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A COMPILATION REPORT IDENTIFICATION OF TWO STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS (FAULTS AND JOINTS) FROM AREAL PHOTOGRAPHS AND SATELLITE IMAGES

BY RABEEA KHALAF ZINAD

UNIVERSITY OF MOSUL COLLAGE OF SCINCE DEPT OF GEOLOGY

JANUARY 2010

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CONTENTS

1-Introduction 2--Why remote sensing is using for structural geology

3--Faults

2 3 4 6 10 12 14 15 17

4--Faults criteria in aerial photographs and images

5--Recognitions topography of low angle reverse faults 6--Example of recognition faults on images

7-- Stream development and geologic structures 8 --Joints 9-- Example on applications of advance remote sensing techniques in structural geology 10-- References

20

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1 Introduction
A remote sensing image is a stereoscopic miniature of natural landscape. It objectively records information on shapes and physical characteristics (tones and colors)of structural deformations, both the individual parts and the overall pattern, . It also records some information on concealed structures. All of this information reflects the differences between geological bodies in composition, texture/structure, and physical properties under dynamic influences inside and out. The information on concealed structures can be revealed by deformation of the earth crust, and by modification of the geophysical and geochemical fields, or by abnormal changes in the atmosphere and biosphere above them ( Wunian et al, 1999) . Apart from such information, much information on remotely sensed multispectral images is invisible to the human eyes, such as infrared or microwave radar images, and much of this information is useful in analysis of geological features out of sight. Using remote sensing images to analyze the deformation of geological bodies and extract information related not only provides useful data, but also is helpful for combining fracture systems of rocks and structural deformation with geological formations very well, so as to achieve conclusions that coincide with objective reality. Remote sensing is a tool that makes some tasks easier and possible that would otherwise be impossible, but is inappropriate for some tasks. Depending on the individual situation, remote sensing may be extremely valuable. Some remote sensing interpretations can stand on their own with confidence, but for most, establishing ground truth is essential. (www.ccrs).

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2--Why remote sensing is using for structural geology

Structural geology plays an important role in mineral and hydrocarbon exploration, and potential hazard identification and monitoring.(www.ccrn). Structural mapping is the identification and characterization of structural expression. Structures include faults, folds (synclines and anticlines) and lineaments. Understanding structures is the key to interpreting crustal movements that have shaped the present terrain. Structures can indicate potential locations of oil and gas reserves by characterizing both the underlying subsurface geometry of rock units and the amount of crustal deformation and stress experienced in a certain locale. Detailed examination of structure can be obtained by geophysical techniques such as seismic surveying. Structures are also examined for clues to crustal movement and potential hazards, such as earthquakes, landslides, and volcanic activity. Identification of fault lines can facilitate land use planning by limiting construction over potentially dangerous zones of seismic activity. A synoptic view of regional scale is a much different perspective than point ground observations when trying to map structural elements. Remote sensing offers this perspective allow geologist to examine other reference ancillary data simultaneously and synergistically,(www.ccrn) . Such as geomagnetic Information.

Remote sensing gives the overview required to.

1) construct regional unit maps, useful for small scale analyses, and planning field traverses to sample and verify various units for detailed mapping; and 2) Understand the spatial distribution and surface relationships between the units. VIR (Visible Infrared) remote sensing provides the multispectral information relating to the composition of the unit, while radar can contribute textural information. Multiple data sources can also be integrated to provide a comprehensive view of the lithostratigraphy. Stereo imagery can also facilitate delineation and identification of units by providing a three dimensional view of the local relief, ( Rinaldi, 2007). Some rocks are resistant to erosion, whereas others erode easily. Identification

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elements such as weathering manifestations may be apparent on high or medium resolution imagery and aerial photographs . Images or air photos can be taken into the field and used as base maps for field analysis. For Regional Tectonic Deformation and Stress Fields by using PhaseSeparation Analysis of Remote Sensing Images (Yang Wunian, et al., 1991,1997 in wunian et .al 1999), suggests that the structural feature on a remote sensing image is a synthetic result of combination of the deformations produced during the geological history of an area, including characteristic information of previous deformations. Therefore, tectonic stress fields of different stages in the complex deformation of an area can be reconstructed by the following steps: (1) Geological structures formed at different stages and in different times are distinguished using remote sensing images. (2) Tectonic deformation fields at different stages are determined by analyzing relationships between microstructures (joints and fractures) and the related tectonics (folds and faults). (3) Tectonic stress fields at different stages are respectively recovered through a study of the features of structural deformation in different periods. This method was applied in many places in different geological conditions, (wunian et al 1999)

3--Faults
Faults are fractures within the earth's crust along which movement or offset of crustal blocks has occurred. faulting may occur along a plane or curved surface ; however, in many large faults dislocations is not confined to a simple fissure and takes place in a more or less wide zone of shearing (Mekel 1977), Any fracture that lies beneath the surface and also intersects that surface will produce a line or linear trace (in geometry, the intersection of two planes is always a line).

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Because of their role as the prime cause of earthquakes, faults - and their detection (as from space) - having a special interest and concern. cern.(www. fas) Also Faults are fractures al along which there is relative sliding movement (offset) of the blocks in opposite directi directions on either side. The relative movement directi direction along the plan of fracture (fault plane) and the angle of that plane determine the type of fault that is involved. Nomenclature of fault types is shown in Fig (1):

Fig(1) Faults type movements movements.(www.fas)

For normal faults (caused by tensi tensional forces), the hanging wall block moves down the fault plane, so that marker beds within the block drop downward relative to their once contiguous counterparts in the footwall. Reverse and thrust faults (compressional forces in the crust) involve upward hanging wall movements; thrust faults also carry their blocks outward, overriding the rocks on the footwall side side. Strike-slip slip faults (shear forces) result in largely horizontal tal movements al along a steep to vertical fault plan. plan

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4--Faults criteria in aerial photographs and images

Faults can often be discerned in aerial photographs and space imagery by their expressions as discontinuities, differences in topography and lithology on either side, and signs of displacement,(www.wou). Therefore, we can deal with these criteria by recognize them, as shown below:1- Abrupt topographic discontinuities of landforms, Fig(2 a ,b ,c). displacement or abrupt ending of resistance key beds Sudden changesof the strike and dipof the key beds.

a
e

fig(2-a-b-c)Dicsontinuityof geological structures by fault.(www,wou_www,fas)

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2) Depressions along the fault trace (broken rock is more easily eroded). Probably With knobs or lake, or Fault-sag ponding which are zones of differential erosion, may form sites of elongated ponds, and linear series of ponds along length of fault zone, also linear Spring may Developed ,and aligned along fault zone. Spring formation result of (www.wou)_( Mekel 1977):i) Creation of zone of high permeability fault breccias, through which groundwater may reach the surface. ii) Juxtaposition of high permeability and low permeability rocks along fault zone, forcing groundwater to surface as spring. The spring (fault trace) appears in black color in reflected infrared wavelength, and if there is a hot water spring therefore, we can recognize it in a thermal infrared wavelength. At the air photos-interpretation, fault trace may show as a dark line, due to the higher moisture content of the soil, probably combinations with denser vegetations. 3- Faults represent relatively narrow, linear zones of lithologic weakness, the Avenues are enhanced by physical and chemical weathering. 4-offsets or sudden changes in vegetational or tonal banding may further enhanced faults in photo and images (Mekel 1977). (In reflected infrared planet appears in a false red color) 5 Scarp or cliff Landforms Fault that cut the surface of the earth (i.e. the tip line intersects the surface) are known as emergent faults,(Allmendinger 1999), they produce a topogarphic step called scrap. Vertical displacement may result in a fault scrap that is cliff formed by a fault (zuidam 1979). The scrap can either be the surface exposure of fault plane in which case it is a fault scrap. Or it can simply be a topographic bump aligned with, but with a different dip than the fault (a fault line scrap),(Allmendinger 1999) Fig(3). We can list fault scarp landform as-

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Fig(3 3) Fault scrap and fault line scrap. aTriangular Facets: head ward erosion results in V-shaped shaped valleys cut through the fault scarp. p. Rock remnants left between erosion onal valleys form triangular-shaped shaped faces (or "facets") "facets")of rock exposed along the fault scarp Fig(4) ,( www.wou). Erosion over time will result in degrading the fault scarp and facets (youth (youth- mature-old age progression) Fig(5).

&      

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Fig(5) ) progressive erosi erosion of fault escarp.(www.wou) wou) bRenewed uplift/offset on fault will result in rejuvenating the fault-scarp fault geomorphic topography topography.

c- Streams transecting the displaced fault z zone impacted by relatively instant changes in local base level and development of displacement-related displacement knick points (www.wou). dStreams draining from up thrown block, down scarp, erode "hanging valleys", create waterfalls waterfalls, and erode to form a Y-shaped shaped cross-sectional cross profile Drainage Disruption on, Land displacement associated with faulting may cause local damming of drainage systems, resulting in ponding p and establishment of local base level level. Fig (6). Many of these morphotectonic morphotect features which reported at BASHIQA STRUCTURE are supported by the idea of Thrust faulting mechanism folding (Salih, And And Al-Daghastani, Al .1993)

e-

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Fig(6)Drianage collecting against the scarp fault (www.wou) 5Recognition of topography of low angle reverse faults. Low angle faults frequently have less clear surface trace and continuous lineation's may be absent. especially low angle reverse faults and thrusts ,which tend to have irregular and strongly curving traces, are difficult to interpret from Arial photographs alone (Mekel 1977). but, usually older rocks will have been thrusted upon younger ones and contrast in photo-characteristics and space imagery can be strong, If each block consists of rock types that are different in composition and erosive response, these will appear at the surface as intervals of rock with contrasting topography. We can summarize Thrust Faults geometry as: 1- low-angle reverse faults, < 30 degrees dip. 2- Commonly occurring as low-angle thrust sheets faults may be flat to undulating to gently dipping. 3- Displacements along thrust sheets may be up to 10's to 100'of miles:

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i) Result of highly detached, low friction fault zone ii) Extreme compressive tectonic force iii) Divided into: a) Upper thrust sheet: Above fault b) Lower thrust sheet: below fault (floor) (2) Klippes: erosional remnants of upper thrust Sheet, stranded and surrounded by rocks of lower thrust sheet , base of klippe marks location of thrust fault (3) Fensters: erosional windows cut through Upper Thrust Sheet, showing rocks of lower thrust sheet surrounded by rocks of upper thrust sheet. Fig (7a, b) show terminology of thrust fault
3D perspective and some additional terminology trace: fault intersection with surface

allocthon: hanging wall above thrust fault that is composed of

allocthonous rocks, i.e. it has moved significant distance autochthon: footwall below thrust fault that is composed of autochthonous rocks, i.e. it is still in place of origin
note minimum fault displacement is farthest distance between thrust outcrops in klippe and window

Fig(7a) Thrust fault terminology

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map symbols for klippe and window

klippe (allocthon)

window (autochthon)

note that teeth always point to hanging wall

6Example of recognition of faults on images

1major fault zone in western China near Tibet is the Kunlun strike-slip (left lateral) system. In the ASTER image below, the fault has split into two parallel segments. The lower one has produced a topographic barrier against which water (black) has been impounded to form a long, narrow lake. Above a series of alluvial fans is the upper segment from within which water has emerged to flow down slope and to enable vegetation (red) to grow. (www.Fas)

Vegetation (red) fault Water(black)

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2Comparable to the Chinese faults is the Dead Sea Fault that runs from just below the mountains of east Lebanon southward through the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea (both actually lakes), thence into the Gulf of Aqaba. This right lateral fault marks one of the three arms of the Afar Triple Junction . Here it is shown in a mosaic made from two Land Sat images.         The fault is recognized in part by topographic discontinuities (mountains in Jordan not fitting with those on the western side) and because the Jordan River and the two lakes follow zones of weakness that are erodes so that they are lower than their surroundings (land adjacent to the Dead Sea has the lowest elevation on land anywhere on Earth; in places below 300feet

Dead Sea Fault

Sea of Galilee

Dead Sea

( www.fas)

The Dead Sea from space, as seen by NASA's Landsat 3. by Rosalie Baker and NASA, Landsat 3

http://www.travelroads.com/article/id_314

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7-- Stream development and geological structures

a. Consequent: stream patterns formed synchronously as beds are tilted,

and drainage flows in direction of dip, Stream courses are "consequence" of initial slope of surface b. Subsequent: stream pattern developed in accordance to erosional resistance of folded or tilted strata, Form "subsequent" to structural deformation c. Antecedent: streams maintain stream course (pattern) that was established prior to structural deformation (unaltered by deformation patterns)(www.wou). Fig(8) illustrates entrenched meander pattern cutting through Valley and ridge

Antecedent River

Entrenched meander

& (www.wou)

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8--Joints
Joints are crack through solid bodiesof rock with little or no movement parallel to joints surfaces.occur most clearly in competent rocks, they are usually too small in size to be directly recognizable from space but their effect on topography may reveal their presence,(www.fas) . the photo characteristics are in many ways similar to the linear features which commonly mark fractures e.g .:linear drainage and erosion gullies; linear vegetation and linear tone differences,( Mekel 1977). Joints in sedimentary rocks are primarily perpendicular to bedding planes and may cover large areas and with a certain constancy of direction in single or conjugate System, Fig(9) their numerous short lineations giving pronounced linear or blocky textures,clearly visible on arerial photo, especially in the case of sandstone. Stream often follow joints lines and may zig-zag form one joints line to another.(Lillesand and Kiefe  )

Fig(9) joints having constancy direction

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In space imagery, major joints can be c conspicuous spicuous under certain conditions, where they are long long, continuous, and wide-spaced spaced and enlarged by erosion. They can be conspicuous spicuous in Land sat imagery. This is well shown by the joint system cutting a basalt flow in Zambia over which flows the Zambezi River (Victoria Falls) ,(www ,(www.fas) .Fig(10).

Fig(10) Mega joints system as apeared in landsat image.(www.fas) .(www.fas)

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Difference between fault and Joint? How might the two types be separated visually on an aerial photographs or space images? A fracture (or joint) is just a crack or break in the rock in which the rock on either side springs apart some tiny distance. A fault is a break in which the rock on one side slides or slips against the rock on the other side so that each side is displaced some distance (meters to kilometers) from the other. As seen from the air or space, in a photo/image a fracture is just a Linear mark in which the tone of the rocks is the same on both sides. Most faults cause enough cumulative movement (the blocks tend to shift a few meters at a time, but repeatedly) for individual layers or even formations to be displaced, so that there may be a sharp discontinuity in tonal pattern, in which one type of rock is brought against another. Or, as in the China image to photographic parts of a mountain systems are visibly offset by the faulting.(www.fas) .see paragraph 6

9-- Example of applications of advance techniques in structural geology

remote sensing

1- With the advent of stereoscopic satellite data, such as ASTER and SPOT imagery, Traditional approaches included the use of aerial photographs and satellite and radar images to map geological features (folds, faults, fractures, etc..)are successfully used to obtain quantitative measurements and Qualitative analysis of the geological structures over large areas. A methodology for remote recognition and mapping of geological structures that involves the integration of monoscopic, stereoscopic and topographic data analyses together with geologic field and geophysical subsurface data Rinaldi 2007) Fig(11).

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Fig(11)

In his study, , he has been focused on the potentiality and usefulness of remote sensing in structural geology applicati applications, included the analysis nalysis of several monoscopic and stereoscopic imagery of areas, that characterized by different geologic and geodynamic settings settings. The method of his study allowed a short listing of a series of criteri criterions useful to recognize the linear and areal remote structures corresponding ding to morphostructural indicators. . The criterions have been applied to the analysis of Landsat ETM+ and TERRATERRA ASTER satellite images mages in m monoscopic view, using different bands combinations and enhancement filters filters. . Digital stereoscopic analyses of aerial photographs, HRSC-MEX MEX and TERRA TERRA-ASTER stereoable bands permitted the extraction of a number of geological features in a real 3D world coordinates, allowing their positioning and geometric definition. Stereoscopic analysis made possible to obtain structural geologic measurements (strike, dip, etc..) on Different fold limb strata, obtaining satisfying results after the comparison with field . Fig(12). shows an example of azimuth and dip measurements results.

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& a, b b)

The described methodology have been applied to different geological setting, Including a portion of the Atlas Fold Belt in central Tunisia, an intra cratonic arch locate in the central western Libya and a regi region on Mars planet. The GIS (Geographic Informati Information System) implementation on of all mapped features permitted the creati creation of georeferenced morphostructural ostructural maps for all the investigated areas, in order to obtain the related tecton onic maps, useful for the tectonic interpretati interpretation.

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10--References
Allmendinger R.W (1999). Introductions To Structural Geology.cornell university, Ithaco ,NY 14853-1504 UAS 297p. Lillesand T. M and Kiefer R.W (1994). Remote Seneing And Image Interpretations 3th Editionn .John Wiley And Sons 460 P. Mekel J.F.M (1977).The Useof Aerial Photographs And Other Images In Geological Mapping. ITC Textbook. Vol.1 Netherlands 206 p. Salih,M.R And Al-Daghastani,H.S (1993). Thrust Mechanisms And Their Relationship With Folding And Geomorphologyof Bashiqa Structure .North of Iraq.Iraqi Geological Journal Vol.26-No.2 pp 62-75 Zuidam R.A And Zuidam C.F (1979). Terrian Analysis And Classifican Using Aerial Photographs .In,Itc Textbook ,Vol,6 Netherlands 310p. Rinaldi Marco,(2007). Remote sensing capability in structural geology analysis of different geodynamic settings: the example of Al Qarqaf Arch (Libya) Scientifica Acta 1, No. 1, pp 43 46. Wunian Yang1 et al, ( 1999) . Digital Processing and Information Extraction of the Remote Sensing Images in the Yangtze Three Gorges Project Region, China Proceedings of the International Symposium on Digital Earth Science Press, www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/resource/tutor/.../01_e.php Canadian center for remote sensing ( Fundamentals of Remote Sensing).  www.wou.edu/las/physci/taylor/erth350/structure.pdf (Overview of structural geology and geologic map interpretation). www.fas.org/irp/imint/docs/rst/Front/tofc.html (Remote sensing tutorial).