Seismic Design in Canada

CIVL 510 CANADIAN SEISMIC DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES ALFREDO BOHL
The new upcoming 2005 Edition of the National Building

Canadian Seismic Design of Code of Canada, as well as the latest 8th. Edition of the Handbook
of Steel Construction, contain significant changes compared to
Steel Structures their previous editions regarding seismic design. The overview
An Organized Overview given in this report is based on the provisions contained in these
documents.
By: Alfredo Bohl
Since this is a very extensive topic, this report is intended
to cover the main aspects of steel seismic design for the most
University of British Columbia
common framing systems used in Canada. The first part of the
Department of Civil Engineering
report will be an overview of the seismic design requirements
contained in the Handbook of Steel Construction. The clause 27 of
March, 2005
the Handbook of Steel Construction covers the specific seismic
design requirements for steel structures. In the last edition, new
structural systems have been introduced, like the ductile plate
Abstract walls. The force reduction factors for ductile systems have been
increased, but detailing requirements for these systems are now
In this report, an overall overview of the seismic design of more demanding. In this report, the steel seismic force resisting
steel structures in Canada will be given. The design philosophy, systems are classified in accordance to their ductility-related force
general requirements and modeling issues of the main steel seismic modification factor, and each of these is explained separately.
force resisting systems are presented; as well as physical testing Also, the derivation of the new overstrength-related force
and design procedures for moment-resisting connections. Special modification factor for these systems, contained in the last edition
seismic steel framing systems will also be discussed. of the National Building Code of Canada, will be presented.
Introduction The second part of the report will cover the procedures to
perform physical tests of beam-to-column moment-resisting
Seismic design provisions established in the codes are connections for seismic applications, which are required when
constantly being changed and improved, for structures to have a connections that are not prequalified are going to be used in a
better performance during earthquakes. A lot of research and structure. Also, the design procedure for three types of prequalified
development of new structural systems is continuously being connections, which are the most commonly used in Canada, will be
carried out. However, there are still many aspects of steel seismic presented. These procedures are contained in documents published
design that remain as a challenge. by the Federal Emergency Management Agency.
alfredo_bohl_report.doc 4/6/2005 PAGE 1 OF 50

In the last part of the report, two special seismic steel φR ≥ 1.0 D + γ (0.5 L + 1.0 E ) (S16-01, clause 7.2.6(b)(ii))
framing systems are introduced, the special truss moment frame
and the friction-damped steel frame. Where:
Formatted spreadsheets have been developed to perform - φ: Resistance factor.

calculations related to some of the design procedures exposed in - R: Resistance.
this report, including the design of links in eccentrically braced - D: Dead loads.
frames, and the design of moment-resisting connections. - L: Live loads.
- E: Live loads due to earthquake.
I recommend reading this term project to those who are - γ: Importance factor, which should not be less than 1.00.
interested in learning a little more about on how seismic design of However, for structures where it can be demonstrated that
steel structures is performed in Canada, and the structural systems collapse will not cause injury or any other serious
that are available. consequences, it should not be less than 0.80.
Load combinations including earthquakes New force reduction factors in the 2005
The fundamental safety criteria that must be met in limit NBCC
states design is the following (CISC 2004: 2-13):
With the introduction of the new 2005 Edition of the
Factored resistance ≥ Effect of factored loads National Building Code of Canada (NBCC), the expression to
determine the lateral seismic force at the base of the structure using
For load combinations that include earthquake, the effect of the quasi-static analysis has been modified significantly. This
factored loads is the structural effect due to the factored load expression in the upcoming code will be the following (Mitchell
combinations taken as (CISC 2004: 1-20): 2003: 309):
φR ≥ 1.0 D + γ (1.0 E ) (S16-01, clause 7.2.6(a)) S (Ta )M v I EW

V =
Rd Ro
And either one of the following (the first expression is for
storage and assembly, the second expression is for all other Where:
occupancies):
- V: Design shear force.
φR ≥ 1.0 D + γ (1.0 L + 1.0 E ) (S16-01, clause 7.2.6(b)(i)) - S(Ta): Design spectral response acceleration.
- Mv: Factor for the higher mode effects on the shear base.

- IE: Earthquake importance factor of the structure. - Ryield: Ratio of the “actual” yield strength to the minimum
- W: Expected weight of the structure. specified yield strength.
- Rd: Ductility-related force modification factor. - Rsh: Factor accounting for overstrength due to development
- Ro: Overstrength-related force modification factor. of strain hardening, has larger values for more ductile
systems.
Comparing this expression with the one in previous codes, - Rmech: Factor accounting for overstrength arising from for
the 2005 NBCC recognizes two force modification factors, Rd and the additional resistance that can be developed before a
Ro. The factor Rd reflects the capability of the structure to dissipate collapse mechanism forms in the structure. This additional
energy through inelastic behavior, this factor corresponds to the R resistance in the structure can only be displayed if it is
factor used in the previous 1995 edition. The factor Ro accounts for redundant and if yielding takes place in a sequence instead
the dependable portion of reserve strength in a structure designed in all the elements at the same time.
according to the NBCC provisions, it is related to the calibration
factor U used in the previous code (Mitchell 2003: 309). Due to the experience gained in past earthquakes, the Rd
factors in steel structures have been increased for ductile and
The main modification in the determination of the base moderately ductile systems in the new 2005 NBCC to 3.5 and 5.0,
shear in the new code is that the account of overstrength is compared to 3.0 and 4.0 in the previous code. So, the design forces
considered explicitly. In the previous code, the factor U considered for these systems are now lower; however, the detail requirements
implicitly all the sources of overstrength in the structure, like the to ensure adequate ductility according to these factors are more
actual strength of the material. Instead, the factor Ro takes into demanding (Mitchell 2003: 312).
account the various sources of overstrength, through the following
expression (Mitchell 2003: 310 – 311): The clause 27 of the CISC 8th. Edition of the Handbook of
Steel Construction (HSC), developed by the Canadian Institute of
Ro = Rsize Rφ R yield Rsh Rmech Steel Construction (CISC), provides the seismic design
requirements for steel structures in Canada. It provides the force
Where: reduction factor for several structural systems, corresponding with
the provisions in the 2005 NBCC, and gives design and detail
- Rsize: Factor accounting for overstrength arising from requirements to provide ductility consistent with the factors used,
restricted choices of sizes of elements and rounding up of in accordance to the Canadian Standards Association (CSA)
dimensions. standard. These minimum requirements have been introduced in
this last edition in order to avoid brittle failure and to mobilize
- Rφ: Factor accounting for overstrength due to the difference
energy dissipation properties through the structure (CISC 2004: 2-
between the nominal and factored resistances, equal to 1/φ,
105).
where φ is the material resistance factor defined in the CSA
standards.

Steel seismic force resisting systems - U2: Amplification factor that takes into account second-
order effects due to gravity loads, it must not exceed 1.4.
The 2005 NBCC recognizes different types of steel seismic - Cf: Factored axial force.
force resisting systems (SFRS), their corresponding Rd and Ro - ∆f: First-order lateral displacement.
factors, and the design and detail requirements for each of them - Vf: Factored shear force.
according to the CSA standard CSA-S16-01 (Mitchell 2003: 313 – - h: Storey height.
314). In each of these SFRS, there are certain structural elements
which are designed to dissipate energy by inelastic deformation; Ductile behavior of steel frames
these must be able to sustain various cycles of inelastic loading
with a minimum reduction of strength and stiffness. The other Steel frames are classified in three types, depending on
elements and connections must respond elastically to loads induced their ductility. The more ductile systems have the highest force
by yielding elements. reduction factors (CISC 2004: 2-105):
In order to ensure that yielding in some elements will occur - Ductile or Type D: These frames are designed so that they
before others, relative strengths between the dissipating and non- can have severe inelastic deformations. They have a force
dissipating elements must be known, so we must know the reduction factor between 4.0 and 5.0.
probable yield stress. For non-dissipating elements, the minimum - Moderately ductile or Type MD: Inelastic deformations are
yield stress given in the material standard and specifications must more limited than in type D frames, members are designed
be used. In energy dissipating elements, the probable yield stress to resist greater loads. They have a force reduction factor
should be used, being taken as RyFy, where Ry = 1.1. The product between 3.0 and 3.5.
RyFy must be at least 385 MPa, and the yield strength Fy should not - Limited ductile or Type LD: These are new types of frames
be less than 350 MPa. Width-thickness limits are calculated using introduced in the 8th. Edition of HSC. Inelastic
this Fy value (CISC 2004: 2-107). deformations are even more limited and design loads are
greater than in type MD frames. They have a force
The amplification factor that takes into account the P-delta reduction factor of 2.0.
effects for structural elements in SFRS is calculated differently
compared to conventional design: The connections in type D and MD frames must be tested
physically to ensure that they satisfy certain deformation criteria
⎛ ∑ C f Rd ∆ f ⎞ under cyclic loads. In type LD frames, physical test are not
U2 = 1+ ⎜ ⎟ (S16-01, clause 27.1.8) necessary, and can be detailed as traditional connections.
⎜ ∑V h ⎟
⎝ f ⎠
In the following part of this report, we will expose the
Where: design and detail requirements for the different types of SFRS

defined in the CAN/CSA S16-01, classified according to their Rd weakening the beam at the point where the plastic hinges are
factors. expected to form. Plastic hinges can also be formed in columns
only at the base of the structure for multi-storey buildings, since if
SFRS with Rd = 5.0 they develop at different locations, a storey may have very large
inelastic deformations compared to the ones expected in the
Ductile SFRS defined in CAN/CSA S16-01 with a force design. For single storey buildings, this is not a problem and
reduction factor of 5.0 are the ductile moment-resisting frames and plastic hinges can be formed at the top of the column. In these
the ductile plate walls. We will expose the design philosophy and cases, columns must be class 1 sections.
general requirements of these systems according to the CAN/CSA
S16-01.
Ductile moment-resisting frames

In ductile moment-resisting frames, the energy dissipating
elements are the beams, so they must be able to undergo inelastic
response without stability failures. The columns must be stronger Figure No.1: Failure mechanisms: (a) desired (b) undesired
than the beams. So, beams must be class 1 sections and columns Source: CISC 2004: 2-108.
must be class 2. The failure mode of the different types of class
sections are shown in the following table: The main advantages of this type of system is that they
absorb less shear forces due to their flexibility and have high
Class Failure mode energy dissipation capacity. However, they are subjected to large
Plastic design, permits attainment of the plastic moment and subsequent inter-storey drifts (Schubak 2005: 6-2).
1
redistribution of the bending moment (plastic deformation).
Compact, permits attainment of the plastic moment but need not allow
2 At plastic hinge locations, beams must be braced to resist
for subsequent moment redistribution (plastic-elastic deformation).
Non-compact, permits attainment of the elastic yield moment (elastic lateral and torsional displacement. It is not necessary to brace the
3
deformation). last hinge to be formed which will lead to a failure mechanism.
Slender section, strength of section is governed by local buckling of The maximum unbraced length between plastic hinges is:
4
elements in compression.
Table No.1: Failure modes for different class sections
Lcr 17250 + 15500κ
Source: Chu 2003: 5. = (S16-01, clause 13.7(b))
ry Fy
Beams are designed so that plastic hinges form at a short
distance from the columns, without failure of the connections. This Where:
is done by strengthening the beams near the columns or by

- Lcr: Unbraced length. - Mpc: Nominal plastic moment resistance of the column.
- ry: Radius of gyration about the weak axis. - Cf: Axial force resulting from summing Vh acting at the
- κ: Ratio of the smaller factored moment to larger factored level considered and above.
moment at opposite ends of the unbraced length, positive - Vh: Shear force acting at the plastic hinge location when
for double curvature and negative for single curvature. 1.1RyMpb is reached at beam hinge location.
- Fy: Yield strength. - Mpb: Nominal plastic moment resistance of the beam.
- φ: Resistance factor, equal to 0.9 for this case.
For plastic analysis, the distribution of moments due to - Cy: Axial compression force at yield stress.
seismic loads may be taken as varying linearly with zero at one end
and the plastic moment at the other, in order to determine κ. Columns must be able to resist the accumulated forces due
to yielding of elements and gravity loads. In order to assure that
Formation of plastic hinges in beams induces forces in the plastic hinges will form in the beams before the columns
elements and connections adjacent to them. This force is calculated (except in single-storey buildings), the following equation must be
as 1.1Ry times the nominal resistance of the beam, ZFy, where Z is satisfied at each beam-column intersection:
the plastic modulus of the steel section.
⎛ ⎛ d ⎞⎞
In the case of columns, the maximum unbraced length ∑M rc ' ≥ ∑ ⎜⎜1.1R y M pb + Vh ⎜ x + c ⎟ ⎟⎟ (S16-01, clause 27.2.3.2)
⎝ 2 ⎠⎠
between plastic hinges is determined the same way as in beams, ⎝
taking κ = 0. In high seismic areas, the maximum axial load shall
be 0.3AFy for all load combinations, because the flexural Where:
resistance of the column deteriorates fast when high axial loads are
applied, limiting the ductility. ⎛ Cf ⎞
∑M rc ' = 1.18φM pc ⎜1 −
⎜ φC
⎟ ≤ φM pc (S16-01, clause 27.2.3.2)
⎟
⎝ y ⎠
Non-dissipating elements adjacent to columns must be able
to resist forces induce by formation of plastic hinges. This force is
Where:
calculated as 1.1Ry times the nominal resistance of the column,
which is given by:
- ΣMrc’: Sum of column factored flexural resistances at the
intersection of beam and column centrelines.
⎛ Cf ⎞
1.18M pc ⎜1 − ⎟ ≤ M pc (S16-01, clause 27.2.3.1) - x: Distance from the plastic hinge location to the column
⎜ φC ⎟ face, it is determined by physical testing of the joints.
⎝ y ⎠
Procedures on how to determine this distance for
Where: prequalified connections will be exposed later.
- dc: Depth of column.

The following free-body diagrams help to understand how elements. If the plastic hinges are expected to form in the beams,
these calculations are performed: the panel zone must resist forces arising from beam moments of:
⎛ ⎛ d ⎞⎞
∑ ⎜⎜1.1R M
y pb + Vh ⎜ x + c ⎟ ⎟⎟ (S16-01, clause 27.2.4.1)
⎝ 2 ⎠⎠
⎝
For single-storey buildings, if plastic hinges are expected to

form near the top of the columns, the panel zone shall resist forces
due to the plastic hinge moments of as 1.1Ry times the nominal
resistance of the column.
For high seismic areas, the sum of the panel zone depth and
width, divided by the thickness, must be less than 90. In this case,
the shear resistance of the panel zone is given by:
⎛ 3bc t c ⎞
2
⎜
Vr = 0.55φd c w' Fyc ⎜1 + ⎟ (S16-01, clause 27.2.4.2(a))
d d w ' ⎟
⎝ c b ⎠
Where:
Figure No.2: Free-body diagram showing forces necessary for beam and
column design - Vr: Shear resistance.
Source: CISC 2004: 2-110.
- w’: Sum of thickness of column web plus the doubler
plates.
Special consideration must be taken in column splices
- Fyc: Yield strength of the column.
having partial-joint-penetration-groove welds if the axial force in
- bc: Width of column flange.
the column is tensile, since they are not ductile under tension
- tc: Thickness of column flange.
loads. In this case, splices are designed more conservatively, they
- db: Depth of beam.
must resist twice this tensile force.
If this does not apply, the width-to-thickness limit of the
In relation to the column joint panel zone, limited inelastic
panel zone should satisfy:
deformations are permitted if they are properly detailed. The entire
perimeter of doubler plates must be welded to the contiguous

h k The beams, columns and joints must be braced. Lateral

= 439 v (S16-01, clause 13.4.1.1(a)) bracing at joints must be provided at least at one beam flange when
w Fy
the plastic hinges form in the beam, and at both beam flanges when
they form near the top of the columns. In case no lateral support
Where: can be provided at a certain level, the slenderness ratio of the
column shall not exceed 60.
- h: Clear depth of the web between flanges.
- w: Width of plate. Most of the requirements described previously are
- kv: Shear buckling coefficient. summarized in the following figure. This figure also shows details
for type MD and LD systems, which will be described later:
In this case, the shear resistance of the panel zone is given
by:
Vr = 0.55φd c w' Fyc (S16-01, clause 27.2.4.2(b))
The beam-to-column joints and connections must be

capable to develop an inter-storey drift angle of 0.04 rad under
cyclic loading, this has to be demonstrated by physical testing. The
strength at the column face must be at least Mpb, or 0.8Mpb when
reduced beam sections are used. The factored resistance of the
connection must be at least enough to resist gravity loads and
shears induced by moments of 1.1RyZFy at the plastic hinge
location. Figure No.3: Summary of design requirements for moment-resisting frames
Source: Mitchell 2003: 314.
As it is mentioned in clause 27, the appendix J of the

Modeling moment-resisting frames to perform structural
CAN/CSA S16-01 contain references to documents which show
analysis is usually a simple task, using beam elements to represent
the procedures to perform physical test of connections in moment-
the longitudinal axis of the beams and columns, while joints are
resisting frames. Except the fact that joints must be capable to
represented as simple points (nodes) where these elements
develop an inter-storey drift angle of 0.04 rad under cyclic loading,
intersect. However, when we have very deep beams and columns,
all other requirements described regarding panel zones, joints and
the joints will be very large, and cannot be accurately modeled
connections do not need to be satisfied if these procedures are
using nodes. If we have large joints, the deformations in these are
used. Design requirements for connections contained in some of
smaller than in adjacent beams and columns, and the frame
these documents will be shown later in this report.
stiffness is increased. Therefore, we need to model the joint in

these cases (Schubak 2005: 6-4). This can be done by overlapping

segments of the beams and columns with rigid elements, as shown
in the following figure:
Figure No.5: Failure mechanism of ductile plate walls

The web plate carries the shear forces by tension fields that
develop in the web plates parallel to the direction of the stress
Figure No.4: Model of a joint in moment-resisting frames for deep beam principal axis. This tension field and the shear force and bending
and column sections
moment of the storey produce axial forces and moments to the
Source: Schubak 2005: 6-4.
beams and columns. The overall behavior of the plate wall can be
modeled by equivalent diagonal braces:
Ductile plate walls
Plate walls are transversely stiffened vertical plate girders
constituting web plates designed to resist lateral loads. Ductile
plate walls are framed by columns and beams connected with
moment-resisting connections. In this system, the main energy
dissipating element is the web plate; framing elements also
dissipate energy once the plate has yielded. Plate walls can develop
large inelastic deformations by yielding of the web and formation
Figure No.6: Plate diagonal tension brace model
of plastic hinges in the framing elements. The main advantage of Source: CISC 2004: 2-91.
this SFRS compared to other systems is their large stiffness, which
reduces the displacements and, therefore, the amount of non- When using this model, the area of the equivalent diagonal
structural damage during an earthquake. brace can be estimated by the following expression:
The general requirements for beams, columns, panel zones,
wLSin 2 (2α )
joints and connections are the same as in moment-resisting frames; A= (S16-01, clause 20.2)
except that columns must always be class 1. Columns splices must 2SinθSin 2θ
develop full flexural resistance of the smaller column section.
Where:

wL
1+
2 Ac
Tan 4α = (S16-01, clause 20.3.1)
⎛ 1 h3 ⎞
1 + wh⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟
⎝ Ab 360 I c L ⎠
Where:
- A: Area of the equivalent diagonal brace.

- w: Web plate thickness.
- L: Distance between column centerlines.
- α: Angle of inclination of the principal stresses measured
from the vertical axis, it must be between 38º and 45º.
- θ: Angle of inclination of the equivalent diagonal brace
measured from the vertical axis. Figure No.7: Strip model for a plate wall
- Ac: Cross-sectional area of the column. Source: CISC 2004: 2-92.
- h: Storey height.
- Ab: Cross-sectional area of the beam. However, since there are limitations for the angle of
- Ic: Moment of inertia of the column. inclination of the principal stress, this model does not work well
for tall and short plate walls.
This model allows to find moments in beams and columns,
but not the tension fields. In order to determine these, a more In order for yielding to occur first in the web plate, the
sophisticated model with a series of inclined pin-ended strips can beams and columns must be stronger. This is the principle for the
be used to model the plate wall: capacity design of a plate wall. The ultimate loads in the beams
and columns are increased by an amplification factor, equal to:
Vre
B= ≤ Rd (S16-01, clause 27.8.2.4)
Vf
Where:
Vre = 0.5R y Fy wLSin 2α (S16-01, clause 27.8.2.4)

Where:
- B: Overstrength factor for ductile plate walls.

- Vre: Probable shear resistance at the base of the wall.
- Vf: Factored lateral seismic force at the base of the column.
- Rd: Force modification factor.
To calculate the design moments at each storey, the

following procedure must be followed:
- Calculate the design moment at the base as BMf, where Mf

is the factored seismic moment at the base of the wall. Figure No.8: Capacity design of ductile plate walls
Source: CISC 2004: 2-123.
- Extend this moment to a length L, but not less than two
storeys from the base.
The top and bottom web plates must also be anchored to
- Calculate the design moment at the top of the building as B
stiff elements, so that the plates can develop full tension fields. At
times the moment in the level below the top.
the top panel, the web plate must be attached to the beam. At the
- Calculate the design moments in the storeys above L,
bottom panel, the web must be attached to the substructure, or
assuming they have a linear variation from the level above
alternatively, to a very rigid beam. This is to anchor the vertical
L to the top. The design moment at each level does not
components of the tension fields. The horizontal components must
need to exceed Rd times the moment at that level.
also be transferred to the substructure.
With these moments, we can calculate the axial forces in
The columns must also be stiffened at the base, so that the
the columns. This procedure is illustrated in the following figure:
plastic hinges form at a distance at least 1.5 the column depth
above the base plate. These stiffeners must resist 1.1Ry the nominal
flexural resistance of the column or the tensile load in the column,
the one that is greater.
Most of the requirements described previously are

summarized in the following figure. This figure also shows details
for type LD systems, which will be described later:

Figure No.10: Configuration of eccentrically braced frames

The link beams must be class 1. The web must have a

Figure No.9: Summary of design requirements for ductile plate walls uniform depth, have no penetration or any type of reinforcement,
except stiffeners. The resistance of the link is given by the lower
value between φVp’ and 2φMp’e, which are defined as:
SFRS with Rd = 4.0
2
Ductile SFRS defined in CAN/CSA S16-01 with a force ⎛ Pf ⎞
Vp '= Vp 1− ⎜ ⎟
reduction factor of 4.0 are the eccentrically braced frames. We will ⎜ AF ⎟
⎝ y ⎠ (S16-01, clause 27.7.2)
expose the design philosophy and general requirements of this
system according to the CAN/CSA S16-01. ⎛ Pf ⎞
M p ' = 1.18M p ⎜1 − ⎟≤Mp
⎜ AF ⎟
⎝ y ⎠
Ductile eccentrically braced frames
Where:
In eccentrically braced frames, the energy dissipating
elements are the links, which are the beam segments between the
V p = 0.55wdFy
brace connections and the beam. The link is designed to fail either (S16-01, clause 27.7.2)
in flexure or shear. Therefore, the columns, braces, beam segments M p = ZFy
outside the link and connections must be stronger than the link
itself and behave elastically. These SFRS have the advantage that Where:
they combine the ductile behavior of the moment-resisting frames
and the stiffness of the concentrically braced frames, which will be - Vp: Plastic shear resistance.
described later (Schubak 2005: 6-15). They can have the following - Pf: Factored axial force in the link (compression or
configurations: tension).

- A: Gross area of the beam link.

- Mp: Plastic moment resistance.
- e: Length of the beam link.
- w: Web thickness of the beam link.
- d: Depth of the beam link.
The length of the link should not be less than its depth. In Figure No.11: Forces acting on the beam link
case Pf/(AFy) > 0.15, the length of the link is determined by: Source: Schubak 2005: 6-16.
⎛ Pf Aw ⎞⎛ 1.6 M p ⎞ Aw Vf Short links have a better performance than long links, due
e ≤ ⎜1.15 − 0.5 ⎟⎜ ⎟; if ≥ 0.3 to the following reasons:
⎜ V A ⎟⎜ V ⎟ A Pf
⎝ f ⎠⎝ p ⎠ (S16-01, clause 27.7.3)
1.6 M p A Vf - The shear force is constant along the length of the link, so
e≤ ; if w < 0.3 shear strains are uniformly distributed, meaning there are
Vp A Pf
no local strains.
- All the link contributes to dissipate energy, not only the
Where: ends.
Aw = w(d − 2t ) (S16-01, clause 27.7.3) The maximum allowed rotation of the link depends on the
behavior of the link. This rotation is calculated given the drift of
Where: the frame. The drift of the frame is obtained multiplying the drift
from the analysis by Rd, to get the maximum inelastic deformation
- Vf: Factored shear force. expected in a severe earthquake. The link rotation limits are the
- Aw: Area of web. following:
The behavior of the link is related to its length (Schubak - 0.09 rad for shear yielding.
2005: 6-16): - 0.03 rad for flexure yielding.
- Use linear interpolation to obtain the limits when 1.6Mp/Vp
- Short links (e < 1.6Mp/Vp): Yield in shear. < e < 2.6Mp/Vp.
- Long links (e > 2.6Mp/Vp): Yield in flexure.
- Intermediate links: Yield in both shear and flexure. The relations between the drift and the link rotation are
given in the following figure:

- If 1.6Mp/Vp < e < 2.6Mp/Vp, the stiffeners must be placed

at 1.5bf from each end of the beam link, and intermediate
links are placed according to the spacing criteria previously
explained.
- If e ≥ 5Mp/Vp, the link does not require intermediate
stiffeners.
Links with a depth of less than 650mm only need

intermediate stiffeners at one side. These must have a width of at
least 0.5(bf – 2w), where bf is the width of the flange; and a
thickness not less than w or 10mm, take the larger.
Figure No.12: Relations between drift and link rotation
Source: Schubak 2005: 6-16. If the link is directly connected to the column, the link
beam-to-column connection must be able to develop anticipated
The link must have full-depth web stiffeners at both ends of plastic deformation. In this case, physical test are required to show
it, in order to clearly define the length of the link, transfer shear that the connection is able to develop a rotation of 1.2 times the
forces over the whole depth, and prevent buckling at the plastic rotation obtained by multiplying the drifts by Ry. The same
hinges. Both stiffeners must have a combined width of at least (bf – standard procedures for physical tests mentioned previously apply
2w), where bf is the width of the flange; and a thickness not less for this. However, this requirement may be avoided if all of the
than 0.75w or 10mm, taking the larger. Both ends of the link must following conditions are satisfied:
also be braced at both flanges.
- The link is separated from the column at a short distance,
Full-depth intermediate stiffeners are also required to make and the beam in this distance is reinforced so that the
sure that the link will have a ductile behavior. The spacing between connection behaves elastically.
them is determined in the following way: - If e < 1.6Mp/Vp.
- Full-depth stiffeners are provided at the end of the
- If e < 1.6Mp/Vp, the maximum spacing is (30w – 0.2d) if reinforced location.
the rotation of the link is 0.09 rad, and (52w – 0.2d) if the
rotation of the link is 0.03 rad or less. Spacing for As we mentioned previously, the portion of the beam
intermediate angles is obtained by interpolation. outside the link must behave elastically. The link inelastic straining
- If 2.6Mp/Vp < e < 5Mp/Vp, the stiffeners must be placed at will induce forces to the beam. So, the beam outside the link is
1.5bf from each end of the beam link. designed for a larger force than the link. This force is equal to
1.3Ry the nominal strength of the link, and the factored resistance

is equal to the link factored resistance multiplied by Ry/φ. Lateral column, where hs is the storey height. At the base of the top
bracing also needs to be provided at both flanges. If a plastic hinge columns, this factor is 0.5/hs.
is expected to form at the link end, then the maximum unbraced
length is given by: Most of the requirements described previously are
summarized in the following figure:
Lcr 25000 + 15000κ
= (S16-01, clause 13.7(a))
ry Fy
Where:
- Lcr: Unbraced length.

- ry: Radius of gyration about the weak axis.
- κ: Ratio of the smaller factored moment to larger factored
moment at opposite ends of the unbraced length, positive
for double curvature and negative for single curvature. Figure No.13: Summary of design requirements for eccentrically braced
- Fy: Yield strength. frames
The diagonal braces of the frame, although are expected to
behave elastically, must be class 1 or 2, since they can carry more When modeling eccentrically braced frames, the difficulties
load than expected. Sometimes, the brace and link are connected arise when we have to model the link. The other elements of the
with moment-resisting connections, so that the brace can take some frame can be represented by beam elements. The model we use for
of the loads produce by the straining of the link, and this way, the link will depend on its behavior. To model a link which fails in
relief the segments of the beam outside the link. Also, the brace-to- flexure is not a problem, we just have to place plastic hinges at the
beam connection must not extend into the link. ends of the link. However, when the link fails in shear, it is
difficult to represent it in the model. An approach used in pushover
The columns and their splices must be designed for analysis is to replace the link’s plastic moment Mp with an
secondary moment effects due to the frame drift, and to resist equivalent moment that corresponds to the shear force at which the
forces due to yielding of the links. Forces due to yielding in the link reaches its yield point in shear, given by (Schubak 2005: 6-
columns are equal to 1.15Ry times the nominal strength of the 17):
beam; in the case of multi-storey buildings, this force is taken as
1.3Ry for the top two storeys. The column splices must resist shear M p = 0.5V p e
forces equal to 0.3/hs times the nominal flexural resistance of the

SFRS with Rd = 3.5 For plastic analysis, the distribution for seismic loads may
be taken as varying linearly with zero at one end and the plastic
Moderately ductile SFRS defined in CAN/CSA S16-01 moment at the other, in order to determine κ.
with a force reduction factor of 3.5 are the moderately ductile
moment-resisting frames. We will expose the design philosophy Also for the columns, in high seismic areas, the maximum
and general requirements of this system according to the axial load shall be 0.5AFy for all load combinations, because the
CAN/CSA S16-01. flexural resistance of the column deteriorates fast when high axial
loads are applied, limiting the ductility.
Moderately ductile moment-resisting frames
The beam-to-column joints and connections must be
In moderately ductile moment-resisting frames, as in capable to develop an inter-storey drift angle of 0.03 rad under
ductile moment-resisting frames, the energy dissipating elements cyclic loading, this has to be demonstrated by physical testing.
are the beams, so they must be able to undergo inelastic response Except the fact that joints must be capable to develop this inter-
without stability failures. This type of SFRS can develop a storey drift angle, all other requirements described regarding panel
moderately amount of inelastic deformation by formation of plastic zones, joints and connections (which are the same as for ductile
hinges in the beams at a short distance from the columns. moment-resisting frames) do not need to be satisfied if the
procedures from appendix J of the CAN/CSA S16-01 are used.
Since the elements for this type of frames are designed to
resist higher forces, they will have larger sections, and most of the Some of these requirements are summarized in figure No.3,
general requirements are the same as for the ductile moment- shown previously.
resisting frames. However, a few of these requirements are
different, and are explained in the preceding paragraphs. Modeling issues are the same that those for ductile
moment-resisting frames.
The beams must be class 1 or 2 sections. The maximum
unbraced length between plastic hinges for beams and columns is SFRS with Rd = 3.0
given in this case by the same expression used to determine the
maximum unbraced length of the portion of the beam outside the Moderately ductile SFRS defined in CAN/CSA S16-01
link for eccentrically braced frames, repeated here for with a force reduction factor of 3.0 are the moderately ductile
convenience: concentrically braced frames. We will expose the design
philosophy and general requirements of this system according to
Lcr 25000 + 15000κ the CAN/CSA S16-01.
= (S16-01, clause 13.7(a))
ry Fy

Moderately ductile concentrically braced frames

In moderately ductile concentrically braced frames, the
energy dissipating elements are the diagonal braces, which carry
the lateral loads by axial forces and dissipate energy through
inelastic straining. Therefore, columns, beams and connections
must be stronger than the braces and have an elastic behavior. In
this system, the braces intersect the beams at one point. There are Figure No.15: Non-permitted configuration of concentrically braced frames
three types of bracing configurations accepted by the CAN/CSA Source: Schubak 2005: 6-7.
S16-01:
Systems with concentrically braced frames tend to have a
- Tension-compression bracing systems. soft-storey response, especially in tall buildings, because inelastic
- Chevron braced systems. demands tend to concentrate in the lower levels, since they are the
- Tension-only bracing systems. first ones to be affected by ground motions; and in the upper
levels, due to higher mode effects. That is why height restrictions
Alternatively, other systems that can respond inelastically are imposed for buildings with these systems.
without losing their stability are also permitted. Some common
configurations are shown in the following figure: Because ground motions may occur in any direction, the
structural configuration of these frames must be as symmetric as
possible. The dimensions of the diagonal braces must be such that
the shear resistance in each storey provided by the tension forces
developed in these elements is similar for storey shears acting in
opposite directions. For this, the ratio between of the sum of the
horizontal components of the factored tensile resistances in
opposite directions must be between 0.75 to 1.33.
Figure No.14: Common configurations of concentrically braced frames

For tension-compression bracing systems, the building can
Source: Schubak 2005: 6-7. have no more than eight storeys. In these, the brace in compression
will buckle after certain amount of cycles, due to deterioration of
Some bracing systems, like K-bracing, are not allowed, its strength. So, class 2 sections with low slenderness ratios are
because in this type of systems, the tension brace imposes bending required for these braces, the maximum value is 200 (Mitchell
to the column, and plastic hinges tends to form in the clear length 2003: 312). Also, its cross-sectional area should be small so that
of the columns, causing instability of the structure. they yield before the other elements of the frame. So, finding an

optimum section for the compression braces is not possible The force induced due to yielding of the tension brace to
sometimes, since it is difficult to obtain low areas and low the beam is equal to AgRyFy, where Ag is the gross area of the
slenderness ratios. This is still a matter of research (Schubak 2005: brace, and from the compression brace equal to 0.2AgRyFy. When
6-9). the brace is connected to the beam from above, the compression
force is 1.2 times the compressive resistance of the brace, which is
equal to Cr/φ, where Cr is the factored compressive resistance
which depends on RyFy. In the case of buildings with four storeys
or lower, limited inelastic deformations are allowed in the beams,
since this does not affect negatively the response of the structure,
as long the beams are class 1 and their connections can resist loads
due to formation of plastic hinges in the beam. In this case, the
tension force induced to the beam is taken as 0.6AgRyFy.
Figure No.16: Failure mechanism of tension-compression bracing systems
The beam-to-column connections must be able to resist
For chevron bracing systems, the building also can have no gravity forces along with forces induced by the probable nominal
more than eight storeys. The beams can also respond inelastically flexural resistance of the beam at the brace connection, in case the
in this kind of system, they must be continuous between columns tension brace force is less than AgRyFy. Brace connections must be
and across braces, and both flanges must be braced at the brace laterally braced.
connection. The problem with this kind of bracing system is that
when the compression braces buckles, severe bending in the beam For tension-only bracing systems, the building can have no
from the tension brace occurs. So, the beams must be strong more than four storeys. The energy dissipation capacity in this kind
enough to resist yielding and buckling forces from the braces of frames is limited. The braces are connected the beam-to-
together with gravity loads, without considering the support from columns connections and must be able to carry all the seismic
the braces. loads, in tension. The columns must be continuous and of constant
cross-section, and its splices must have the moment resistance of
the cross-section and a shear resistance of 2ZFy/hs.
In relation to the diagonal braces of the three bracing

systems, because post-buckling resistance of these elements is
required to maintain the stability of the structure and they may
fracture prematurely, the limit to its slenderness ratio is:
Figure No.17: Failure of chevron concentrically braced frames

kL Regarding the effective length factor, for cross-bracing, it

≤ 200 (S16-01, clause 27.5.3.1) can be taken as 0.4 for in-plane buckling and 0.5 for out-of-plane
r
buckling. For other types of bracing, it can be taken as 0.5 for in-
Where: plane buckling and 1.0 for out-of-plane buckling.
- k: Effective length factor that depends on the boundary In brace connections, eccentricities between the brace and
conditions of the element. supporting elements must be minimized. These connections must
- L: Length between the points where formation of plastic be able to resist axial loads due to buckling of the compression
hinges is expected. brace and tensile yielding of the tension brace. So, the factored
- r: Radius of gyration. resistance must be at least AgRyFy in tension and 1.2 the probable
compressive resistance in compression.
When kL/r ≤ 100, the width-to-thickness ratio of the braces
must not exceed the following limits: Buckling of the compression brace will redistribute forces
along the elements, and they need to be considered to determine
the connection resistance. The post-buckling resistance of the
- For rectangular and square HSS: 300 / Fy .
braces can be taken as the lower value between 0.2AgRyFy and the
- For circular HSS: 1000/Fy. probable nominal compressive resistance. Since the magnitude of
- For legs of angles and flanges of channels: 145 / Fy . ground motions is uncertain, a value of Rd = 1 is used for this
- For other elements: Class 1 cross-sections. calculation. However, the tensile force in the brace does not need
to be greater than combined effect of gravity loads and seismic
When kL/r = 200, the width-to-thickness ratio of the braces loads corresponding to Rd = 1; this tensile force should be resisted
must not exceed the following limits: by the net section, and the resistance of it may be multiplied by a
factor of Ry/φ.
- For HSS members: Class 1 cross-sections.
The brace connections must also be detailed to have a
- For legs of angles: 170 / Fy . ductile rotational performance if high inelastic response is
- For other elements: Class 2 cross-sections. expected, in or out of the plane of the frame, depending on the
governing effective slenderness ratio. When plastic hinges are
Linear interpolation is used when 100 < kL/r < 200. In low expected to form in the braces, the factored flexural resistance of
seismic areas, sections may be class 1 or 2; except for HSS the brace connection must be at least 1.1ZRyFy, this resistance may
sections, that must be class 1. also be multiplied by a factor of Ry/φ.

If plastic hinges are allowed to be formed in beams in

chevron braced systems, the tensile force in the connection can be
reduced. In this case, it can be taken as the maximum value
between the tensile force due to yielding of the beam or 1.2 the
probable compressive resistance of the brace.
The beams, columns, and connections excepting brace

connections, must be able to resist loads due to yielding of the
braces and redistribution of forces due to buckling. The columns
and their splices must be designed for secondary moment effects
due to the frame drift. Columns in multi-storey buildings,
including those that do not form part of the SFRS, must be
continuous and have a constant cross-sectional area over a
minimum of two storeys, except for tension-only bracing systems,
to prevent soft-storey response. Class 4 sections are not allowed
for columns, and columns in brace bays must be class 1 or 2,
because they play a major role in resisting lateral loads and are Figure No.18: Summary of design requirements for concentrically braced
subjected to large axial forces during an earthquake. Columns in frames
brace bays must be designed for a flexural resistance of 0.2ZFy, Source: Mitchell 2003: 315.
and considering single curvature (κ = -1). The columns splices
must have a shear resistance equal to 0.4/hs times the nominal Modeling concentrically braced frames is fairly simple,
flexural resistance of the columns. using beam elements to represent the longitudinal axis of the
beams, columns and braces. We must just take into account that
Most of the requirements described previously are the braces in compression are expected to buckle. If we use a linear
summarized in the following figure. This figure also shows details model, these braces must be omitted or have a limited carrying
for type LD systems, which will be described later: capacity corresponding to post-yielding. If we use a nonlinear
model, the elements that represent the compression braces should
reflect their hysteretic behavior (Schubak 2005: 6-11).
SFRS with Rd = 2.0

Limited ductile SFRS defined in CAN/CSA S16-01 with a
force reduction factor of 2.0 are the moment-resisting frames with

limited ductility, the limited ductility concentrically braced frames beam flanges are to be directly welded to the columns flanges.
and the limited ductility plate walls. We will expose the design Partial-joint-penetration-groove welds and fillet welds must not be
philosophy and general requirements of these systems according to used to resist tensile forces in the connections.
the CAN/CSA S16-01.
Alternatively, the beam-to-column joints and connections
Moment-resisting frames with limited ductility must be capable to develop an inter-storey drift angle of 0.02 rad
under cyclic loading, this has to be demonstrated by physical
In moment-resisting frames with limited ductility, as in testing.
ductile and moderately ductile moment-resisting frames, the
energy dissipating elements are the beams, so they must be able to Some of these requirements are summarized in figure No.3,
undergo inelastic response without stability failures. This type of shown previously.
SFRS can develop a limited amount of inelastic deformation by
formation of plastic hinges in the beams at a short distance from Modeling issues are the same that those for moderately
the columns. ductile moment-resisting frames.
Since the elements for this type of frames are designed to Limited ductility concentrically braced frames
resist higher forces, they will have even larger sections than the
moderately ductile moment-resisting frames, and most of the In limited ductility concentrically braced frames, as in
general requirements are the same as for this system. However, a moderately ductile concentrically braced frames, the energy
few of these requirements are different, and are explained in the dissipating elements are the diagonal braces, which carry the
preceding paragraphs. lateral loads by axial forces and dissipate energy through inelastic
straining.
This type of systems cannot be used in high seismic areas
and may be used in buildings not exceeding 12 storeys. The beams Since the elements for this type of frames are designed to
must be class 1 or 2 sections. Columns must be class 1 and be I- resist higher forces, they will have larger sections than the
shaped. moderately ductile concentrically braced frames, and most of the
general requirements are the same as for this system. However, a
The beam-to-column joints and connections must have a few of these requirements are different, and are explained in the
moment resistance equal to the lower value between 1.1RyMpb, or preceding paragraphs.
the effect of combined gravity and seismic loads multiplied by
two. The shear resistance of the connection must be enough to For both tension-compression and chevron bracing
resist shears due to gravity loads and due to moments applied at systems, the maximum height is 12 storeys. This is because, since
each end equal to the moment resistance of the connection. The the sections are bigger, the frames have a greater lateral resistance,

and it is more unlikely that they will have a soft-storey response. Modeling issues are the same that those for moderately
For chevron systems, in case they have four storeys or less, the ductile moment-resisting frames.
beams do not need to be designed for forces due to buckling and
yielding of the braces as long as they are class 1, and as long as the Limited ductility plate walls
braces and beam-to-column connections can resist the forces due
to buckling of the braces. Also, the beam must be able to support In limited ductility plate walls, the energy dissipating
gravity loads without considering the support provided by the element is the web plate; not the framing elements as in ductile
braces. plate walls. The web plate dissipates a limited amount of energy by
yielding.
Tension-only bracing systems cannot have more than eight
storeys, and the columns must be continuous and of constant cross- Since the elements for this type of systems are designed to
section over a minimum of two storeys. The diagonal braces for resist higher forces, they will have even larger sections than the
this system, in case of single-storey or two-storey buildings, can ductile plate walls. Plate webs must still satisfy minimum
have a maximum slenderness ratio of 300. requirements, and must have a factored shear and flexural
resistance greater or equal to the corresponding factored loads.
Diagonal braces also do not have limits in their width-to- Because the beams and columns are not expected to yield, they do
thickness ratios if their slenderness ratio is greater than 200, since not have any special requirements. Also, there is no need for
very little inelastic straining is expected in these cases. In low moment-resisting connections, and these can be designed
seismic areas, the braces can be class 2 or less compact, and the conventionally. Buildings with this type of system cannot exceed
width-to-thickness ratio of the legs of the angles should not exceed 12 storeys.
170 / Fy .
Some of these requirements are summarized in figure No.9,
In low seismic areas, ductile rotational behavior of the shown previously.
bracing connections is not required if the slenderness ratio of the
braces is greater than 100, and columns splices in columns that do Modeling issues are the same that those for ductile plate
not form part of the SFRS do not need to have shear resistance for walls.
loads due to yielding of the braces and redistribution of forces due
to buckling. SFRS with Rd < 2.0
Some of these requirements are summarized in figure SFRS defined in CAN/CSA S16-01 with a force reduction
No.18, shown previously. factor lower than 2.0 are the cantilever column structures and
conventional construction. It is the first time that the CAN/CSA
S16-01 considers requirements for these types of systems.

Cantilever column structures modification factor, Ro. As we mentioned previously, the new
NBCC takes into account in a more explicit way the overstrength
This type of structures consists of beam-column systems in structures, by identifying the sources of it and assigning factors
with little redundancy, which is fixed at the base and free at the that consider each of these sources. The product of all these factors
upper end. They are assigned an Rd = 1; except when the elements is the Ro factor. We will explain how these factors have been
have class 1 cross-sections, an Rd = 1.5 is assigned in this case. derived for the SFRS described (Mitchell 2003: 314 – 316).
As general requirements, the base connections must resist a The Rsize factor accounts for overstrength arising from
moment of 1.1Ry times the nominal flexural resistance of the restricted choices of sizes of elements and rounding up of
column. The amplification factor that takes into account P-delta dimensions. It is taken as 1.05 for steel structural shapes. For web
effects should not be greater than 1.25. plates, it is taken as 1.10 considering that its thickness is rounded
up to the next plate thickness available.
Conventional construction
The Rφ factor accounts for overstrength due to the
This type of structures can dissipate some energy through difference between the nominal and factored resistances, equal to
yielding and friction, available if conventional construction 1/φ. Since φ is equal to 0.9 for ductile failure in steel structures,
requirements are satisfied. They are assigned an Rd = 1.5. this factor is equal to 1.11.
As general requirements, the SFRS of these structures must The Ryield factor is the ratio of the “actual” yield strength to
have ductile failure modes or be designed for greater loads in high the minimum specified yield strength. It is taken as 1.10, which is
seismic areas; these design loads are equal to the combined effects the mean ratio of the actual and minimum specified yield strength
of gravity and seismic loads multiplied by two in very high seismic for W shapes.
areas, and by 1.5 in other cases. The elements and connections
must have factored resistances corresponding to the factored load The Rsh factor accounts for overstrength due to
effects, but design loads for connections can be limited to Ry times development of strain hardening. It depends on the yielding and
the nominal strength of the joined elements. Connections for the level of inelastic deformations. For eccentrically braced frames,
moment resisting-frames or braced frames should be used. it is approximately 1.30 when the link yields in shear and 1.15
when it fails in flexure; it has been considered as 1.15 to be more
conservative. For plastic hinges in beams, this factor is
Deduction of the Ro factors for SFRS approximately 1.15, so this is the value assigned for ductile and
moderately ductile moment-resisting frames. For moment-resisting
We have covered so far the main aspects related to the
frames with limited ductility, this factor is 1.05, since lower
ductility-related force modification factor, Rd. We will now expose
inelastic deformations are expected. In tension elements, this factor
briefly the most relevant aspects of the overstrength-related force

is approximately 1.05; this is the value assigned to concentrically Structures with combined SFRS
braced frames, because only braces in tension develop strain
hardening. For plate walls, the web plates develop strain hardening We have exposed the Rd and Ro factors that are used for
due to the tension fields; it has been assigned a value of 1.05. different types of SFRS. However, when we have structures with
combined SFRS, some special considerations need to be taken into
The Rmech factor accounts for overstrength arising from for account (NBCC 2005 Part 4: 22):
the additional resistance that can be developed before a collapse
mechanism forms in the structure. For moment-resisting frames, - If a particular value of Rd is used, then the corresponding
this factor is greater than 1.00 when plastic hinges form in the Ro must be used.
columns after the beams, it is taken conservatively as 1.00. - For combinations of different types of SFRS in the same
Overstrength in concentrically braced frames arises when the direction in the same storey, the product RdRo shall be
compression brace buckles and an additional force is required so taken as the lowest value of RdRo of all of these.
that the tension brace yields; but Rmech is taken also conservatively - For vertical variations of RdRo, not including penthouses
as 1.00, due to deterioration of compressive resistance under cyclic whose weight is less than 10% of the level below, the value
loading. For eccentrically braced frames, the collapse mechanism of RdRo in a particular direction must be less or equal than
forms once the link has yielded, so this factor is 1.00. For ductile the lowest value of RdRo used for the storeys above.
plate walls, overstrength arises due to the fact that the collapse - If it can be demonstrated by physical testing or analysis that
mechanism occurs once the web plate has first yielded and then the the seismic response of a structure is equivalent to one
framing system, and because the compression that develops in particular SFRS, then this SFRS qualifies as a good
these elements provides an additional resistance. So, Rmech is taken representation of the structural system, and the
as 1.10. For limited ductility plate walls, it is taken as 1.05. corresponding Rd and Ro can be used.
The values of the Ro factors in the 2005 NBCC for SFRS
are summarized in this table: Physical tests to evaluate the behavior of
connections in moment-resisting frames
As we mentioned previously, connections in type D and
MD frames must be tested physically to ensure that they satisfy
certain deformation criteria under cyclic loads. When performing
these tests, the test assemblies must represent the prototype
characteristics, and the test loading the deformation magnitude and
cyclic nature. These design procedures are specified in the
Table No.2: Summary of Ro factors for SFRS in the 2005 NBCC appendix J of the CAN/CSA S16-01, which provides a list of

references with guidelines. The inelastic cyclic behavior of a

connection is a function of the size of the elements, bracing
arrangements, and welding details and procedures.
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)

conducted a project in which they tested several types of moment-
resisting connections after the Nortridge earthquake, in order to Table No.3: Inter-storey drift angle limits for various performance levels
Source: FEMA 350 2000: 3-75.
investigate their performance. This project ended with the
publication of four engineering practice guidelines documents
(FEMA 2000 a, b, c, d) for design and evaluation of moment- The drift angle capacity is measured according to the
resisting frames (CISC 2004: vii). In these documents, they specify following figure:
prequalified connections that may be used if the prototype
connection size and details are similar to those tested. In case these
prequalified connections are used and satisfy these conditions,
physical tests are not necessary. Some of these prequalified
connections will be mentioned later.
The procedures that will be described to perform the

physical tests are the ones described in the FEMA 350 document,
in chapter 3. These tests are for connections that do not form part
of those that are prequalified, or for a qualified connection that is
used outside its parametric limits.
Figure No.19: Angular rotation of test assembly
Source: FEMA 350 2000: 3-75.
Testing procedure
The test specimens must satisfy certain conditions. The size
For each given combination of beam and column size, tests of the beam used in the specimen must be at least the largest depth
of at least two specimens must be performed. The results obtained and heaviest weight used in the structure. The column must
must be able to predict the mean value of the drift angle capacity, represent the expected inelastic action of the column in the real
θ, of the connection, given the following performance levels: structure for the beam selected, and must provide a flexural
strength consistent with the requirements of strong-column-weak-
beam connections. Also, the tested column must have a height
similar to the real column, so that the drift angles obtained are
representative of the real structure.

In relation to the loading history, it is divided into steps,

and the peak deformation at each step j is given by θj, a
predetermined value of the drift angle. The number of cycles to be
performed at the load step j is denoted as nj. The loading history is
shown in the following table:
Table No.5: Minimum qualifying total inter-storey drift angle capacities for
OMF and SMF systems
Source: FEMA 350 2000: 3-77.
In the case that the clear-span-to-depth ratio of the beam in

the real steel frame is less than eight, it is expected that it will have
larger strains in the flanges, so the drift angle capacities indicated
can be increased using the following expressions:
8d ⎛ L − L' ⎞
θ ' SD = ⎜1 + ⎟θ SD (FEMA 350, equation 3-70)
L ⎝ L ⎠
⎛ L − L' ⎞
θ 'U = ⎜1 + ⎟θ U (FEMA 350, equation 3-71)
Table No.4: Numerical values of θj and nj
⎝ L ⎠
Source: FEMA 350 2000: 3-76.
Where:
Acceptance criteria
- θ’SD: Increased qualifying strength degradation drift angle
For the connection to have an acceptable performance, the capacity.
mean value of the drift angle capacity at strength degradation and - θSD: Basic qualifying strength degradation drift angle
at connection failure must not be less than the values shown in the capacity.
following table, for ordinary moment frames (OMF) and special - θ’U: Increased qualifying ultimate drift angle capacity.
moment frames (SMF): - θU: Basic qualifying ultimate drift angle capacity.
- L: Distance between the longitudinal axis of the columns.
- L’: Distance between plastic hinges in the beam.
- d: Depth of the beam.

These limits in the drift angles capacities where determined

after extensive probabilistic evaluations of several structural
systems. If these requirements are met, then there is a 90% chance
that the frames will be protected against global collapse of the
structure, and a 50% chance that local collapse will not occur.
Analytical prediction of structural behavior

The connection tests results must be supported with the
development of analytical design procedures, so that the same
connections with different sizes can be used for design. These
analytical models should be able to identify the strength and
deformation demands, as well as limit states, of the elements that
are part of the connection.
Figure No.20: Physical test of a beam-to-column connection
Example of a physical test of a beam-to-column Source: Chen, Yeh and Chu 1996: 1295.
connection
Design of moment-resisting connections
The following figure shows an example of a full-scale
beam-to-column connection assembly used in a physical test. It is a for seismic applications
reduced beam section connection, a special moment-resisting
connection that will be explained later. The beam section is H- We have seen how physical tests are conducted to evaluate
type, with section H600×300×12×20; and the column section is a the performance of moment-resisting connections. Understanding
box type, with section HSS500×500×20×20. In this case, this test the structural behavior of connections is not easy, since it is
was carried to investigate the performance of this connection when affected by several factors, like geometric alterations, hole drilling
it is subjected to a large shear and bending moment. A force is for bolts, welding, among others. A connection is considered
being applied at the end of the beam to simulate this situation. Five adequate when it has enough rotational capacity, since this affects
different specimens were tested. strongly the energy dissipation capacity of the frame. The
connection must be properly detailed in order to achieve this.
Some types of connections, which are commonly used in

standard practice, do not have enough rotational capacity to
withstand strong earthquakes. One of these is the typical welded

flange-bolted web moment connection, in which the beam is publication, which cover most of the practical applications in
connected to the columns by bolting the beam web to the shear tab Canada.
of the column plate, and then welding the beam flange to the
column plate. This arrangement is shown in the following figure. These prequalified connections must satisfy certain criteria
Its lack of rotational capacity has been demonstrated in a research and size limitations so that they can be used in design, since they
project held in Taiwan, in which 37 prototypes of this type of must have similar sizes and details to those that were tested to
connection were tested. Eight of these specimens had a brittle predict their performance. They apply to frames with wide-flange
failure (Chen, Yeh and Chu 1996: 1292). beams and columns subjected to strong axis bending only, and
column cross-sections must be within the depth of W360 sections.
The three types of connections described in this document are:
- Bolted unstiffened end plate connection.

- Bolted stiffened end plate connection.
- Reduced beam section connection.
The general design procedure of these connections is as

follows:
Figure No.21: Welded flange-bolted web moment connection
Source: Chen, Yeh and Chu 1996: 1292. - Identify undesirable brittle failure modes, and the primary
and other yielding mechanisms.
That is why ductile moment-resisting connections for - Determine the probable peak rotational capacity of the
seismic applications must satisfy more rigorous design and detail primary yielding mechanism.
requirements. The appendix J of the CAN/CSA S16-01 contains a - Determine the dimensions of the elements so that they have
list of references with guidelines of the design procedures for
nominal resistances (φ = 1) against all brittle failure modes
different types of these connections used in type D and MD
at least equal to the probable yield capacity of the primary
frames; that were prequalified by FEMA after they conducted a
yielding mechanism, to assure that this mechanism occurs
project in which they tested several prototypes of connections. One
before the others.
of these publications is “Moment Connections for Seismic
Applications”, developed by the CISC, which contains design
When the plastic hinges are expected to form in the beams,
procedures of three types of prequalified beam-to-column moment-
the probable plastic moment at the location of the hinge is:
resisting connections that were provided in the FEMA 350.
Prototype testing will not always be possible for new designs, so
M pr = C pr R y Fy Z e
these connections may be used in these cases. This part of the
report will focus on these three connections contained in this CISC

Where:
Fy + Fu
C pr =
2 Fy
Z e = bt (d − t ) +
w
(d − 2t )2
4
Where:
- Mpr: Probable peak plastic hinge moment.

- Cpr: Factor that considers effects of strain hardening,
additional reinforcement, among others.
- RyFy: Probable yield stress, where Ry = 1.1. The product
RyFy must be at least 385 MPa, and Fy should not be less
than 350 MPa.
- Ze: Effective plastic modulus of the beam. It is equal to the Figure No.22: Shear at plastic hinges
plastic modulus of the beam, Zb, when the section is not Source: CISC 2004: 25.
reduced.
- Fu: Specified minimum tensile strength. The flexural and shear strength demands at different critical
- b: Flange width of the section. sections can also be determined from equilibrium:
- t: Flange thickness of the section.
- d: Depth of the section.
- w: Web thickness of the section.
For a wide-flange section, the plastic modulus can be

calculated using the expression shown above (Wong 2003: 2).
The shear at the plastic hinge location can be determined

from static equilibrium of the beam, as it is shown in the following
figure:
Figure No.23: Strength demands at critical sections
Source: CISC 2004: 25.

We will expose the design philosophy and general type LD frames, panel zone yielding may occur alone. There must
requirements of these three connections. not be any significant yielding in the end plate, bolts and welds.
The connection must be proportioned to preclude the following
Bolted unstiffened end plate connection (BUEP) failure modes:
The BUEP connection consists of the beam being welded Mode 1: Bolt tension
to an end plate, extended above and below the flanges. The beam
flange-to-plate joints have complete-penetration-groove welds, and This failure mode is avoided by selecting a bolt type that
the beam web is connected to the plate with fillet or complete- can resist the moment at the column face. The following equation
joint-penetration-groove welds. Then, the end plate is bolted to the must be satisfied:
column using eight bolts. This type of connection can be used for
type D, MD and LD frames. The connection is showed in the M cf
0.75 Ab Fu ≥
following figure: 2(d1 + d 2 )
Where:
- Ab: Nominal cross-sectional area of one bolt.

- Fu: Minimum tensile strength of the bolt, equal to 825 MPa
for bolts A325M, and 1035 MPa for bolts A490M.
- Mcf: Moment at the face of the column.
- d1: Defined in figure No.24.
- d2: Defined in figure No.24.
Mode 2: Bolt shear
This failure mode is avoided satisfying the following

equation:
Figure No.24: Bolted unstiffened end plate connection
Source: CISC 2004: 26. 3 Ab (0.5Fu ) ≥ Vcf
The basic idea in the design procedure is that yielding in
the connection can occur as a combination of beam flexure and Where Vcf is the shear at the column face. A comment
panel zone yielding simultaneously, or beam flexure alone. For regarding this empirical formula is that the factor of three in the

right hand side is part of the test results that were performed to Mode 4: End plate shear
derive it. Given that Ab is the area of only one bolt, this formula
seems to be too conservative, considering that this connection has This failure mode is avoided if the end plate has this
eight bolts. minimum thickness:
Mode 3: End plate flexure M cf

tp ≥
1.1Fyp b p (d p − t b )
This failure mode is avoided if the end plate has this
minimum thickness:
Where:
M cf
tp ≥ - dp: Depth of the plate.
⎧⎪ ⎡bp ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 2 ⎤ bp ⎛ d b 1 ⎞⎫⎪ - tb: Beam thickness.
0.8 Fyp ⎨(d b − pt )⎢ ⎜ + ⎟ + (p f − s) ⎥ + ⎜ + ⎟⎬
⎜ ⎟ ⎜p ⎟
⎪⎩ ⎣⎢ 2 ⎝ p f s ⎠ g ⎦⎥ 2 ⎝ f 2 ⎠⎭⎪ Mode 5 a: Beam flange tension effect on column
flange without continuity plates
Where:
If the column flange thickness satisfies the following
s = bp g equation, proceed to check mode 6. If not, continuity plates or a
bigger column cross-section should be used:
Where:
⎛ M cf ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟C1
- tp: End plate thickness. −
tc ≥ ⎝
d b t b ⎠
- Fyp: End plate yield strength, taken as 250 MPa. 2 Fyc c
- db: Depth of the beam.
- pt: Defined in figure No.24.
- bp: Defined in figure No.24. Where:
- pf: Defined in figure No.24.
- s: Defined in equation. g
C1 = − k1
- g: Defined in figure No.24. 2
Where:

- tc: Column flange thickness. Where:

- C1: Defined in equation.
- Fyc: Column yield strength. - Yc: Defined in equation.
- c: Defined in figure No.24. - s: Defined in equation.
- k1: Distance from centerline of column web to flange toe of - C1: Defined in equation.
fillet, is a property of the section found in the tables of the - C2: Defined in equation.
CISC HSC. - bc: Width of column flange.
Mode 5 b: Beam flange tension effect on column Mode 6: Beam flange compression effect on column
flange with continuity plates without continuity plates
If continuity plates are provided and the column flange If the column web thickness satisfies the following
thickness satisfies the following equation, proceed to check mode equation, continuity plates or a bigger column cross-section should
7. This is the minimum thickness that the column flange can have: be used:
M cf M cf
wc <
2(d b − t b ) (d b − t b )(6k e + 2t p + t b )Fyc
tc ≥
0.8 Fyc Yc
Where:
Where:
- wc: Column web thickness.
- ke: Is the k-distance of the column section for engineering
⎛c ⎞⎛ 1 2 ⎞ ⎛4 2⎞
Yc = ⎜ + s ⎟⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟ + (C 2 + C1 )⎜ + ⎟ design, is a property of the section found in the table No.4.1
⎝2 ⎠⎝ C 2 C1 ⎠ ⎝c s⎠ of this CISC publication.
g
C1 = − k1 If continuity plates are provided, they must satisfy the
2
following requirements:
b −g
C2 = c
2 - For one-sided connections, their thickness must be at least
C1C 2 half of the thickness of the beam flanges.
s= (2bc − 4k1 ) - For two-sided connections, their thickness must be at least
C 2 + 2C1
equal to the thickness of the thicker beam flange.

Usually, it is less expensive to use a bigger column section Where:

than to use continuity plates. The arrangement of continuity plates
in one-sided connections is shown in the following figure: - w’: Panel zone thickness.
- Cy: Defined in equation.
- Mc: Moment at the centerline of the column.
- h: Average storey height.
- db: Distance from one edge of the end plate to the centre of
the beam flange at the opposite direction.
- RycFyc: Probable yield stress of the column.
- dc: Depth of the column.
- Se: Effective section modulus of the beam. It is equal to the
section modulus of the beam, Sb, when the section is not
reduced.
The average storey height is calculated using the heights

above and below the connection, except in the following cases:
Figure No.25: Continuity plates for one-sided connection
Source: CISC 2004: 32. - When the column has a pinned base, it is the sum of the
storey height below and half of the storey height above.
Mode 7: Panel zone shear - In top level connections, it is the storey height for pinned
base columns, and half of it otherwise.
For one-sided connections, this failure mode is avoided if
the panel zone has this minimum thickness: For two-sided connections, plastic hinges can be formed in
both beams. The same expressions apply for this case. If doubler
⎛ h − db ⎞ plates are used, then w’ can be taken as the sum of the thicknesses
CyMc ⎜ ⎟
⎝ h ⎠ of the column web and the doubler plates. Also, the following
w' <
0.9(0.6 R y Fyc d c )(d b − t b ) equation must be satisfied:
d '+b'
Where: ≤ 90
w'
Se
Cy = Where:
C pr Z e

- d’: Panel zone depth. The minimum span-to-depth ratio, for type D and MD
- b’: Panel zone width. frames, is seven; and for type LD frames is five. Also, the
maximum flange thickness of the beam is 19mm, and the
Usually, it is less expensive to use a bigger column section maximum bolt diameter is 1½”.
than to use doubler plates. The arrangement of continuity and
doubler plates in two-sided connections is shown in the following Bolted stiffened end plate connection (BSEP)
figure:
The BSEP connection consists of the beam being welded to
an end plate. The beam flange-to-plate joints have complete-
penetration-groove welds, and the beam web is connected to the
plate with fillet or complete-joint-penetration-groove welds. The
end plate extensions at the top and bottom of the beam are
stiffened with vertical stiffeners that extend outward from beam
flanges. Then, the end plate is bolted to the column using 16 bolts.
This type of connection can be used for type D, MD and LD
frames. The connection is showed in the following figure:
Figure No.26: Continuity and doubler plates for two-sided connection

Other restrictive parameters
The expected location of the plastic hinge measured from

the face of the column, x, is given by:
db
x = tp + Figure No.27: Bolted stiffened end plate connection
3 Source: CISC 2004: 27.

The basic idea in the design procedure is that yielding in - ts: Defined in figure No.27.
the connection can occur as a combination of beam flexure and - bp: Defined in figure No.27.
panel zone yielding simultaneously, or beam flexure alone. For - Tb: Minimum bolt pretension.
type LD frames, panel zone yielding may occur alone. There must
not be any significant yielding in the end plate, bolts and welds. The minimum bolt pretensions are shown in the following
The connection must be proportioned to preclude the following table:
failure modes:
Mode 1: Bolt tension
This failure mode is avoided by selecting a bolt type that

can resist the moment at the column face. The following equations
must be satisfied:
M cf
0.75 Ab Fu ≥
3.4(d 2 + d 3 ) Table No.6: Minimum bolt pretensions
0.591 2.58 Source: AISC-LRFD 1999: 60.
3.25 × 10 −6 p f Pcf
0.75 Ab Fu ≥ 0.895 1.91 0.327 0.965
+ Tb
tp d bt ts bp Mode 2: Bolt shear
Where: This failure mode is avoided satisfying the following

equation:
M cf
Pcf = 6 Ab (0.5Fu ) ≥ Vcf
d b − tb
A comment regarding this empirical formula is that the
Where: factor of six in the right hand side is part of the test results that
were performed to derive it, as in the expression to avoid bolt shear
- d2: Defined in figure No.27. for BUEP connections. Given that Ab is the area of only one bolt,
- d3: Defined in figure No.27. this formula seems to be too conservative, considering that this
- pf: Defined in figure No.27. connection has sixteen bolts.
- Pcf: Axial force at the column face.
- dbt: Diameter of the bolts.

1
Mode 3: End plate flexure ⎛ A ⎞ 3 C3
α m = Ca ⎜⎜ f ⎟⎟
⎝ Aw ⎠ (d bt ) 4
1
This failure mode is avoided if the end plate has a
minimum thickness of at least the greater of these two values: g d
C3 = − bt − k1
0.9 0.9
2 4
154 × 10 −6 p f g 0.6 Pcf
tp ≥ 0.9 0.1
d bt t s b p
0.7 Where:
0.25
267 × 10 −6 p f g 0.15 Pcf - αm: Defined in equation.
tp ≥ 0.7
d bt t s
0.15
bp
0.3 - C3: Defined in equation.
- pb: Defined in figure No.27.
- c: Defined in figure No.27.
Where g is defined in figure No.27. The column flanges
- Ca: Factor equal to 0.128 for bolts A325M and 0.131 for
must be at least as thick as the end plate.
bolts A490M.
- Af: Flange area.
Mode 4: End plate shear - Aw: Web area.
This failure mode is avoided by the effect of the stiffeners,
Mode 6: Beam flange compression effect on column
which are proportioned as shown in figure No.27.
without continuity plates
Mode 5: Beam flange tension effect on column If the column web thickness satisfies the following
flange without continuity plates equation, continuity plates or a bigger column cross-section should
be used:
If the column flange thickness satisfies the following
equation, proceed to check mode 6. If it is not satisfied and M cf
continuity plates are used, proceed to check mode 7: wc <
(d b − t b )(6k e + 2t p + t b )Fyc
α m Pcf C 3
tc ≥ The requirements for continuity plates are the same as
0.9 Fyc (3.5 p b + c )
those for BUEP connections.
Where:

Mode 7: Panel zone shear
This failure mode is avoided if the same expressions as in

BUEP connections are satisfied. In case of using doubler plates,
the same requirements also apply.
Other restrictive parameters
The expected location of the plastic hinge measured from

the face of the column, x, is given by:
x = t p + Ls
Where Ls is the horizontal length of the stiffener. The

minimum span-to-depth ratio, for type D and MD frames, is seven;
and for type LD frames is five. Also, the maximum flange
thickness of the beam is 25mm, and the maximum bolt diameter is
1½”.
Figure No.28: Reduced beam section connection
Reduced beam section connection (RBS)
Since the beam has been weakened, the frame drifts will be
The RBS connection is one in which the acting forces are larger. It has been observed that this increase in the drift varies
kept within its resistance by reducing the flexural resistance of the between 7 to 9% for flange reductions of 40 to 50%, respectively.
beam at a certain distance from the connection, so that yielding and So, if a model with beam elements has been used to analyze the
plastic hinging occurs in the beam. The top and bottom beam structure, the drifts obtained must be increased by 7 to 9%.
flanges have circular radius cuts for this purpose. The flanges of
the beam are connected to the columns only with complete joint The basic idea in the design procedure is that yielding in
penetration groove welds. A shear tab, that can be bolted or the connection can occur as a combination of the reduced beam
welded, is used for the web connection. This type of connection flexure and panel zone yielding simultaneously, or as reduced
can be used for type D and MD frames, not type LD frames. The beam flexure alone. There must not be any significant yielding in
connection is showed in the following figure: the beam-flange-to-column joints and the beam web. The

connection must be proportioned to preclude the following failure We then calculate the moment at the face of the column,
modes: Mcf, using the scheme shown in figure No.23. The flexural failure
is avoided satisfying the following equation:
Mode 1: Connection flexure
M cf ≤ R y Fy Z b
The location, length and depth of the beam flanges
reduction is selected between these limits: Where:
0.50b ≤ a ≤ 0.75b - RyFy: Probable yield stress, taken as 385 MPa.
0.65d ≤ s ≤ 0.85d - Zb: Plastic modulus of the gross beam section.
0.20b ≤ c ≤ 0.25b
If this equation is not satisfied, the value of c is increased
Where: and all previous steps are repeated, taking into consideration that it
c must not be greater than 0.25b. Once the final dimensions of the
- a: Defined in figure No.28, usually taken as 0.5b. reduced section are determined, we calculate the moment at the
- b: Width of the beam. face of the column and the moment at the column centerline using
- s: Defined in figure No.28, usually taken as 0.65d. these values and the scheme in figure No.23.
- d: Depth of the beam.
- c: Defined in figure No.28, usually taken as 0.2b. Mode 2: Connection shear
The width of the reduced beam flange should have a The shear at the face of the column is determined by the
maximum value of 14.6t, where t is the thickness of the flange. following equation:
Then, the effective plastic modulus of the reduced section of the
beam, Ze, must be determined, using: 2M cf
Vcf = + Vg
L − dc
c = 0.2b
be = 0.6b Where:
With this, we calculate the probable peak plastic hinge - Vcf: Shear at the face of the column.
moment, using Cpr = 1.15: - Vg: Shear due to gravity loads, as shown in figure No.22.
M pr = C pr R y Fy Z e

This shear force is used to design the connection of the The requirements for continuity plates are the same as
beam to the column. If a complete joint penetration groove weld is those for BUEP and BSEP connections.
used, no further calculations are required. If a bolted shear tab is
used, the tab and the bolts must be designed to resist this shear Other restrictive parameters
force, using a resistance factor of unity (φ = 1). The tab must be
connected to the column using complete joint penetration groove The expected location of the plastic hinge measured from
welds or full depth fillets. the face of the column, x, is given by:
Mode 3: Panel zone shear s

x=a+
2
This failure mode is avoided if the same expressions as in
BUEP and BSEP connections are satisfied. In case of using The minimum span-to-depth ratio is seven. Also, the
doubler plates, the same requirements also apply. maximum flange thickness is 44mm; and the maximum relation
be/2t is 7.3, where be is the reduced beam flange width.
Continuity plates
Special seismic steel framing systems
If the column flange thickness, in milimetres, is less than
the greater of the following two expressions, then continuity plates Up to now, this report has been focused in reviewing the
must be provided to the connection: main aspects of seismic design of steel structures for framing
systems and connections types that are well-known and are
R yb Fyb commonly used in the construction industry of Canada.
t c ≤ 0.4 1.8bb t b
R yc Fyc Requirements for these systems are extensively covered in the
CISC HSC, FEMA documents, the American Institute of Steel
bb Construction (AISC) publications, among others. However, there
tc ≤
6 are also many non-conventional steel framing systems for seismic
applications that are very innovative in their design and they may
Where: be implemented in the codes in the next years. New systems are
continuously being developed by researchers, since many aspects
- bb: Unreduced beam flange width. of seismic steel design still remain as a challenge.
- tb: Beam flange thickness.
- RybFyb: Probable yield stress of the beam. The clause 27 of the CAN/CSA S16-01 states that when
- RycFyc: Probable yield stress of the column. special steel framing systems are used in structures, their design
should be based on published research results, design guidelines,

observed performance in past earthquakes, or special investigation.

The level of safety using these systems must be similar to the one
that is established in the CAN/CSA S16-01.
The last part of this report will be focused in describing two

of these special systems. The first one is the special truss moment
frame, which provides savings in costs and time of construction
compared to conventional systems. The second one is the friction-
damped steel frame. Different types of damping devices have been
developed in the past years and are added to the structure to
dissipate more energy during an earthquake. We will describe
some of these devices. Figure No.29: Special truss moment frame
Source: USACE: 7-103.
Special truss moment frames (STMF)
This type of system must satisfy certain special design
The STMF is a specially designed SFRS that reduces the requirements that are described in a document made by the US
earthquake damage of steel structures. This design was the result Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), in chapter 7. These
of a research that was developed at the University of Michigan. requirements are covered in the preceding paragraphs.
The system is designed in such a way that when it is subjected to
earthquake loading, inelastic deformation is moved to some These trusses are limited to a span length of 18m and a
segments of the truss that are specially designed. This truss has depth of 8m. The truss elements outside the special segment and
several diagonal members in a segment at the midspan designed the columns are designed elastically. The length of the special
for this purpose, they absorb most of the energy and dissipate it by segment ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 times the total length of the span.
yielding. The ductile behavior of this system is similar to that of
the eccentrically braced frames, since all the inelastic deformation The panels in the special segment should have a length-to-
is taken by the special segment, which acts as the link. After the depth ratio that ranges from 0.67 to 1.5. They may have a
earthquake, the diagonal members that were damaged can easily be Vierendeel of X-braced configuration, but not a combination of
repaired or replaced (USACE: 7-101). A STMF with an X-braced them. In the Vierendeel configuration, a weakened beam with
configuration is shown in the following figure: holes in it is used for energy dissipation.
If diagonal elements are used in the special segment, they

must have an X-pattern arrangement and be interconnected at the
points of crossing, and must be separated by vertical elements.

They must also be made of identical cross-sections. The 3.4 R y M nc ⎛ L − Ls ⎞

interconnection nodes of diagonal members must have a design Vne = + 0.07 EI ⎜⎜ ⎟ + R y (Pnt + 0.3Pnc )Sinα
Ls 3 ⎟
strength enough to resist a force equal to 0.25 times the nominal ⎝ Ls ⎠
tensile strength of the member.
Where:
The web members in the special segment must not have
bolted connections. The chord members must not be spliced within - Vne: Overall vertical nominal shear strength of the special
the special segment and within half the panel length measured segment.
from the end of the special segment, and must have a constant - Ry: Factor defined in clause 27 of the CAN/CSA S16-01,
cross-section. The axial forces in the web diagonal members in the taken as 1.1.
special segment due to factored dead and live loads must not - Mnc: Nominal flexural strength of the chord element of the
exceed 0.03AgFy, where Ag is the gross area of the member, to special segment.
limit their strength degradation. - Ls: 0.9 times the length of the special segment.
- EI: Flexural elastic stiffness of the chord elements of the
When yielding occurs in the system, the special segment special segment.
must develop its nominal shear resistance, through the nominal - L: Span length of the truss.
flexural strength of the chord elements and the nominal axial - Pnt: Nominal tension strength of the diagonal elements of
tensile and compressive strengths of the diagonal web elements. the special segment.
All these elements are proportioned in such a way that at least 25% - Pnc: Nominal compression strength of the diagonal
of the shear resistance is provided by the chord elements. The elements of the special segment.
required axial strength of the chord elements must not exceed - α: Angle of the diagonal elements of the special segment,
0.45φAgFy, taking φ = 0.9. The end connections of the diagonal measured from the horizontal plane.
elements in the special segment must have a design strength of at
least the nominal tension strength of the web element, given by The width-to-thickness ratio of the elements of the special
RyFyAg. segment must not exceed the following limits:
Regarding the elements and connections outside the special - Diagonal web elements: 2.5.
segment, all of these must have a design strength in order to resist - Angles: 137 / Fy .
the factored gravity loads, plus the lateral loads necessary to
- Flanges and webs of tee sections in chord elements:
develop the expected overall vertical nominal shear resistance of
the special segment, which is given by: 137 / Fy .

The top and bottom chords of the trusses must be laterally and the Sumitomo friction device. Friction dampers offer the
braced at the ends of the special segment. Intermediate braces are following advantages (UPC: 28 – 29):
also required.
- They have high energy dissipation capacity.
The advantages of the STMF compared to other SFRS are - Their behavior is not seriously affected by repeated cycles
the following (Emerging Construction Technologies): of displacement.
- The friction force between surfaces can be controlled,
- Provides substantial cost and time savings and a better level through the prestressing (normal) force.
of performance. - They can absorb a big amount of energy and then dissipate
- Its weight is about 20% less than common framing systems it.
carrying the same gravity loads. - They are not affected by fatigue.
- Fabrication costs are reduced in about 20% compared to
common framing systems. However, they also have some disadvantages:
- Welded connections can be visually inspected without the
need of additional tests. - Sliding surfaces tend to heat.
- They do not contribute to dissipate energy of the structure
Friction-damped steel frames (FDSF) before they start slipping.
- Changes in the sticking-sliding conditions of the damper
Damping devices are used in structures to increase their may introduce high frequencies to the structural response.
energy dissipation capacity, in order to reduce oscillations, and
therefore, the structural and nonstructural damage. There are We will describe the main features of these damping
different types of dampers, like viscous dampers, visco-elastic devices.
dampers, Coulomb friction dampers, metallic dampers, among
others. We will describe some of the friction dampers used in steel Basic sliding joint (BSJ)
structures.
The BSJ consists in incorporating slots in the bolt holes
Friction dampers are designed in such a way they have between steel plates, so that friction between the surfaces of steel
moving parts that will slide over each other during a strong plates dissipates energy. This type of joint is capable of repeated
earthquake. Friction is created between these sliding elements, cycles of displacement without losing strength, stability or energy
which dissipates energy built up in the structure. There are several dissipation capacity. Their performance is influenced by three
types of friction damping devices, like the basic sliding joint, the factors (Butterworth 1999: 1 – 2):
rotation sliding joint, the dual level joint, the Pall friction device
- Maintenance of contact pressure between sliding surfaces.

- Maintenance of an approximately constant coefficient of In the case shown in figure No.30, since two plates are
friction between sliding surfaces. used, the slip force is 2Nslip. The BSJ is used in concentrically
- Avoiding brittle failure when the joint reaches the limit of braced frames with diagonal and chevron configuration:
its sliding range.
The BSJ is shown in the following figure:
Figure No.31: Applications of the basic sliding joint

Figure No.30: Basic sliding joint Source: Butterworth 1999: 2.
Source: Butterworth 1999: 2.
In the diagonal bracing system, the braces require that the
The friction resistance in this device requires a normal compression capacity is greater than the slip load of the SBJ to
force acting at the interface. This force is applied through the bolt have and adequate seismic performance. In the chevron bracing
placed at the joint. The normal force can be modified by adjusting system, the braces must be designed for compression, to resist the
the tension in the bolt. The slip force between surfaces is reversible sliding in the SBJ, but their cross-sections are smaller
determined by: than in a typical chevron system (Butterworth 1999: 2 – 3).
N slip = nN b µ Rotating sliding joint (RSJ)
Where: The RSJ is used in moment-resisting frames. The energy

dissipation is achieved by friction between the surfaces of steel
- Nslip: Slip force. plates through a rotational action. It was developed by Tang and
- n: Number of bolts. Popov (Butterworth 1999: 4). The RSJ is shown in the following
- Nb: Tension in one bolt. figure:
- µ: Coefficient of friction.

of the bottom flange, using higher tension at the interface or more

bolts. The centre of rotation is closer to the top flange; this is
convenient, for example, to avoid damage in concrete floor slabs
(Butterworth 1999: 5). The DLJ is shown in the following figure:
Figure No.32: Rotating sliding joint

When the joint is subjected to a moment, it behaves

elastically until the beam flange reaches the slip level of the sliding
connections. The beam will then start to rotate around the central
pivot, shown in figure No.32, until the bolts reach the end of their
slots. The maximum moment is given approximately by:
M slip = nN b µD
Where:
- Mslip: Slip moment.

- D: Beam depth. Figure No.33: Dual level joint
In the case shown in figure No.32, since two friction
interfaces are used in both flanges, the slip moment is 2Mslip. Under the action of an increasing moment, the joint
responds elastically until the bottom flange starts to slip once its
Dual level joint (DLJ) threshold or slip moment has been reached. This causes plastic
rotation around a centre of rotation in the top flange until the bolts
The DLJ is also used in moment-resisting frames, and also in the bottom flange reach the end of the slots. The joint starts
dissipates energy by friction between the surfaces of steel plates rotating elastically again, without any slipping, until the slip
through a rotational action. However, it differs from the RSJ moment at the top flange is reached. The top flange then starts
because it has a dual slip level capacity. This is achieved by slipping, while the bottom flange rotates plastically around a centre
making the slip force of the top flange of the beam higher than that of rotation. When the bolts in the top flange reach the end of the

slots, the joint rotates elastically again until it reaches the yield are interconnected by horizontal and vertical link members using
point. bolts. These links assure that when the forces acting on the device,
through the braces, are high enough to initiate slip on the tension
This dual action has the following advantages in the design: diagonal, the compression diagonal also slips an equal amount in
the opposite direction; resulting in frictional sliding occurring at
- The lower threshold level provides sufficient strength for the interface (Aiken 1993: 11). This device is shown in the
loads arising from the design earthquake. following figure:
- The upper threshold level provides a strength reserve for
extreme events.
- If the bottom flange fails to slip, energy can still be
dissipated by the top flange when it reaches its slip
moment.
- If the top flange fails to slip, all the slip will eventually Figure No.34: Pall friction device
occur in the bottom flange. Source: Aiken 1993: 12.
The required length of the slots is determined by The friction resistance in the device requires a normal force
(Butterworth 1999: 6): acting at the interface. This force is applied through a bolt placed
at the intersection of the diagonals, and it can be modified by
L = Dθ + d adjusting the tension in the bolt, as in the BSJ (Aiken 1993: 12).
The following figure shows how this friction device works:
Where:
- L: Length of the slot.

- θ: Inelastic rotation of the joint.
- d: Bolt diameter.
Pall friction device
The Pall friction device is used in concentrically braced

Figure No.35: Installation of Pall dampers in cross-bracing systems
frames with cross-bracing configuration. This type of damper was Source: UPC: 33.
developed by Dr. Avtar Pall during his doctoral studies. It consists
of rigid diagonal brace elements, with slotted holes in them, that A patented version of this device is now available in the
have a friction interface (friction hinges) at their intersection. They market and has been used in many new and retrofitted buildings in

Canada (Butterworth 1999: 3). One of the most famous cases is the
Concordia University’s Webster Library building in downtown
Montreal, which has 150 Pall friction dampers installed. Other
buildings that have this damping device are the Casino on lle Ste.
Helene in Montreal, and the Space Agency in St. Hubert, Quebec.
Sumitomo friction device
The Sumitomo friction device is used in concentrically

braced frames with chevron configuration. It consists of a
cylindrical steel casing device with friction copper pads, with
pieces of granite inside, that slide directly on the inner surface of
the case. They are typically installed on the underside of the beams
of the frames. This device was designed and developed by Figure No.37: Installation of Sumitomo dampers in chevron systems
Sumitomo Metal Industries, Ltd, Japan; and was originally used Source: Aiken 1993: 6.
for railway cars (Aiken 1993: 4). They have the following
configuration: Design procedure for friction-damped steel frames
Structures that have dampers installed in them are usually

designed using dynamic analysis, time-history analysis or
performance based design. There are no standard procedures for
the design of dampers in the present codes, so their design is based
on results obtained in previous research projects.
A code design procedure for friction-damped steel frames

Figure No.36: Longitudinal section of the Sumitomo friction device has been developed and proposed by Yaomin Fu and Sheldon
Source: UPC: 38. Cherry, and has been published in the Journal of Structural
Engineering in 1998. The name of this article is “Simplified
The way this type of damper is implemented in steel Seismic Code Design Procedure for Friction-Damped Steel
buildings is shown in the following figure: Frames”. These authors have developed a method to establish a
ductility-related force modification factor for friction-damped steel
frames. This allows to use the quasi-static analysis approach
established in the code to analyze this type of structures, it may be
applied to steel structures having any of the friction dampers

described previously. We will show how the Rd factor is

determined using this method.
This method was developed by analyzing a single-degree-

of-freedom viscous damped system, which has also a friction
damper installed in it. This model may represent a storey segment
of a friction-damped frame or an equivalent single-degree-of-
freedom system of a multi-storey building subjected to a ground Figure No.39: Force-displacement relation of a trilinear system
motion. Source: Fu and Cherry 1998: 57.
This system is characterized by three parameters, the added

stiffness ratio, the slip ratio and the yield ductility. These
parameters are defined as:
Ka
αa =
Kf
Figure No.38: Single-degree-of-freedom model of a friction-damped system
u max
Source: Fu and Cherry 1998: 56. µs =
us
The concept this method is based on is that the friction u max
damper installed in the system will add stiffness to it. Considering µy =
uy
an elasto-plastic behavior, when the system is subjected to a
ground motion, the total stiffness of the system is the sum of the
stiffness of the primary system (system without the friction Where:
damper) and the stiffness provided by the damper. When the
threshold level of the damper is reached, it starts slipping and - αa: Added stiffness ratio.
stiffness is only provided by the primary linear system. Then, when - Ka: Added stiffness provided by the friction damper.
the system reaches its yield point, it can no longer sustain - Kf: Stiffness of the primary system.
increasing forces. This type of system is called a trilinear system, - µs: Slip ratio.
its nonlinear behavior is shown in the following figure: - umax: Maximum displacement of the system.
- us: Displacement at which the friction damper starts to slip.
- µy: Yield ductility. In building codes, the common
assumption is that it is equal to the Rd factor.

- uy: Yield displacement.

Rsd =
(1 − e )ξ
− Bξ e
−3
(1 − e )ξ
o 4
− Bξ o
K eo
The friction damper will increase the period and energy e
dissipation capacity of the primary linear system. The trilinear

system is usually analyzed using an equivalent linear system, Where:
whose stiffness and viscous damping ratio can be determined from
the parameters of the nonlinear system. The equivalent normalized - Rsd: Normalized displacement of the friction-damped
stiffness, normalized energy dissipated and damping ratio of this system.
linear system can be determined by: - B: Constant whose values vary between 18 and 65, leading
to the upper and lower bounds of damping reduction
ln µ s + 1 ln µ y + 1 factors. The authors have considered a value of 30, to have
K eo = α a + an average reduction factor.
µs µy
(µ s − 1)2 (µ y − 1)2 The normalized restoring force of a friction-damped
E do = α a + system, Rf, is defined as the ratio between the restoring force of the
µs3 µy3 equivalent linear system and the primary system. It can be obtained
E do using the following expression:
ξe = ξo +
πK eo
⎛α 1 ⎞⎟
R f = Rsd ⎜ a +
⎜µ ⎟
Where: ⎝ s µy ⎠
- Keo: Equivalent normalized stiffness. Recalling the definition of the force reduction factor (ratio
- Edo: Equivalent normalized energy dissipated. between the elastic and design base shear), and using these
- ξe: Equivalent viscous damping ratio. expressions, the authors arrived to the following expression to
- ξo: Viscous damping ratio of the primary system, usually determine the Rd factor for steel friction-damped multi-degree-of-
equal to 2% for steel structures. freedom systems:
The normalized displacement of a friction-damped system f e R f (α a , µ s = 1, µ y = 1)
is defined as the ratio between the spectral displacement of the Rd = =
equivalent linear system and the primary system. It can be obtained f y R f (α a , µ s ≥ 1, µ y ≥ 1)
using the following expression:
Where:

- fe: Elastic base shear. their flexibility and have high energy dissipation capacity, but their
- fy: Design base shear. large inter-storey drifts may cause severe P-delta effects and non-
structural damage. On the other hand, ductile plate walls have very
So, when designing this type of structures, the structural large stiffness, but may be more expensive. Also, calculating the
designer has to specify the added stiffness ratio, the slip ratio and tension fields in the plate web and determining the yielding
the yield ductility, depending on the desired performance of the sequence of the plate and the framing system is still a problem, due
structure. Then, the Rd factor can be determined, and the quasi- to the limitations of the strip model. The eccentrically braced
static analysis may be used to determine the internal forces and frames have a good performance because they combine the ductile
displacements. behavior of the moment-resisting frames and the stiffness of the
concentrically braced frames. However, since all the energy
This method was developed while the 1995 NBCC was the dissipation is restricted to the link, the collapse mechanism forms
current code. Therefore, to be able to adapt this method to the 2005 once this element has yielded; while other SFRS are more
NBCC, an Ro factor must be assigned to this type of structures. redundant. The concentrically braced frames have high stiffness,
Overstrength in friction-damped structures arises due to the fact but cannot be used in tall buildings, since they tend to have a soft-
that energy is first dissipated by friction, and then by yielding. storey response due to concentration of inelastic demands in the
lower and upper levels. There may be cases in which the optimum
Conclusions solution will be a combination of different SFRS.
An overall overview of the seismic design of steel Physical testing of connections is important to evaluate
structures in Canada has been carried out. The design procedures their performance during earthquakes. Alternatively, prequalified
for SFRS, moment-resisting connections, and some special connections may be used for design. However, there may be cases
framing systems, which are spread in various documents and in which it might not be possible to use the prequalified
publications, have all been organized in this report, to provide a connections, and physical tests are usually very expensive and
practical tool for structural engineers. Although this is a very cannot be afforded by small engineering companies. More research
extensive topic which is constantly in change, the most important is needed to develop design procedures for various types of
issues about steel seismic design have been presented and connections with different element sections, rather than only wide-
discussed. flange sections.
Each of the SFRS presented have their own advantages and Finally, it is important to mention that, although the codes
disadvantages, as we have seen, and these must be taken into give provisions and recommendations for various kinds of systems,
consideration to decide which of them is more convenient to they do not contain the answers to all of the structural problems
design a particular building. Here we present a summary of them. that engineers may encounter. It is necessary to go beyond of what
Ductile moment-resisting frames absorb less shear forces due to the code says to find more safe and economic solutions. Systems

like the special truss moment frame and the friction-damped steel Sheng-Jin Chen, C. H. Yeh and J. M. Chu (1996) “Ductile Steel
frame are examples of these, and may be implemented in future Beam-to-Column Connections for Seismic Resistance”, Journal of
codes. Structural Engineering, Vol. 122, No.11: 1292 – 1299.
References Joe Wong (2003) “Plastic Analysis of Standard Shapes Loaded by

Impact”, University of British Columbia.
Canadian Institute of Steel Construction (2004) “Handbook of
Steel Construction” (8th. Edition), Quadratone Graphics Ltd, American Institute of Steel Construction (1999) “Load and
Toronto, Ontario. Resistance Factor Design Specification for Structural Steel
Buildings”.
Denis Mitchell, Robert Tremblay, Erol Karacabeyli, Patrick
Paultre, Murat Saatcioglu and Donald L. Anderson (2003) Web page: www.hnd.usace.army.mil/techinfo/ti/809-04/ch7c.pdf
“Seismic Force Modification Factors for the Proposed 2005
Edition of the National Building Code of Canada”, Canadian Web page: www.new-technologies.org/ECT/Civil/truframe.htm
Journal of Civil Engineering, 30: 308 – 327.
Web page: www.tdx.cesca.es/TESIS_UPC/ AVAILABLE/TDX-
Dennis Chu (2003) “Comparative Case Studies of Beam and 1217103-104653/03Chapt02.pdf
Column Design: A Comparison of the Canadian and US
Standards”, University of British Columbia. John W. Butterworth (1999) “Seismic Response of Moment-
Resisting Steel Frames Containing Dual-Level Friction Dissipating
Robert Schubak (2005) “CIVL 505: Seismic Response of Joints”, NZSEE Conference, Rotorua.
Structures” (Lecture Notes, Chapter 6), University of British
Columbia. Ian D. Aiken, Douglas K. Nims, Andrew S. Whittaker and James
M. Kelly (1993) “Testing of Passive Energy Dissipation Systems”,
Canadian Commission on Building and Fire Codes (2005) Earthquake Spectra, Vol. 9, No.3.
“National Building Code of Canada” (Part 4: Structural Design).
Yaomin Fu and Sheldon Cherry (1998) “Simplified Seismic Code
Canadian Institute of Steel Construction (2004) “Moment Design Procedure for Friction-Damped Steel Frames”, Canadian
Connections for Seismic Applications” (1st. Edition). Journal of Civil Engineering, 26: 55 – 71.
Federal Emergency Management Agency (2000) “Recommended

Seismic Design Criteria for New Steel Moment-Frame Buildings”
(FEMA 350).

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CIVL 510 CANADIAN SEISMIC DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES ALFREDO BOHL

The new upcoming 2005 Edition of the National Building

alfredo_bohl_report.doc 4/6/2005 PAGE 1 OF 50

Formatted spreadsheets have been developed to perform - φ: Resistance factor.

φR ≥ 1.0 D + γ (1.0 E ) (S16-01, clause 7.2.6(a)) S (Ta )M v I EW

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Ductile moment-resisting frames

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For single-storey buildings, if plastic hinges are expected to

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h k The beams, columns and joints must be braced. Lateral

Vr = 0.55φd c w' Fyc (S16-01, clause 27.2.4.2(b))

The beam-to-column joints and connections must be

As it is mentioned in clause 27, the appendix J of the

alfredo_bohl_report.doc 4/6/2005 PAGE 8 OF 50

these cases (Schubak 2005: 6-4). This can be done by overlapping

Figure No.5: Failure mechanism of ductile plate walls

alfredo_bohl_report.doc 4/6/2005 PAGE 9 OF 50

- A: Area of the equivalent diagonal brace.

Vre = 0.5R y Fy wLSin 2α (S16-01, clause 27.8.2.4)

alfredo_bohl_report.doc 4/6/2005 PAGE 10 OF 50

- B: Overstrength factor for ductile plate walls.

To calculate the design moments at each storey, the

- Calculate the design moment at the base as BMf, where Mf

Most of the requirements described previously are

alfredo_bohl_report.doc 4/6/2005 PAGE 11 OF 50

Figure No.10: Configuration of eccentrically braced frames

The link beams must be class 1. The web must have a

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- A: Gross area of the beam link.

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- If 1.6Mp/Vp < e < 2.6Mp/Vp, the stiffeners must be placed

Links with a depth of less than 650mm only need

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- Lcr: Unbraced length.

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Moderately ductile concentrically braced frames

Figure No.14: Common configurations of concentrically braced frames

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In relation to the diagonal braces of the three bracing

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kL Regarding the effective length factor, for cross-bracing, it

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If plastic hinges are allowed to be formed in beams in

The beams, columns, and connections excepting brace

SFRS with Rd = 2.0

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references with guidelines. The inelastic cyclic behavior of a

The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)

The procedures that will be described to perform the

alfredo_bohl_report.doc 4/6/2005 PAGE 25 OF 50

In relation to the loading history, it is divided into steps,

In the case that the clear-span-to-depth ratio of the beam in

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These limits in the drift angles capacities where determined

Analytical prediction of structural behavior