittent duty, 65, 270, 272 Short{ime ilrty. 270. 27 1 Dynamic v t scosity, 49, 267 Eddy cunent brake, I 3, 2 I Eddy current loss resistance, 156, I 63 Efficiency,32, 42, 50,66, 138, 156, 194, 199, 202,285,295,299 Elevators,2, 27, 299, 302 EMF Armature reaction, 59 Sine-wave m o t o r , 4 1 ,6 1 , 1 3 7 Sinusoida6 l ,, 1 4 1 ,223 Square-wavefioro1 62, 14l Trapezoidal, 5, 141, 213 Waveform,5, 6, 141, 213, 214, 223 41, 63 EMF constant, Fabrication of Coreless w i n d i n g s ,1 1 4 1 1 6 Laminated siator cores, 87 Rotor magnetic circuits, 109 - I I I Slottedwindings, 112 - 114 Soft magnetic powder cores, 87 89 W i n d i n g s1 , 12 116 Factor
160,2t4,215,227
Inductionmachine,4, 6, 156, 159 Differential leakage factol 134 Differentialleakageflux, 134,159 Disc-type,4, 6
INDEX
Kinematic viscosityof fluid, 253 Krnetic energy, 289, 296 Laplace transform, 221 Large AFPM motors,29l Basic pafis. 29 I Cold plate, 291,292 For ship propulsion, 291 294 Water cooling, 32, 3"1 , 112,267 Laws Fourier'slaw, 250 Kirchhoff's magnetic voltage law, 20 Newton's law of cooling, 251 Line currentdensity,38, 39, 41, 54 Litz wires, 167, 169 Load angle,53, 140, 156 Lorentz force theorem, 153 Losses Armature (stator) winding, 42, 43, 50, 131,140, t56,16'.7,249 C o r e ,1 0 , 3 2 , 4 4 , 4 5 , 4 7 , 5 0 , 5 2 , ' 1 9 , 8 l 8 3 , 8 5 , 1 2 7 ,1 2 8 , 1 3 7 , 1 5 3 ,1 5 6 , 1 6 3 ,t 9 0 , 2 2 9 E d d y - c u r r e n t9 , , 32, 44, 45, 48,74,'75, 8 0 , 8 4 , 9 7 , 1 3 81 , 5 3 ,1 5 6 ,1 6 3 ,1 6 4 , l 6 7 , I 6 8 , 1 7 0 , 1 71 , 1 9 0 ,2 0 0 , 2 6 8 Excess,44 For nonsinuso'idalcunent, 50 Frequencydependent, 50 Friction,49, 258 Hysteresis 4,4 , 4 5 , 1 7 In PMs,32, 45, 46, 156,268 Minimization of, 281 Rotational,49, 138,249, 268, 272 Ventilation,49 Windage, 49,7&,170,183, 2 0 8 ,2 8 1 Low speedgenerators, 28 l, 282 Performancecharacteristics,285 Wind turbrne generator,282, 283, 285 -32, 90,94, 101, 109 Magneticcircuit, I 7, 2'.7 lll Calculation,94,107 109 F a b r i c a t i o n , 1 0 9l l l Magnetic flux density Air gap,32, 38, 39. 64, 68, 94,95, I I 6, 117, 142, 143, 192, 197 At the surface ofHalbach anay, I I 1 Average,38,39,76 Average-tG-peak ratio, 38 Coefficientof distoftion, 44, 49,73, 180 d-axis, 57 Distribution in the air gap, 128, 130 P e a kv a l u e ,3 8 , 3 9 , 6 8 , 7 5 , 1 1 l , 1 2 1 q-axis, 58 R e m a n e n t1 , 9 , 9 1 , 9 2 , 9 5 - 9 7 , 1 0 0 , 111 , 1 1 7 .l 2 t . 1 9 2
339
Saturation, 73,85,92 permeability, Magnetic 20,47 Magnetic 9, 57, 106,154,161.205, saturation,
zzo Magnetic vectorpotential,13, 14, 160 Miniature AFPM brushlessmotor, 302, 303 Generator set, 282 Moment of inertia, | , 222, 288,306 Moody diagram,261 Mutual inductance, (see Armature reaction inductance) N o i s e ,9 , 1 3 0 , 1 7 4 , 1 9 4 , 2 3 ' 7 , 3 0 63 ,07 Nusseltnumber,252 254,267 Park's transformation, | 6 l, 225 Penny-motor, 302, 303 Permanent magnet,l, 90, 95 A l n i c o ,3 , 5 , 9 5 , 9 6 Classes, 95 Coefficientofleakage flux, 93 C o e r c i v i t y9 , 1, l0l, 192 Demagnetization curve, 90, 92, 93
98,
100,103 F e n i t e , 3 , 99 57
Intrinsic coercivity,92 Leakage f l u x , 9 3 , 9 4 , 1 0 3 , 1 0 7 ,1 0 8 , 1 0 9 , 130 Magnetic c i r c u i t ,8 6 , 9 0 , 9 4 , 9 9 , 1 0 0 , 1 0 2 , 1 0 3 ,1 0 6 ,1 0 7 ,1 0 9- r r l Maximum magneticenergy,93, 101 N d F e B ,3 , 4 5 , 9 5 , 9 8 , 9 9 , 1 9 2 , 1 9 7 ,1 9 8 , 294,302 Operatingdiagram,99 Operatingpoint, 95, 103 Rare-earth, 3, 93, 95, 97 99 R e c o i l i n e , 9 l , 9 5 , 1 0 1- 1 0 3 Recoil permeability,58, 91, 93, 95 Remanence, 5, 90, 9l SmCo, 45, 95, 97, 98 Stabilization,I 03 Volume of, 94, 128 Pemreance l0 , l - 1 0 3 ,1 0 6 Air gap,40, 95, I 03, I 07 Differential leakage,134, 159 Dividing the magnetic field into simple solids, 103 - 106 End connection leakage, 132, 133, 14'1. 159 Fringing flur, 107, S l o tl e a k a g e1 , 3 0- 1 3 2 ,1 5 9 Pole pitch, 10, 12, 16, 34, 3'1, 40, 47, 106, 129, t4l Power Apparent,148,232
340
MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHII{ES AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT

Mechanical,18"1, 218, 234 Thermal,270,272 Transverseflux machines, i Topologies,l, 3, 6, 125,249, 262 Torque,37 39 Cogging,9, 31, 32, 87, 194,200, 306 Control. 219,299 Developed,41, 137, 150, 216, 227 Electromagnetic, 3\, 37, 39, 40, 41, 56, 61, 63, 153, 156, 158, 189,192, 193,224,232 s h a f r ,1 3 8 , 1 5 0 , 1 5 6 Torque-curent characteristics, | 54. 304 Torque-speed characteristics, 64, 134, 197,285 Torqueconstant, 4I, 61, 63, 162, 197,203, 233, 302,307 Toys,97 Turbulence parametet, 254 4,125,213 TypesofAFPM machines, 4, 6, 156 Induction machines, 4 PM brushless d.c. machines, PM d.c. commutatormachines,4 machines, 4, 5, 5l ,224 Synchronous Unbalanced force, 178, 304, 306 Vibration,174, 178, 189, 194,286,292, 303, 304, 306 Vibration motor, 189, 303 - 305 Coil-type motor, 304 Cylindrical, 304 Voltagegain, 221 Wind turbine, 282, 283, 285 Winding Coil pitch to pole pitch ratio, 34 Coreless stator winding, 35, 153, 169, 192,194 Distribution factor, 34 DoubleJayerwinding, 42,72, 132 Drum-type stator winding, 35 Pitch factor, 34 Printed, (seealso Film coil winding). 4, 5,
Electromagnetic , 54 - 56, 136 - 138, 140, l 4 l , 1 5 0 ,1 5 6 ,1 5 8 ,2 1 6 , 2 2 6 Input, 66, 137, 138, 156, 158 O u t p u t .l , 1 9 , 5 0 , 5 6 , 6 6 , 7 9 , 1 3 7 , 1 3 8 , 1 4 1 , 1 5 6 ,1 5 8 , 1 6 2 ,2 4 9 , 2 8 1 ,2 9 2 Pulse width modulation (PWM), 44, 141,194, 218 - 220, 224, 234, 236, 237, 246 Pumps, l, 2, 97, 255, 266, 29'7,298 130 Reactance, Armaturereact'ion, 5l , 61, 130, 159 Differential leakage, l3 I End connection leakage, 13 1 Leakage 5 , 1 , 1 3 0 ,1 3 1 ,1 5 5 51, 65, 121, 130, 197 Synchronous, d-axis, 158, 185 Synchronous q-axis, 158, 185 Synchronous Relative recoil permeability, 58, 93, 95 Reynolds number, 49, 253, 254, 261 Rotary actuator, 303 S a l i e np t o l e ,6 , 8 , 9 , 3 1 , 8 8 , 8 9 , 1 3 8 ,1 5 7 , 2 3 0 f a c t o r , 5 9 ,1 0 6 ,l J 4 Saluration of PMs, 109 Shapes Shock, leakageand friction, 259 S i l i c o ns t e e l , 7j,'79, 128 Sinusoidalexcitation,6 I Sizing equations,54 56 Skewedslot, 87 Skin effect coeficient, 42, 43, 50, 131 Slip factor, 258, 259, 261 Soft magneticcomposite,84, 85, 87, 88 Solid-stateconvefter, 128, 213, 214, 216, 221, 224,234,238 Stacking factor, 80, 82 Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 25 I Stokes'theorem,160 Synchronization with utility grid, 66 Infinite bus, 66 Powercircuit, 6'7,214, 216 66 Synchroscope, Systemlosses,260,261 Thermal equivalent circuit, 268, 270, 2'/ 5 Conservation of energy, 25'7 ,269 Control volume, 256,269 -271 Thermal capacitance,267 - 210 Thermal resistance,26'7 , 268,27{) Time constant Electrical,205,234 185, 187, 188 Electromagnetic,
114-1r6,154,303
Salientpole winding, 37 S i n g l e - l a y ew r i n d i n g ,3 3 , 3 5 , 1 3 2 ,1 3 3 Slotless w i n d i n g s ,1 , 9 Winding factor, 34, 41, 57, 68,'71, 133, 145,181,206 Windscreen wipers, 97

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A c.I.P. catalogue recordfor this book is available from theLibrarv of consress.

-7 (LrB) rsBN 1-4020-266r ISBN I -4020-2720-6 (e-book)

Printed on acid-free paper

Axial Flux Permanent Magnet Brushless Machines

1.8 AFPM machinesversusRFPM machines I.9 Numerical examples

2 . PRINCIPLES OF AFPM MACHINES

Vi 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.3 2.4 2.5

MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT Coreless statorwinding Salientpole windings

Torque production Magnetic flux Electromagnetictorque and EMF

2.1 Phasordiagrams 2.8 Sizing equations 2.9 Armature reaction

motor motor 2.10.1 Sine-wave motor 2.10.2 Square-wave

3.2.5 3.2.6 3.3

Calculationof magneticcircuits with PMs Fabrication of rotor masnetic circuits

107 109 It2 l12 I12 tt4 116

r63 r63 r67

8 . COOLING AND HEAT TRANSFER

249 249 249 250 250

9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9

AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES

S634D 940 t.8

S712F 910 2.9 I4 3.5 4.9 24 5.9 3000 6000

0.64 2.4 5.4 0.21 6.2 174 89 146.8 0.468

0.08 4.5 150 82 151.1 0.289

t74 89 190.9 0.606

of AFPM machines Development

AXTAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES

Types of axial flux PM machines

MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHTNES ANAL FLUX PERMANENT

130 t80 240 300 16f

t20 240 (b)

Topologies and geometries

with internalrotor (Fig. 1.ac)

multi-stage(multidisc)AFPM machines(Fig. 1.7)

AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES

Axial magnetic field excited by PMs

pole Pole pitch Pitch

Figure1.8. Twin-stator double-sided AFPM machine in Cartesian coordinate system.

: Bo\U"cosl.,.,tT A,@ ,o) B,n,z(r,t)

- t (t)^ .o.r, t (*)' :o".,h *] fr ". l*sinha

(1.8) (p,b1) *"i,(,;) cos (;)' h -#] *,n

AXTAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES

i \i\ / ,n \ \r/ t . l l i \ \ l','\'r llitli:llililifrLli r l--ll-i UJ-t lJ

ll ii I iil l, I lli i lril r:

(x,t) B mz1 :B- 0

iffl ft* fft'l ' ,j \ \ l l \ \i/i\ r lir\l iliilillil

r.Ylrl N,4ri iM,i

.i trr{-u, rtj i[i]'i [il

PM eddy-currentbrake asthe simplest AFPM brushless machine

o, A^0, * o, A^0, = ^ : ()'AmY' t aFar,

as solutionto eqn( I .l0) canbe written,for example, General

sio(ur,t * A',exp(n,z))(1.14) * g,r - T)lOr,exp(-n,z)

AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNETBRUSHLESS MACHINES

exp(-n,z) * Az, exp(n,z')l( 1.18)

exp(- n,z) - Az, exp(n,z))

p, rlos(a,t n,z) I Az, exp(n,z)) (1.20) * p,r * I)(Or, exp(.*

Introduction r a tz : 0 . 5 d p, cos(u,t * g,r - I)Vr, zexp(-n,d,f 2) -t Az, exp(n,d,l2))

fr\ : Bobrcos(wrt * 0rr -

* 0'r- |)'i'n@'") (r'23)

AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGI,{ET BRUSHLESS MACHINES

-trotirl*,)z oi:rj: *:"ntt,{o,f;)

: l(Bp,Ap, - Bx,Ax,) + j(Bx,Aa, - Po,Ar,)l?

sinh(ap"k"d) prk,d) - cos(ay,k,d) cosh(ct - sin(ay"k"r|) cosh(ap, k, d) - cos(ay

a2, t 0.b1D.,,- -D i n ) . d. Kru cotlr\ti,ur)

AFPM machinesversusRFPM machines

- t (t)^ .o.r, t ()' :o".,h ] fr ". l*sinha

(1.8) (p,b1) "i,(,;) cos (;)' h -#] ,n

-trotirl,)z oi:rj: :"ntt,{o,f;)

: -* u n ",o",] " " Bnn ''t(pa)d.a lo"'o [i

: -]- Bolcos?r- cosol : ? uo '71

Thus, - ( 0 . 5 D ; , ): n ! D I , , G- k ' i lQ . 2 l l o '/ : o , B "o ' ] o ,B " ![ '2 p(' 0 . 5 D , , , 1 2

Ta: F&n:2trBounA(R?""rR?)Rn, :2trBo,gAR2(ka- tcll 1z.ztl