Chapter 5 AM, FM and Digital Modulation Systems

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES:
Amplitude modulation and single sideband;
Frequency and phase modulation;
Digitally modulated signals (OOK, BPSK, FSK, MPSK, MPSK, QAM, QPSK,
p/4QPSK, and OFDM);
Spread system and CDMA systems.

This chapter is concerned with the bandpass techniques of amplitude modulation (AM),
single-sideband (SSB), phase modulation (PM), and frequency modulation (FM); and
with the digital modulation techniques of on-off keying (OOK), binary phase-shift keying
(BPSK), frequency-shift keying (FSK), quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK),
quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) and orthogonal frequency-division
multiplexing (OFDM). All of these bandpass signaling techniques consist of modulating
an analog or digital baseband signal on to a carrier. In particular, the modulated bandpass
signal can be described by

} (5-1) ) ( Re{ ) (
t j
C
t g t s

=

Where
c c
f 2 = and is the carrier frequency. The desired type of modulated signal,
, is obtained by selecting the appropriate modulation mapping function
c
f
( ) t s ( ) | | t m g ,
where is the analog or digital baseband signal. ( ) t m

The spectrum of the bandpass waveform is

( ) ( |
c c
f f G f f g f V + =
*
2
1
) ( )| (5-2a)

and the PSD of the waveform is

( ) ( |
c g c g v
f f P f f P f P + =
4
1
) ( )|
|
(5-2b)

where G and is the PSD of g(t) ( ) ( ) | t g F f = ( ) f P
g

The goals of this chapter are:

Study g(t) and s(t) for various analog and digital modulations;
Evaluate the spectrum for these modulations;
Study some adopted standards;
Learn about spread spectrum sytems.


1
5-1 AMPLITUDE MODULATION

The complex envelope of an AM signal is given by

(5-3) )] ( 1 [ ) ( t m A t g
c
+ =

Where the constant has been included to specify the power level and is the
modulating signal (which may be analog or digital). These equations reduce to the
following representation of the AM signal:
c
A ) (t m

t t m A t s
c c
cos )] ( 1 [ ) ( + = (5-4)

A waveform illustrating the AM signal, as seen on an oscilloscope, is shown in fig 1. For
convenience, it is assumed that the modulating signal m is a sinusoid.
corresponds to the in-phase component
) (t )] ( 1 [ t m A
c
+
( ) t x of the complex envelope; it also corresponds
to the real envelope ) (t g when 1 ) ( t m (the usual case).


Fig. 5-1 AM signal waveform.

If has a peak positive value of +1 and a peak negative value of 1, the AM signal is
said to be 100% modulated.
) (t m

Definition. The percentage of positive modulation on an AM signal is

% Positive modulation = | | 100 ) ( max 100
max
=

t m
A
A A
c
c
(5-5a)

and the percentage of negative modulation is
2

% negative modulation = | | 100 ) ( min 100
min
=

t m
A
A A
c
c
(5-5b)

The overall modulation percentage is

% modulation =
| | | |
100
2
) ( min ) ( max
100
2
min max

=
t m t m
A
A A
c
(5-6)

where is the maximum value of
max
A )] ( 1 [ t m A
c
+ , is the minimum value, and is
the level of the AM envelope in the absence of modulation [i.e., =0 ].
min
A
c
A
) (t m

Eq. (5-6) may be obtained by averaging the positive and negative modulation as given by
Eqs. (5-5a) and (5-5b). , and are illustrated in Fig. 5-1b, where, in this
example, and
max
A
A
min
min
A
5 . 0
c
A
c
A A 5 . 1
max
=
c
A = , so that the percentages of positive and negative
modulation are both 50% and the overall modulation is 50%.

The percentage of modulation can be over 100% ( will have a negative value),
provided that a four-quadrant multiplier is used to generate the product of
and
min
A
)] ( 1 [ t m A
c
+
t
c
cos
1 [ A
c
+
so that the true AM waveform, as given by Eq (5-4), is obtained. However,
if the transmitter uses a two-quadrant multiplier that produces a zero output
when is negative, the output signal will be )] (t m

| |

+
=
. 0
, cos ) ( 1
) (
t t m A
t s
c c


1 ) (
1 ) (
<

t m
t m
(5-7)

which is a distorted AM signal. The bandwidth of this signal is much wider than that of
the undistorted AM signal, as is easily demonstrated by spectral analysis. This is the over
modulated condition that the FCC does not allow. An AM transmitter that uses plate
modulation is an example of a circuit that acts as a two-quadrant multiplier. Here, for
high-power AM signal generation, the unmodulated carrier signal is applied to the grid of
the tube, and the dc plate voltage is varied proportionally to where
This produces the product
)] ( 1 [ t m A
c
+
0 )] ( 1 [ + t m A
c
t t m A
c c
cos )] ( 1 [ + , provided that ( ) 1 t m ,
but produces no output when ( ) 1 < t m .

The normalized average power of the AM signal is

3

( ) ( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( ) t m A t m A A
t m t m A
t m A t g t s
c c c
c
c
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2
2
2
2
1
2 1
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
+ + =
+ + =
+ = =
(5-8)

If the modulation contains no dc level , then ( ) 0 = t m and the normalized power of the
AM signal is

( ) ( ) t m A A t s
c c
2 2 2 2
2
1
2
1
+ = (5-9)

Definition. The modulation efficiency is the percentage of the total power of the
modulated signal that conveys information.

In AM signaling, only the sideband components convey information, so the modulation
efficiency is


( )
( )
100
1
2
2

+
=
t m
t m
E (5-10)

The highest efficiency that can be attained for a 100% AM signal would be 50%, (for the
case when square-wave modulation is used).

We obtain the normalized peak envelope power(PEP) of the AM signal:

( ) | | {
2
2
max 1
2
t m
A
P
c
PEP
+ = } (5-11)

The voltage spectrum of the AM signal is given by

( ) ( ) ( ) ( | |
c c c c
c
f f M f f f f M f f
A
f S + + + + + =
2
) ( ) (5-12)

The AM spectrum is just a translated version of the modulation spectrum plus delta
functions that give the carrier line spectral component. The bandwidth is twice that of the
modulation.

Example 1 Power of an AM Signal
The FCC rates AM broadcast band transmitters by their average carrier power; this
rating system is common in other AM audio applications as well. Suppose that a
AM transmitter is connected to a W 5000 50 load; then the constant is given by
c
A
4
. 000 , 5
50 2
1
2
=
c
A
Thus, the peak voltage across the load will be 707 =
c
A during the times
when there is no modulation. If the transmitter is then 100 modulated by a 1,000-Hz
test tone, the total (carrier plus sideband) average power will be
f

( ) ( ) W
A
c
500 , 7 5000 5 . 1
50 2
1
5 . 1
2
= =
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|


because ( )
2
1
2
= t m for 100% sinusoidal modulation. Note that 7,500 W is the actual
power, not the normalized power. The peak voltage (100% modulation) is (2)(707) =
1414 V across the 50 load. The PEP is

( ) ( ) W
A
c
000 , 20 5000 4
50 2
1
4
2
= =
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|


The modulation efficiency would be 33%, since ( )
2
1
2
= t m .


5-5 ASYMMETRIC SIDEBAND SIGNALS

Single Sideband

Definition.
An upper single sideband (USSB) signal has a zero-valued spectrum for
c
f f < , where
is the carrier frequency.
c
f

A lower single sideband (LSSB) signal has a zero-valued spectrum for
c
f > , where
is the carrier frequency.
c
f

There are numerous ways in which the modulation ( ) t m may be mapped into the
complex envelope such that an SSB signal will be obtained. SSB-AM is by far the
most popular type. It is widely used by the military and by radio amateurs in high-
frequency (HF) communication systems. It is popular because the bandwidth is the same
as that of the modulating signal (which is half the bandwidth of an AM or DSB-SC
signal). For these reasons, we will concentrate on this type of SSB signal. In the usual
application, the term SSB refers to the SSB-AM type of signal, unless otherwise denoted.
| | m g

Theorem. An SSB signal (i.e., SSB-AM type) is obtained by using the complex
envelope

5
( ) ( ) ( | t m j t m A t g
c
= )| (5-15)

Which results in the SSB signal waveform

( ) ( ) ( ) | t t m t t m A t s
c c c
| sin cos = (5-16)

where the upper (-) sign is used for USSB and the lower (+) sign is used for LSSB. ( ) t m
denotes the Hilbert transform of ( ) t m , which is given by

(5-17) ( ) ( ) ( ) t h t m t m =

where
( )
t
t h

1
= (5-18)

and corresponding to a phase shift network: ( ) ( ) | t h f H = |
0
90

(5-19) ( )

=
j
j
f H
,
0
0
<
>
f
f



Fig. 5-4 Spectrum for USSB signal.

6
Fig. 5-4 illustrates this theorem. Assume that m(t) has a magnitude spectrum that is of
triangular shape, as shown in Fig. 5-4a. Then, for the case of USSB (upper signs), the
spectrum of g(t) is zero for negative frequencies, as illustrated in Fig. 5-4b, and s(t) has
the USSB spectrum shown in Fig. 5-4c. This result is proved as follows:

Proof. We need to show that the spectrum of is zero on the appropriate sideband
(depending on the sign chosen). Taking the Fourier transform of (5-15), we get
) (t s

( ) ( ) ( ) | { t m j f M A f G
c
= |}
|
(5-20)

And, using (5-17), we find that the equation becomes

(5-21) ( ) ( ) ( ) | f jH f M A f G
c
= 1

To prove the result for the USSB case, choose the upper sign. Then, from (5-19), (5-21)
becomes

(USSB case) (5-22) ( )
( )
)
`

<
>
=
0 , 0
0 , 2
f
f f M A
f G
c

Hence the band pass signal is:

(5-23) ( )
( )
( )
)
`

< +
>
+
)
`

<
>
=
c c
c
c
c
c c
c
f f f f M
f f
A
f f
f f f f M
A f S
,
, 0
, 0
,

This is indeed a USSB signal (see Fig. 5-4)


If the lower signs of (5-23) were chosen, an LSSB signal would have been obtained.

The normalized average power of the SSB signal is

( ) ( ) ( ) | |
2 2 2
2
2

2
1
2
1
t m t m A t g t s
c
+ = = (5-24)

Since ( ) ( ) t m t m
2 2
= , so that the SSB signal power is

( ) ( ) t m A t s
c
2 2 2
= (5-25)

which is the power of the modulating signal ( ) t m
2
multiplied by the power gain factor
.
2
c
A

7
The normalized peak envelope power (PEP) is

( ) ( ) | |
2 2 2
2

2
1
max
2
1
t m t m A t g
c
+ = (5-26)




Fig. 5-5 Generation of SSB

Fig. 5-5 illustrates two techniques for generating the SSB signal. The phasing method is
identical to the IQ canonical form discussed earlier as applied to SSB signal generation.
The filtering method is a special case in which RF processing (with a sideband filter) is
used to form the equivalent , instead of using baseband processing to generate ( ) t g | | m g
directly. The filter method is the most popular method because excellent sideband
suppression can be obtained when a crystal filter is used for the sideband filter. Crystal
filters are relatively inexpensive when produced in quantity at standard IF frequencies. In
addition to these two techniques for generating SSB, there is a third technique, called
Weavers method [Weaver, 1956].

SSB signals have both AM and PM. Using (5-15), we have, for the AM component (real
envelope),

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) | |
2 2
t m t m A t g t R
c
+ = = (5-27)

And for the PM component,

( ) ( )
( )
( )
(

= =

t m
t m
t g t

tan
1
(5-28)
8

SSB signals may be received by using a superheterodyne receiver that incorporates a
product detector with 0
0
= . Thus, the receiver output is

( ) ( ) { } ( ) t m kA e t g k t V
c
j
out
= =

0
Re

(5-29)

where K depends on the gain of the receiver and the loss in the channel. In detecting SSB
signals with audio modulation, the reference phase
0
does not have to be zero,
because the same intelligence is heard regardless of the value of the phase used [although
the waveform will be drastically different, depending on the value of ( ) t v
out 0
]. For
digital modulation, the phase has to be exactly correct so that the digital waveshape is
preserved. Furthermore, SSB is a poor modulation technique to use if the modulating
data signal consists of a line code with a rectangular pulse shape. The rectangular shape
(zero rise time) causes the value of the SSB-AM waveform to be infinite adjacent to the
switching times of the data because of the Hilbert transform operation. (This result will
be demonstrated in a homework problem.). Thus, and SSB signal with this type of
modulation cannot be generated by any practical device, since a device can produce only
finite peak value signals. However, if rolled-off pulse shapes are used in the line code,
such as
( )
x
x sin
pulses, the SSB signal will have a reasonable peak value, and digital data
transmission can then be accommodated via SSB.

SSB has many advantages, such as a superior detected signal-to-noise ration compared to
that of AM and the fact that SSB has one-half the bandwidth of AM or DSB-SC signals.


5-6 PHASE MODULATION AND FREQUENCY MODULATION:

Representation of PM and FM Signals
Phase modulation (PM) and Frequency modulation (FM) are special cases of angle
modulated signaling. In this kind of signaling the complex envelope is

(5-33) ( )
( ) t j
c
e A t g

=

where the real envelope, ( ) ( )
c
A t g t R = = , is a constant and phase ( ) t is a linear
function of modulating signal ( ) t m . However, is nonlinear function of the
modulation. The resulting angle modulated signal is given by:
) (t g

( ) ( ) | t t A t s
c c
| + = cos (5-34)

For PM the phase is directly proportional to the modulating signal. i.e.;

( ) ( ) t m D t
p
= (5-35)
9

Where is the Phase sensitivity of the phase modulator, having units of radians/volt.
p
D

For FM, the phase is proportional to the integral of ( ) t m so that

( ) ( )

=
t
f
d m D t (5-36)

where the frequency deviation constant has units of radians/volt-sec.
f
D

Comparing the last two equations , we see that if we have a PM signal modulated by
, there is also FM on the signal, corresponding to a different modulation wave
shape that is given by
( ) t m
p

( )
( )
(

=
dt
t dm
D
D
t m
p
f
p
f
(5-37)

Where f and p denote frequency and phase respectively.

Similarly if we have a FM signal modulated by ( ) t m
f
, the corresponding phase
modulation on this signal is

( ) ( )

=
t
f
p
f
p
d m
D
D
t m (5-38)


Fig. 5-7 Generation of FM from PM or vice versa.

A PM circuit can be used to synthesize an FM circuit by inserting an integrator in cascade
with phase modulator input.

Direct PM circuits are realized by passing a un modulated sinusoidal signal though a time
varying circuit which introduces a phase shift that varies with the applied modulating
voltage. is the gain of a PM circuit (rad/V).Similarly a direct FM circuit is obtained
by varying the tuning of an oscillator tank (resonant) circuit according to the modulating
voltage.
p
D
10


Definition:

If a band pass signal is represented by

( ) ( ) ( ) t t R t s cos =

Where ( ) ( ) t t t
c
+ = then the instantaneous frequency(hertz) of ( ) t s is

( ) ( )
( )
(

= =
dt
t d
t t f
i i

2
1
2
1


or

( )
( )
(

+ =
dt
t d
f t f
c i

2
1
(5-39)

For the case of FM, using (5-36), the instantaneous frequency:

( ) ( ) t m D f t f
f c i
2
1
+ = (5-40)
This is the reason for calling this type of signaling frequency modulation.

The instantaneous frequency is the frequency that is present over a particular instance of
time.

The frequency deviation of a carrier frequency is

( ) ( )
( )
(

+ =
dt
t d
f t f t f
c i d

2
1
(5-41)

And the peak frequency deviation is


( )
(

=
dt
t d
F

2
1
max (5-42)

In applications such as the unipolar digital modulation, the peak-to-peak deviation is
used. This is defined by


( ) ( )
)
`

)
`

=
dt
t d
dt
t d
F
pp

2
1
min
2
1
max (5-43)

11

For FM signal the Peak frequency deviation is related to peak modulating voltage by


p f
V D F
2
1
= (5-44)

The peak phase deviation may be defined by

( ) | t | max = (5-45)

which, for PM, is related to peak modulating voltage by


p p
V D = (5-46)

where V . ( ) | | t m
p
max =


Definition.

The phase modulation index is given by

=
p
(5-47)

Where is the peak phase deviation.

The frequency modulation index is given by


B
F
f

= (5-48)

where is the peak frequency deviation and B is the bandwidth of the modulating
signal, which for case of sinusoidal modulation, is , the frequency of sinusoid.
F
m
f

For case of PM or FM signaling with sinusoidal modulation such that the PM and FM
signals have the same peak frequency deviation,
p
if identical to
f
.

Spectra of Angle Modulated Signals
Using (4-12), we find that the spectrum of angle modulated signal is given by

( ) ( ) ( |
c c
f f G f f G f S + =

2
1
)| (5-49)
where

12
( ) ( ) | |
( )
| |
t j
c
e A t g f G

= = (5-50)

Example 2
Spectrum of a PM or FM Signal With Sinusoidal Modulation

Assume that the modulation on the PM signal is

( ) t A t m
m m p
sin = (5-51)


Then

( ) t t
m
sin = (5-52)

where = =
m p p
A D is the phase modulation index.

The phase function ( ) t , as given by (5-52), could also be obtained if FM were used
,where

( ) t A t m
m m f
cos = (5-53)

and
m
m f
f
A D

= = . The peak frequency deviation would be

2
m f
A D
F = .

The complex envelope is

(5-54) ( )
( ) t j
c
t j
c
m
e A e A t g
sin
= =

which is periodic with period
m
m
f
1
= T . Consequently, ( ) t g could be represented by a
Fourier series that is valid over all the time ( < < t ); namely

(5-55) ( )

=
=
=
n
n
t jn
n
m
e c t g

where

( )

=
2
2
sin
m
m
m m
T
T
t jn t j
m
c
n
dt e e
T
A
c

(5-56)

which reduces to

13

( )
( )

n c
n j
c n
J A e A c =
(

sin
2
1
(5-56)

The integral known as the Bessel function of the first kind of the nth order, ( )
n
J -cannot
be evaluated in closed form, but it can be evaluated numerically.

Examining the integral shows that

(5-58) ( ) ( ) ( )
n
n
n
J J 1 =

Taking the Fourier transform of the equation (5-55), we obtain

(5-59) ( ) ( )

=
=
=
n
n
m n
nf f c f G

or

(5-60) ( ) ( ) ( )

=
=
=
n
n
m n c
nf f J A f G

Using this result in (5-49) we get the spectrum of angle modulated signal.


5-9 BINARY MODULATED BANDPASS SIGNALING

The most common binary bandpass signaling techniques are as follows:

On Off keying (OOK), also called amplitude shift keying (ASK), which consists
of keying (switching) a carrier sinusoid on and off with a uni-polar binary signal.
Morse code radio transmission is an example of this technique. OOK was one of
the first modulation techniques to be used and precedes analog communication
systems.

Binary Phase-Shift Keying (BPSK), which consists of shifting the phase of a
sinusoidal carrier or 180 with a unipolar binary signal. BPSK is equivalent
to PM signaling with a digital waveform.
0
0
0

Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK), which consists of shifting the frequency of a
sinusoidal carrier from a mark frequency to a space frequency, according to the
baseband digital signal. FSK is identical to modulating an FM carrier with a
binary digital signal.


On Off keying (OOK)
14

The OOK signal is represented by

( ) ( ) t t m A t s
c c
cos = (5-70)

Where is a unipolar baseband data signal. The complex envelope is ( ) t m

( ) ( ) t m A t g
c
= (5-71)

and the PSD of this complex envelope is proportional to that for a uni polar signal. The
PSD is


( ) ( )
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
2
2
sin
2
b
b
b
c
g
fT
fT
T f
A
f

(5-72)

where has the peak value of ( ) t m 2 = A so that ( ) t s has an average normalized power
of
2
2
c
A
.

The null-to null bandwidth is R B
T
2 = and the absolute bandwidth is . =
T
B

The transmission bandwidth of the OOK signal is
B B
T
2 =
where B is baseband
bandwidth, since OOK is AM type signaling.

If filtered, the absolute baseband bandwidth is
( )R r B + = 1
2
1
where r is the roll off factor
of the filter.

This gives an absolute transmission bandwidth of ( )R r B
T
+ = 1

for OOK with raised cosine roll off filtering.


Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
The BPSK signal is represented by

( ) ( ) | | t m D t A t s
p c c
+ = cos (5-75a)

where is polar baseband data signal. Let has peak value of and a
rectangular pulse shape.
( ) t m ( ) 1 = t m

We show that BPSK is also a form of AM type signaling.

15
Expanding (5-75a) we get

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t t m D A t t m D A t s
c p c c p c
sin sin cos cos =

The representation of BPSK reduces to

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t t m D A t D A t s
c p c c p c
sin sin cos cos = (5-75b)

The first term of above equation is called the pilot carrier term and the second term is
called the data term. The level of pilot carrier term is set by the value of peak deviation.

For digital angle-modulated signals, the digital modulation index h is defined by

=
2
h (5-76)

where 2
b s
T =
is the maximum peak to peak phase deviation (radians) during the time
required to send one symbol . For binary signaling the symbol time is equal to bit
time.(T ).
s
T

By maximizing power in the data term by letting
2
90
0

= = =
p
D radians which
corresponds to a digital modulation index of 1 = h . For this optimum case of , the
BPSK signal becomes
1 = h

( ) ( ) t t m A t s
c c
sin = (5-77)

The complex envelop for this BPSK signal is

(5-78) ( ) ( ) t m jA t g
c
=

The PSD of complex envelop for BPSK is


( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
b
b
b c g
fT
fT
T A f

sin
2
(5-79)

The null to null bandwidth for BPSK is also 2R, the same as that found for OOK.


Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):

16
The FSK signal can be characterized as one of two different types, depending on the
method used to generate it. One type is generated by switching the transmitter output line
between two different oscillators as shown in Fig 5-23a. This type generates an output
waveform that is discontinuous at the switching times. It is called discontinuous-phase
FSK signal and is represented by
( ) ( ) ( ) | |
( )
(

+
+
= + =
2 2
1 1
cos
, cos
cos



t A
t A
t t A t s
c
c
c c
)
for binary 1 or 0 is sent.
(5-80)

Fig. 5-23 Generation of FSK.

Where is called the mark (binary 1) frequency and is called the space (binary 0)
frequency.
1
f
2
f
1
and
2
are startup phases of the two oscillators. The discontinuous phase is

( )

+
+
=
t t
t t
t
c
c

2 2
1 1
for binary 1 or 0 interval.

Since FSK transmitter are not usually built this way, we turn into the second type as
shown in Fig. 5-23b. The continuous phase FSK signal is generated by feeding the data
signal into a frequency modulator. The FSK signal is represented by

( ) ( )
(

+ =


t
f c c
d m D t A t s cos
or

( ) ( ) { }
t j
c
e t g t s

Re = (5-81a)

17
where

(5-81b) ( )
( ) t j
c
e A t g

=

(5-81c) ( ) ( )

=
t
f
d m D t

and is a baseband digital signal. ( ) t m

If the serial data input waveform is binary, such as a polar baseband signal, the resulting
FSK signal is called a binary FSK signal. In general the spectra of the FSK signals are
difficult to evaluate since the complex envelop is a non-linear function of . ( ) t m


5-10 MULTILEVEL MODULATED BANDBASS SIGNALING

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) and M-array Phase shift keying (MPSK)
If the transmitter is a PM transmitter with an M = 4 level digital modulation signal, M-
array phase shift keying (MPSK) is generated at the transmitter output. Since M=4, this
M-array PSK is called Quadrature phase shift keying(QPSK) signaling.

A plot of the complex envelope, ( )
( ) t j
c
e A t g

= , one value of g for each of four
multilevel values.

Suppose that the permitted multilevel values at the DAC are 3, -1, +1, and +3 V;
these multilevel values might correspond to PSK phase of 0, 90, 180, and 270
degrees, respectively.

MPSK can also be generated by using the two quadrature carriers modulated by x and y
components of the complex envelope. In that case ,

( )
( )
( ) ( ) t jy t x e A t g
t j
c
+ = =

(5-91)

where permitted values of x and y are


i c i
A x cos = (5-92)

and


i c i
A y sin = (5-93)

for the permitted phase angles of
i
, i=1,2,.M, of the MPSK signal.

18

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
Quadrature carrier signaling is called quadrature amplitude modulation. (QAM). The
general QAM signal is

( ) ( ) ( ) t t y t y x t s
c c
sin cos = (5-94)

where

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) t j
e t R t jy t x t g

= + = (5-95)

with

( )

|
.
|

\
|
=
n
n
D
n
t h x t x
1
(5-96)

( )

|
.
|

\
|
=
n
n
D
n
t h y t y
1
(5-97)

where
l
R
D = and ( )
n n
y x , denotes one of the permitted ( )
i i
y x , values during the
symbol time that is centered on
D
n
nT
s
= = t s.


OQPSK and
4

QPSK
Offset quadrature phase shift keying (OQPSK) is M=4 PSK in which the allowed
data transition times for the I and Q components are offset by symbol (by 1 bit)
interval.

A
4

quadrature phase shift keying (

4

QPSK) signal is generated by altering

between two QPSK constellations that are rotated by
4

= with respect to each

other.
0
45


PSD for MPSK, QAM, QPSK, OQPSK, and
4

QPSK
The PSD for MPSK and QAM signals is relatively easy to evaluate for the case of
rectangular bit shape signaling.

19
We know that

(5-99) ( ) ( )

=
s n
nT t f c t g

where c is complex valued random variable representing the multi level value during
the symbol pulse.
n
th
n ( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
s
T
t
t f is the rectangular symbol pulse with symbol
duration T .
s
s
T
D
1
= is the symbol(or baud) rate. The rectangular pulse has Fourier
transform

( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
b
b
b
s
s
s
fT l
fT l
lT
fT
fT
T f F

sin sin
(5-100)

where T . i.e., there are bits representing each allowed the multilevel value. For
M=16, the mean value of c is
b s
lT = l
n

0 = =
n c
c m (5-101a)

and the variance is

C c c c
n
n
n c
= = =

2
2
(5-101b)

Where C is real positive constant. The PSD for the complex envelope of MPSK or
QAM signals with data modulation of rectangular bit shape is

( )
2
sin
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
b
b
g
flT
flT
k f

for MPSK and QAM (5-102)

where is the number of points in the constellation, and the bit rate is
l
b
M ClT k 2 , = =
b
T
R
1
= . For a total transmitted power of P watts, the value of k is k
b
plT 2 = , since
. ( ) = df f

s


This PSD for the complex envelope is plotted as shown in Fig. 5-33 below:

20

Fig. 5-33 PSD for the complex envelope of MPSK and QAM.


5-13 SPREAD SPECTRUM SYSTEMS:
We have been concerned primarily with the performance of communication system in
terms of bandwidth efficiency and energy efficiency (i.e., detected SNR or probability of
bit error rate) with respect to natural noise. In some applications we also need to consider
the multiple access capability, antijam capability, interference rejection, and covert
operation or low probability intercept (LPI) capability. These performance objectives can
be optimized by using spread spectrum techniques.

Multiple access capability is needed in cellular phones and personal communication
applications, where many users share a band of frequencies, because there is not enough
bandwidth to assign a permanent frequency channel to each user. Spread spectrum
techniques can provide a simultaneous use of a wide frequency band via code division
multiple access (CDMA) techniques, an alternative to band sharing.

There are many types of spread spectrum systems (SS). To be considered a spread
spectrum system a system must satisfy two criteria:

The bandwidth of the transmitted signal needs to be much greater than that of the
message.

The relative bandwidth of s(t) must be caused by an independent modulating
waveform c(t) called the spreading signal, and this signal must be known by the
receiver in order for the message signal to be detected.

The SS signal is

( ) ( ) { }
t j
c
e t g t s

Re = (5-120a)

where the complex envelope is a function of both m(t) and c(t). In most cases a product
function is used so that
21

(5-120b) ( ) ( ) ( ) t g t g t g
c m
=

where and are usual types of modulation complex envelope functions that
generate AM,PM ,FM and so on. The SS signals are classified by the type of mapping
functions that are used for .
( ) t g
c
( ) t g
m
( ) t g
c

The following are some of the most common types of SS signals:

Direct Sequence (DS). Here a DSB-SC (double sideband suppressed carrier) type
of spreading modulation is used and ( ) t c is a polar NRZ waveform.

Using a phase modulation.

Frequency Hopping (FH). Here ( ) t g
c
is of the FM type where there are
k
M 2 =
hop frequencies determined by the k-bit words obtained from the spreading code
waveform . ( ) t c

A Frequency hopped (FH) signal uses a ( ) t g
c
that is of the FM type, where there
are
k
M 2 = hop frequencies controlled by a spreading code, in which k chip
words are taken to determine each hop frequency.

Hybrid techniques that include both DS and FH.


5-15 STUDY-AID EXAMPLES

SA5-1 Formula for SSB Power
Prove that the normalized average power for an SSB signal is ( ) ( ) t m A t s
c
2 2 2
= , as
given by (5-25).

Solution. For SSB

( ) ( ) ( | | t m j t m A t g
c
= )

Using (4-17), the normalized average power for an SSB is

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t m t m A t g R df f P t s P
c s s s
2 2 2
2
2

2
1
2
1
0 + = = = = =

or

22
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t m t m A t s P
c s
2 2 2 2

2
1
+ = = (5-137)

But

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )df f P f H df f P t m
m m

= =
2

2


where H(f) is the transfer function of the Hilbert transform. Using (5-19),

( ) 1 = f H

Consequently,

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t m df f P df f P t m
m m
2

2
= = =

(5-137)

Substituting (5-137) into (5-136), we get

( ) ( ) t m A t s P
c s
2 2 2
= =


SA5-2 Evaluation of SSB Power
An SSB transmitter with A
c
=100 is being tested by modulating it with a triangular
waveform that is shown Fig. 5-14a, where V
p
=0.5 V. The transmitter is connected to a 50
W resistive load. Calculate the actual power dissipated into the load.

Solution. Using (5-25) yields


( )
( )
( ) t m
R
A
R
t s
R
V
P
L
c
L L
rms s
actual
2
2
2
2
= = = (5-138)

For the waveform shown in Fig. 5-14a,


( ) ( )
3
4
4
3
1 4
4
4 1
2
4
0
3
2
4
0 0
2 2
p
T
p
m
p
m
m
T
p
m
p
m
T
m
V
V t
T
V
T
T
dt V t
T
V
T
dt t m
T
t m
m
m m
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =

(5-139)

23
Substituting (5-139) into (5-138)


( ) ( )
W
R
V A
P
L
p c
actual
67 . 16
50 3
5 . 0 100
3
2 2 2 2
=

= =



24