Analyzing Spoken Discourse

Interactional Analysis, Conversation Analysis and Discourse Analysis

Interactional Analysis

Introduction Theoretical and Historical Background The Negotiation of Meaning Communication Strategies The Treatment of Error Comment Conducting an Interactional Analysis Speech Act Theory Interactional Sociolinguistics The Ethnography of Communication Linguistic Approach Defining the object Identifying problem sequences Establishing a descriptive framework Quantify the data Final Comment

Introduction and Background

Ellis differentiates interactional analysis from interaction analysis and suggests both are part of discourse analysis Discourse analysis is the study of utterances Their semantic and pragmatic meanings in context Their organization to form a coherent whole Interaction analysis refers to a coding of classroom language (we will see below) Interactional analysis describes the discourse of L2 learners in natural and instructional settings at both Macro and micro levels

Negotiation of Meaning

This concept is one of the pillars of CLT

Refers to exchanges when speakers try to resolve a communicative impasse

Hatch (1978) learners learn through the process of interaction and not by using prelearned products

Interaction facilitates acquisition

Negotiation gives salience to form-function relations Role of production in acquisition

Interaction is larger than only negotiation of meaning, and the exact place of negotiation of meaning in acquisition is yet unclear

Communication Strategies

Are speaker-oriented Many taxonomies of these e.g. Avoidance, paraphrase, coinage, circumlocution Are part of the planning stage of speech May be knowledge based or control based May be conceptual or linguistic Conceptual: Analytic Holistic Linguistic Transfer Borrowing Two principles in using C Strategies Principle of Clarity Principle of Economy C Strategies may both help and hinder L2 acquisition

Treatment of Error

Pedagogical and Theoretical interests In classes error correction is: imprecise, inconsistent, and indirect Error correction in non-class settings: 'repair' is the preferred method In class: other-initiated repair, other-repair Out of class: self-initiated repair, self-repair Need for negative evidence in L2 learning Provides focus of cognitive resources to learning process Research on Errors to answer 2 questions: Does e.c. lead to learner uptake? Do some types of ec work better? Results are mixed...

Comment

Interactional analysis is a useful way to examine the following:

Do instructional activities result in the behavior they were designed to elicit? What is the linguistic environment in the class? What are key factors that influence the le? Do teachers give preference / help to certain students or categories of students?

Conducting an Interactional Analysis

There are a number of approaches (See table 8.3) 2 general approaches

Data driven Theory driven Define the objects of the inquiry Identify instances of the the object of the inquiry in the data Establish a framework for describing the data Quantify the data

A general approach is outlined:

When making a framework

If possible, use an existing framework Develop your framework as a system, not a list Ensure all categories are operationalized Ensure the categories account for all the data Ensure the categories are mutually exclusive Ensure the system is economical

Conversation Analysis

Introduction Historical and Theoretical Background The organization of talk-in-interaction Turn-taking Sequence organization Repair Conversation analysis and learner language Conducting a CA Starting out Methodological Tenets Authentic, recorded data which are carefully transcribed Use unmotivated looking Employ the 'turn' as unit of analysis Analyze single, deviant and collections of cases Disregard ethnographic and demographic particulars Eschew coding Analytic Tools

What is Conversation Analysis

The study of what people do when they talk:

Taking turns Ordering the talk sequentially Organizing of speech to do something Repairing breakdowns if needed Orienting to the conversation

In SLA we look at how learners do these tasks CA in SLA takes a participant's perspective

Historical and Theoretical B/G

We perform our social selves (Goffman1959) Sacks: ordinary conversation is deeply ordered

There is tacit reasoning and sociolinguistic competency in the production and understanding of talk CA is studying the interactional organization of social activities (Hutchby and Woofit (1998)
Pure CA: analysis of mundane talk Applied CA: analysis of institutional talk

Two types:

Turn Taking

The construction and organization of turns Constructed out of TCUs Hearers listen for transition relevance place

Rules for turn taking

If current speaker the next speaker, s/he takes turn No selection any speaker may self-select (1st spk) No selection current speaker may continue

Sequence organization

The normative, ordered way speech is organized One turn usually predicts another (adjacency pairs) Certain second pairs are preferred the preference organization It relates to structure and not psychological factors Sequences can have pre-sequences, which predict following sequences Sequences are patterns of subsequent actions Are not arbitrary but realization of logical projections, rights and obligations

Repair

There may be trouble sources in conversation Who initiates and who repairs:

Initiate: Self and other Repair: Self and other

These can be mixed (e.g. Self-initiate, other repair)

Where repair occurs:

Same turn, next turn (NTRI)

Repairs not limited to words (e.g. Forgetting a name; hearing problems) Repairs interrupt talk-in-action until repair is made.

CA Methodology pp 205-7

CA should be based on:

Empirically motivated, emic (insider)accounts of interactional competence in different speech situations Collections of relevant data that are excerpts of complete transactions of communicative events Should be capable of exploiting the analytical potential of fine-grained transcripts Should be capable of identifying both successful and unsuccessful learning behaviors Should be capable of showing how meaning is constructed as a socially distributed phenomenon, critiquing cognitive notions

Methodological Tenets pp 208-12

Authentic, recorded data which are carefully transcribed

Researcher him/herself should transcribe Discursive, interpretive, data-driven approach

Use unmotivated looking

Employ the 'turn' as unit of analysis Analyze single, deviant and collections of cases Disregard ethnographic and demographic particulars Eschew coding and quantification

Analytic Tools pp 212-221

Select a sequence Characterize the actions in the sequence Consider the speakers' packaging of actions, including their selections of reference lexical items, provides for certain understandings of the actions performed Consider how the turn-taking organization provides for certain understandings of the actions and matters talked about Consider how the ways the actions were accomplished implicate certain identities, roles and relationships for the interactants in equal and unequal speech systems Put it all together Note the transcription conventions pp 226-7

Classroom discourse analysis

This means a lot of different things to different people

For

this class we are dealing with speech not writing We are dealing with naturally occurring speech not prepared monologue We are dealing with speech acts We are examining the functional and the linguistic aspects of speech

Approaches to analyzing interaction c.f. Nunan (1992)

Conversation Analysis Interaction Analysis Discourse Analysis Means of collecting data
Only natural Natural and elicited Natural and elicited

Mode of language

Only Speaking

Only speaking

Speaking Writing

Pre-determined analytic categories

Discursive, interpretive analysis

Discursive, interpretive analysis

Yes see Sinclair-Coulthard model

Focus of the analysis

Sociological: Turn-taking, ambiguity resolution, etc.

Are attempting to link linguistic routines with social aspects of interaction.

Linguistic

Some overlap with DA in study of speech acts.

Classroom Discourse

The classroom is a unique social interaction. It exists for the purpose of transmitting knowledge from experts to those who need the information for some purpose. Classrooms are of particular interest to SLA researchers because they are the location where learning, hopefully, is taking place.

Scrivener (1996)

A Authentic Communication the learner can use any linguistic knowledge at his / her disposal to do whatever he/she needs to do. R Restricted Language the learner is expected to use a certain set of language to do the classroom activity. If he or she uses other language, the activity is viewed as a failure and the learner may be reprimanded or corrected in some way. He or she is not permitted to use any language, only the target form. (Listen and repeat pattern drills are a simple example of restricted classroom use.) C- Clarification Language this is the language to talk about language. An example might be the explanation of a grammatical point by the teacher to the students.

Conversation Analysis C.A.

Looks at detailed local aspects of conversation Some topics: Turn-taking, showing listening, selection of the next speaker, (non) interrupting Adjacency pairs: two utterances that usually go together - Nonuse of the pair leads to considerable work to repair the conversation Also concerned with: opening and closing conversations and topic management In C.A. all elements pauses, body language, ers, unfinished utterances, overlaps, laughter, and re-finishing earlier utterances are all considered important

C.A. gives insights for teaching

The special turn-taking conditions of the classroom will need supplementing in order to get learners ready for outside the class conversation Some adjacency pairs will be easy to learn, but dispreferred sequences will require skill and practice
Who

chooses the topics for the conversations in class?

Teaching and Learning as Discourse

Walsh(2001)Self-evaluationofTeacherTalk Divides classroom discourse into 4 modes Managerial mode Materials mode Skills and systems mode Classroom context mode

Walsh 2001 contd

Modes are observed through turn taking and topic management (CA) and through looking at exchange structure in stretches of classroom discourse Observing the modes lets teachers understand their teacher talk and develop their own style of appropriate teacher talk Teachers need to adjust TTT to the aims of the lesson

Managerial Mode

Extended teacher turn and no learner turns Focus is on the business side of the lesson There is repetition Teacher hands over the exchange to the student at the end of the monologue Teacher uses markers to help learners follow the talk

Materials Mode
Pedagogic goals and T-S discourse flow from the materials being used Classic I-R-F is the easiest way to handle this mode Turn-taking and topic depend entirely on the material

Skills and Systems mode

Teaching goals are related to language practice or language skill I-R-F is common Teacher manages topic and turn Focus on accuracy Teacher is aiming to get learner to manipulate the L2 system

Classroom Context mode

Opportunity for genuine discourse is frequent Teacher has a less prominent role Teacher listens and supports the interaction

Sinclair - Coulthard

Initially they were concerned with speech acts in the classroom. The lack of fit between form and function led to Sinclair andCoulthardsattempttomakeapurelylinguistic analysis of language: Categories of language behavior that can apply in all situations Categories that do not rely on context to provide the explanation.

A Rank scale model of spoken discourse

A rank scale every item in the scale is composed of the items below it, and makes up the items above it in the scale. Halliday (1961) first proposed the following: phonemes comprise morphemes, which comprise syllables, which comprise words, which comprise groups, which comprise clauses, which comprise paragraphs. It is conceivable that some levels can be realized by the same form (e.g. a one-clause paragraph.) However, all written texts can be identified and described at these various levels. (The level higher than the paragraph however still remains uncertain.)

Exchange Structure

In writing, we have an essay comprised of paragraphs, that are comprised of sentences (clauses), that are comprised of groups (the noun group), that are comprised of words. To write a paragraph, these need to be structured in an orderly way Likewise, we do not speak randomly, there is an organization and a pattern to it. In some cases, the organization and pattern is more formal and ritualistic than in others (compare a church service to a university lecture to a discussion with your parents)

Spoken language structure

There is a transaction of some type (e.g. a lesson or an identifiable part of a lesson); Which is made up of a series of exchanges: (these are categorized into those that teachers initiate and those that pupils initiate and can be informing, directing, eliciting and checking) Which are made up of a series of moves oneofwhichistheheador main part (e.g. eliciting a linguistic response); These are made up of a series of acts (e.g.IsJohnnylateagain?) Thelastexamplecouldbeanelicitifthespeakerisgenuinelyaskingfor information;itcouldalsobeconsideredacommentdependingon intonationtherefore discourse analysis focuses on the linguistic function of the utterance, not the form

The initial rank scale

Level or Rank Description

Lesson (Rank I)
Transaction (Rank II)

This consists of a number of transactions.

A transaction consists of an opening and a closing Boundary exchange with and unlimited number of Teaching Exchanges in the middle. There are 2 types of exchange Boundary Exchanges: Have a frame and / or a focus move Teaching Exchanges: Have an initiation and possibly a response and / or a follow-up move.

Exchange (Rank III)

Move (Rank IV)

Each type of move is comprised of a different combination of acts. Framing Move: head, qualifier Focusing Move: signal, pre-head, head, post-head, Initiating Move: signal, pre-head, head, post-head, select Response Move: pre-head, head, post-head Follow-up Move: pre-head, head, post-head
Each of possible acts that can go into any of the positions in the move is listed in the readings (too many to fit here!) There must be a head for each move, the other elements are optional.

Act (Rank V)

Transaction Structure

Transactions have clear beginnings and ends these are called boundary exchanges Boundary exchanges have framing and focusing moves: the framing move is a discourse marker The number of exchanges between the boundaries is variable, but there must be at least one It can be any of a limited number of exchange types: in teaching discourse there are 11 identified exchanges, and in everyday conversation there are 10

Transaction Structure
Element
Preliminary (Optional) Medial

Exchanges (Classroom)
Boundary exchange

Exchanges (Conversation)
Organizing Exchange

Teaching Exchange (11 types) Boundary Exchange

Conversation Exchange (6 types) Organizing (4 types) Organizing

Terminal (Optional)

Teaching Exchanges

The basic exchanges in a classroom (informing, directing, eliciting and checking) consist of: An initiation: the speaker does something that requires a response A response: the hearer responds Potentially a re-initiate Potentially a Follow-up: In class this is usually feedback to the learner, out of class it is usually non-evaluative Theprecisesurfaceformofthesedependsonthespeakerandhearers relationship, the goals of the communication, and the development of the conversation.

Exchange Structure

Each exchange in the transaction has its own particular structure and a limited number of moves that can comprise it. E.g. the conversational exchange (An I and an R are mandatory)

Element
Initiation Response / Initiation Response Follow-up

Structures
I (R/I) R (F)

Moves
Eliciting / informing / directing Eliciting / informing / Informing / acknowledging / behaving Acknowledging

Move Structure

Each move in the exchange has its own particular structure and a limited number of acts can comprise it. E.g. the eliciting move (A head is mandatory) (it can be an R/I or an R in a conversation exchange)
Structures
(S) (Pre-h) h (post-h)

Element
Signal Pre-head Head Post-head

Acts
Marker Starter Inquire / neutral proposal/ marked proposal / return / loop/ prompt Comment / qualify

Act Structure

Each act has a particular function They may be from a closed class or an open class of items E.g. Below is the inquire act that comprises the head of the eliciting move which is the R or R/I of the conversational exchange which is the medial structure of the transaction. Structures inq. Moves Realized by questions which seek information(notyes/no) Wh questions and ellipted forms of these Realizes the head of eliciting move Function is to elicit information

Element inquire

For example:
Consider the following sentence So,thatsitforthelistening.Now Iwantyoutogetapieceofpaper

Soandnowaremarker acts. They signal that the boundary of the transaction that a part of the lesson is ending and another part is about to begin. - They are marker acts and the starter of focusing moves which are the prehead (in this case) of boundary exchanges thatsitisaconclusion act and is the head of a framing move, which is the head of the boundary exchange Iwantisanopening act and is also the head of a framing move, which is the head of the boundary exchange youtogetapieceofpaperisadirective act and is the starter move of a teaching exchange (a teacher directs exchange)

Francis and Hunston: adapting the S C model

Francis and Hunston (1992) adapted the SinclairCoulthard model to everyday conversation. Their major changes came at the top of the Rank Scale insteadofLessontheycallitInteraction, and at the bottom of the Rank Scale, where there are numerous newly defined acts

The Conversation Rank scale

Francis and Hunston (1992)
Level or Rank Description

Interaction (Rank I)
Transaction (Rank II)

This consists of an unordered (or not yet determined order) of transactions.

A transaction consists of an 3 parts: a preliminary, medial and terminal part P and T are optional. There can be any number of M. There are 2 types of exchange P and T are made of organizational exchanges: there are 4 of these M is comprised of conversational exchanges: there are 6 of these Each type of move is comprised of a different combination of acts. Framing Move: head, qualifier Focusing Move: signal, pre-head, head, post-head, Initiating Move: signal, pre-head, head, post-head, select Response Move: pre-head, head, post-head Follow-up Move: pre-head, head, post-head Each of possible acts that can go into any of the positions in the move is listed in the readings (too many to fit here!) There must be a head for each move, the other elements are optional. They are more varied than those of the original Sinclair-Coulthard model

Exchange (Rank III)

Move (Rank IV)

Act (Rank V)

Discourse outside the classroom

Surprisingly, it has been shown that the classroom discourse model actually applies to non-classroom discourse, with the exception of the evaluative feedback usually it is only a comment with no intonation In other words; we can classify all speech into a relatively small number of acts that comprise a smaller number of moves that comprises an even smaller number of possible exchanges that can be combined into an even smaller number of transactions We can use the structure of conversation to teach conversation by teachingactsandmovesnotsentencesandgrammar

Another example
Classes of Move Example Structure of move Classes of act Opening Move Do you know what we mean by accent? h Elicitation

Answering Move

Its the way you talk.

Reply

Follow-up Move

The way we talk.

Pre-h

Accept

That is a very broad answer.

Evaluate

Pronunciation

The exchange structure would be altered if the teacher made different choices in the intonation of the pre-head. For example: //TheWAYweTALK// The high key gives a contrastive meaning to the studentsanswer,andtherefore,simultaneously evaluates and rejects it. This would change the labeling of this statement from pre-head (accept) to head (evaluate)