312

lntroduction to Polymer Chemistry

are elastic with the deformation disappearing when the stress is buildings and bridges built from them ryray sway during an earthquake removed. It is envisioned that Multi-walled nanotubes can easily slide past one another crumbling. rather than fracturing and in a rotating bearing used in rotational motors. without friction, resulting

limit is exceeded, the deformations

Field emission-When stood on end electrified carbon nanotubes act as a lightning rod concentrating the electrical field at their tips. While a lightning rod conducts an arc of electricity to a ground, a nanotube emits electrons from its tip at a rapid rate. Because the ends are so sharp, the nanotube emits electrons at lower voltages than do electrodes made from other materials, and their strength allows nanotubes to operate for longer periods without damage. Field emission is important in several industrial areas including lighting and displays. Commercial use of CNTs as field emitters has begun. Vacuum-tube lamps in six colors have been developed that are twice as bright as conventional light bulbs, longer lived, and at least l0 times more energy efficient as conventional light
bulbs.

Hydrogen and ion storage-While we can picture CNTs as being composed of hexagonal carbon atoms with lots of empty space between the carbons, atoms "thrown" against them generally just bounce off. Even heliqm atoms at an energy up to 5eV do not readily penetrate the nanotube. Thus, the graphene sheet and the CNTs are really membranes or fabrics that are one atom thick made of the strongest material that is also impenetrable (to a limit). Thus, CNTs can be used for hydrogen storage in their hollow centers with release being controlled, allowing them to act as inexpensive and effective fuel cells.

Chemical and genetic probes-Nanotube-tipped atomic force microscopes can trace a strand of DNA and identify chertrical markers that reveal DNA fine structure. A miniaturized sensor has been constructed based on coupling the electronic properties of nanotubes with the specific recognition properties of immobilized biomolecules by attaching organic molecules-handles to these tubular nanostructures. In one study, the pi-electron network on the CNT is used to anchor
a molecule that irreversibly adsorbs to the surface of the SWNT. The anchored molecules have a "tail" to which proteins, or a variety of other molecules, can be covalently attached. The result is that these molecules are immobilized on the sidewall of the nanotube with high specificity and efficiency. The molecule's tail is tipped with a succinimidyl ester group, which is readily displaced

when an amine group attacks the ester function, forming an amide bond. Thus, the CNTs are used as both highly sensitive probes and highly selective immobilizing sites that allow specific
reactions to occur.

Analytical tools-Single-walled CNTs are being used as the tips of scanning probe microscopes. Because of their strength, stability, and controllable and reproducible size, the tube probes allow
better image fidelity and longer tip lifetimes.

Superconductors-Carbon nanotubes offer unique electronic properties due to quantum confinement. According to quantum confinement, electrons can only move along the nanotube axis.
Metallic CNTs are found to be high temperature superconductors.

A major concern involves their possible toxicity. Research involving their potential and real toxic effects is just beginning. This is particularly important since these materials may become part of our everyday lives in many ways. Current results indicate that nanotubes can cross membrane barriers. If this is true, then access to our organs will occur. There is building biological
evidence suggesting that under certain conditions nanotubes, of any origin, pose a real risk to our health. Compounding the question of toxicity is the large variety of nanotubes potentially and really available each with its own loxicity profile. Further, the description of these various materials by name or other convention has yet to be settled.