Q.

Explain any five external commands in DOS with example?

Answer: DOS commands are small programs, which are made to perform a particular job. Every DOS command performs different task. It is not possible to work on the Computer without these commands. There are two types of DOS commands 1) Internal Commands 2) External Commands Internal Commands: These commands enter into the computer memory during computer booting. These commands are not in the form of any file; so neither they can be viewed nor can be edited or detected. For example: MD, CD, TIME, DATE, COPY, COPR CON, TYPE etc. External Commands: These commands are stored in the computer list in the form of files. These Commands can be viewed, copied, changed or deleted. For example: FORMAT, COPY, PRINT, SYS, EDIT, TREE, SORT, PROMPT etc. Important Internal DOS Commands: 1) MD (Make Directory): We use this commands to make a new directory or sub directory. Syntax: C\:>MD DIRECTORY NAME Example: MD STUDENT 2) CD (Change Directory) : This commands is used to move from one directory to another. Syntax: C:\> CD Directory name Example: > CD Student Exit to Directory: CD The commands move the subdirectory to parent directory. CD\ The command is used to move directly to the root directory. 3) RD (Remove Directory) : If a Directory which was earlier is ;not required than such directory can be removed by using Syntax: C:\> RD Directory name Example: >RD student Note: (a) The directory, which is to be removed, must be empty. (b) The directory in which one is working cannot be removed. One has to close the directory and come to the parent directory to remove that directory. 4) Copy Con: Its command is used to create a file. The name of the file, which is to be created, is written after the copy Con leaving one space in between Syntax: Copy Con file name To create a file, the following steps are : (i) Type Copy Con Monu and press Enter. (ii) Type whatever is to be typed in the file. (iii) Press F6 function key or CTRL + Z keys ?Z will be displayed on the screen, which indicates that the file is complete.

Press Enter and after that the DOS will save the file and will display the message 1 File(s) copied. 5) Ren: This command is used to rename the file. In REN command two parameters are used. The first is the file we want to rename and the second is the new name for the file. Syntax: > Ren <old file name> <New file name> Q. 4 Define history and features of Linux? Answer: The History of Linux began in 1991 with the commencement of a personal project by a Finnish student, Linus Torvalds, to create a new free operating system kernel. Since then, the resulting Linux kernel has been marked by constant growth throughout its history. Since the initial release of its source code in 1991, it has grown from a small number of C files under a license prohibiting commercial distribution to its state in 2009 of over 370 megabytes of source under the GNU General Public License Linux has evolved to have the following features as an outstanding operating system which is strong in security and networking. Features of Linux: Multitasking: Several programs can run at the same time. Multiuser: Several users can logon to the same machine at the same time There is no need to have separate user licenses. Multiplatform: Linux runs on many different CPUs that mean it supports multiprocessor machine. Multithreading: Linux has native kernel support for multiple independent threads of control within a single process memory space. Crash proof: Linux has memory protection between processes, so that one program can't bring the whole system down. Demand loads executable: Linux only reads from those parts of a program that are actually used on the disk. Shared copy-on-write pages among executable: This means that multiple processes can use the same memory to run in. When one tries to write to that memory, that page (with 4KB piece of memory) is copied somewhere else. Copy-on-write has two benefits: increasing speed and decreasing memory use. Linux has a unified memory pool for user programs and disk cache, so that all free memory can be used for caching, and the cache can be reduced when running large programs. Linux does core dumps for post-mortem analysis, allowing the use of a debugger on a program not only while it is running but also after it has crashed. Linux is mostly compatible with POSIX, System V, and BSD at the source level. Through an iBCS2-compliant emulation module, Linux is mostly compatible with SCO, SVR3, and SVR4 at the binary level.

(iv)

Linux has CD-ROM file system which reads all standard formats of CDROMs. Linux performs well with TCP/IP networking, including ftp, telnet, NFS, etc. Linux is user friendly as Netware client and server Linux also runs as Lan Manager/Windows Native (SMB) client and server It integrates many networking protocols: The base protocols available in the latest development kernels include TCP, IPv4, IPv6, AX.25, X.25, IPX, DDP (Appletalk), Netrom, and others. Stable network protocols included in the stable kernels currently include TCP, IPv4, IPX, DDP, and AX.25.

Q. 5 Write short notes on DVD Player, Exploring Hard Disk and Taskbar? Answer: DVD Player: DVD Player (formerly Apple DVD Player) is the default DVD player in OS X. It supports all the standard DVD features such as multiple audio, video & subtitle tracks as well as Dolby audio, DVD@ccess URLs and closed captions. In some instances, users can choose which VOB file to open. DVD Player will only install if there is a DVD drive attached to the computer at the time of the OS install (i.e., a bootable disk image made on a computer with a CD-ROM instead of a DVD-ROM drive will not have DVD playback libraries installed). DVD Player is also fully compatible with DVDs authored by DVD Studio Pro and iDVD, including HD DVDs by DVD Studio Pro. Exploring Hard Disk: A computer can run one of many distributions of the Linux operating system; all distributions share the same core (the kernel), but they differ in the user interface and in the utilities included in addition to the kernel. Knoppix is a distribution specially designed to run from a CD, that is, without needing to be installed on the computer's hard disk. You can boot into Knoppix from the CD V 6, and then use Knoppix commands to explore the contents of the hard drive Taskbar: A bar located at the bottom of the screen that was first introduced with Microsoft Windows 95 and found in all versions of Windows after that. The Taskbar allows the user to locate and launch programs through the Start button, see any program that is currently open, display the time or date, items running in the background through the Systray, and with subsequent versions of the Windows operating system, the Quick Launch. Q. 7 Describe chmod, mkdir, pipeline commands in Linux? Answer: chmod is the program that is used to change file permissions on a Linux system. As we mentioned, others cannot modify your personal user files but you may not want other people to even read these files. You can use this command to take away the possibility of others prying into your private stuff. chmod = Change Mode Changes how a file can be accessed. Syntax: chmod [options] who operation permission file-list who: u = user, g = group, o = other, a = all (can use in place of ugo). operation: " + "= adds permission, " - " = removes permission, " = " = sets permissions specified user, resets permissions for that user class.

permission: r = read, w = write, x = execute, t = sets sticky bit, s = sets user or group ID when executed. -c = Changes. Display list of files that have their permissions changed. -R = Recursive. Descends directory and sets all files to those specified. -v = Verbose. Describes whole operation.

Using the number method: Read = 4, Write =2 , Execute = 1 Order is user, group, other. Ex: chmod 755 /home/mydir/myfile. mkdir: 'mkdir' is the command for making directories. 'mkdir' may be familiar to MSDOS users out there. As you have noticed, the people who wrote these programs tried to give them names that described what they do more or less, not as long as 'makemeadirectoryplease' and not too cryptic like 'xr77b'. Using the 'mkdir' command mkdir = make directory Syntax: mkdir [options] directory list -m = mode. Set the permissions to mode given (see chmod). Pipeline: A pipe is a form of redirection that is used in Linux and other Unix-like operating systems to send the output of one program to another program for further processing. Redirection is the transferring of standard output to some other destination, such as another program, a file or a printer, instead of the display monitor (which is its default destination). Standard output, sometimes abbreviated stdout, is the destination of the output from command line (i.e., all-text mode) programs in Unix-like operating systems. Pipes are used to create what can be visualized as a pipeline of commands, which is a temporary direct connection between two or more simple programs. This connection makes possible the performance of some highly specialized task that none of the constituent programs could perform by themselves. A command is merely an instruction provided by a user telling a computer to do something, such as launch a program. The command line programs that do the further processing are referred to as filters. Q. 9 Describe commands cal, cat, cd and chgrp in Linux? Answer: commands cal: cal = Calendar. Prints a calendar for [[month] year]. commands cat: cat = Catenate. Joins files end to end or send file to standard output.

-n = Numbers all lines as they are written to std. output. -E = Ends of lines are marked with dollar signs. -s = Squeeze so that there is never more than one blank line in a row. -v = Show non-printing characters (control as ^M and alt as M-). -t = Tabs are marked with ^I.

commands cd: cd = Change Directory. ".." is one directory up. Without a path, sends you home. commands chgrp: chgrp = Change Group. Changes the group associated with file-list. Group is the name or group ID of new group. Syntax: chgrp [options] group file_list -c = Changes. List only those files whose group ownership changes. -R = Recursive. When directory is listed, changes all files within it. -v = Verbose. List all files and whether changed ownership or not

Q. 10 what is vi editor? Answer: Despite its very limited ergonomics, Vi i is one of the most popular text editors texte under Unix type systems (with Emacs and pico). Under Linux, there is a free version of Vi called Vim (Vi Improved). Vi (pronounced vee-eye) is an editor that is fully in text mode, which means that all actions are carried out with the help of text commands. This editor, although it may appear of little practical use at first, is very powerful and can be very helpful in case the graphical interface malfunctions. The syntax to launch Vi is as follows: vi name of the file Once the file is open, you can move around by using cursors or the keys h, j, k and l (in case the keyboard does not have any arrow cursors). Vi has three operating modes: Regular mode: This is the mode you enter whenever you open a file. This mode allows typing commands Insertion mode: This mode makes it possible to insert characters you capture inside of the document. To switch to insertion mode, just press the key Insert on your keyboard or, by default, the key i Replacement mode: This mode allows you to replace existing text by the text you capture. Just hit r again to go to replacement mode and hit the key Esc to return to regular mode

Basic Command Command Description :q :q! :wq :filename Quit the editor (without saving) Forces the editor to quit without saving (even if changes were made to the document) Saves the document and quits the editor Saves the document under the specified name

Editing command Command Description x dd dxd nx x>> x<< Deletes the character that is currently under cursor Deletes the line that is currently under cursor Deletes x lines starting with the one currently under the cursor Deletes n characters starting with the one currently under the cursor Indents x lines to the right starting with the one currently under the cursor Indents x lines to the left starting with the one currently under the cursor