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Groups of similar cells form tissues Groups of tissue form organs Cells tissue organs Death of cells natural feature of healthy tissue: programmed cell death Apoptosis (Programmed cell death): 1972 Andrew Wyllie [Greek: shedding of leaves in autumn] Cell death and cell life generally balanced Uncontrolled increase in cells = tumour Malignant: tumour grows and invades healthy tissue Cancer: malignant tumour Too much apoptosis = degenerative (characterized by progressive, often irreversible deterioration, and loss of function in the organs or tissues) diseases (Alzheimers)

Cancer 2nd highest cause of death in Australia (heart disease first) Breast cancer most common affecting adult females 30% die Identify regulator protein within cells and investigate interactions Special stains (red, green, yellow) assist in finding positions of regulator proteins within cells Other experiments aimed at establishing physiological roles of proteins Better information about control and development of cancer = increased chance for better treatment

Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is self-destruction by cells for the good of the whole organism. Necrosis: occurs if a cell is seriously damaged by mechanical or chemical trauma and causes general damage to plasma membrane of cell Plasma membrane can no longer control what enters of leaves the cells Cell swells then burst and contents spread out over nearby cells, causing inflammation of those tissues. Apoptosis: cells respond to signals 2 main pathways of signals that initiate apoptosis 1. Mitochondrial pathway 2. Death receptor pathway Mitochondrial pathway: Signals from inside the cell If serious damage occurs inside a cell (severe DNA damage/malfunction of oxidative enzyme) proteins on surface of mitochondria activated and mitochondrial membrane breaks Starts series of events in cell: action of caspases (special enzymes that cleave specific proteins at amino acid aspartite) enter nuclear pores and break DNA into smaller pieces Cell infected with virus may also initiate death Cell identifies infection and kills before virus replicates and spread to other cells Death receptor pathway: Signals from outside the cell. Perfectly healthy cell receive message of self-destruct. Not fully developed: Cells fail to be incorporated into brain network Stray cells die by apoptosis Excess cells die Cost organism energy and material to keep cells alive More cells than necessary Cells no longer useful to an organism die When recovered from a disease, cells no longer require T and B cells produced Disease and apoptosis: Apoptosis is an essential feature of development A healthy state relies on balance between cell production and cell loss in organism. Too much apoptosis can lead to neurodegenerative diseases: Alzheimer and Huntingtons disease Too little apoptosis can lead to production of cancers and autoimmune diseases

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When a message is received, a cascade of events occurs: Many different caspases are activated within the cell and a message goes out to phagocytes in the area Cells that received the death signal being to shrink and develop small bumps (blebs) on surface Caspases enter through nuclear membrane pores, DNA and protein in nucleus degraded, mitochondria break down Organelles (other than nucleus and mitochondria) preserved as cell breaks into small membrane enclosed fragments Small fragments bind to receptors on phagocytic cells that have responded. Phagocytes engulf fragments Secrete cytokines (compounds that inhibit inflammation) so surrounding cells not damaged

Each living cell is a small compartment with an outer boundary: plasma membrane Cytosol: fluid that makes up a living eukaryotic cell consist mainly of water and many dissolved substances A labyrinth of membranes within cytosol that create large number of smaller functional distinct compartments Organelles: membrane-bound compartments structures present in a cell and which carry out a specific function Organelles held in place by a network of fine protein filaments known as cytoskeleton Prokaryotic cells (bacteria) lack internal membranes.

The boundary of all livings cells is a plasma membrane that controls the entry of dissolved substances into and out of the cells. Plasma membrane ultra-thin and liable layer with average thickness (0.000 01mm) Plasma membrane too thin to be resolved with light microscope but can be seen using electron microscope Comprises of phospholipid bilayer: proteins and glycoproteins protrude Some protein embedded in layer form channels that allow certain substances to pass across membrane in either direction fluid mosaic model

On outer surface, plasma membrane has substances (antigens) that label/identify cells as belonging to a particular organism. Antigens: compounds, usually proteins, that can trigger the immune system to respond in various ways, including antibody production. Usually consist of proteins When various mammals of same species compared, antigens on plasma membrane differ. Cells from one organism introduced into body of other species immune system recognizes cells as foreign or non-self Immune system responds with chemical and cellular attacks that kill foreign cells. Immune system does not normally attack own cells recognize cells as self Ability to recognize foreign cells and attack them is an important defence mechanism against bacterial infection.

All cells must be able to take in and expel various substances in order to grow, survive and reproduce Generally substances in solution, but also tiny particles Partially permeable: plasma membrane allows only some dissolved materials to cross

Diffusion: net movement of a substance, typically in a solution, from a region of high concentration of the substance to a region of low concentration. Does not require energy Molecules in random movement at all times If substance more concentrated outside cell, molecule move from outside to inside Diffusion stops when concentration of substance is equal on both sides of membrane Substances that dissolve easily: hydrophilic or water-loving Substances with low water solubility or do not dissolve in water are able to dissolve in or mix uniformly with lipid lipophilic or hydrophobic (alcohol or ether) Lipophilic substances cross plasma membrane boundaries readily. Channel mediated: Substances unable to carry out simple diffusion through phospholipid bilayer gain free passage across membrane with assistance of protein channels Molecules move from high concentration to low concentration without energy. Carrier mediated: Protein channel alone insufficient and carrier molecule required to move molecules down concentration gradient through protein channel. When specific carrier molecule is required, movement called facilitated diffusion Movement of substances by facilitated diffusion mainly involves substances that cannot diffuse across the plasma membrane by dissolving in the phospholipid bilayer of the membrane. Movement of glucose molecules across plasma membrane of red blood cells involves specific carrier molecule. All 3 methods of passive transport result in molecules moving from region of high concentration to region of low concentration without using energy. One special case of diffusion is known as osmosis. The process of osmosis occurs when a net movement of water molecules occurs by diffusion across a cell membrane either into or out of a cell.

Active transport: net movement of dissolves substances into or out of cells against a concentration gradient Net movement of dissolved substances across a cell membrane by an energy-requiring process that moves substances against a concentration gradient from a region of lower to higher concentration. The process involves a carrier protein for each substance that is actively transported.

Solid particles can be taken into a cell One kind of white blood cells able to engulf disease-causing bacterial cell and enclose it within a lysosome sac where destroyed. Unicellular protists (amoeba and paramecium) obtain energy in form of relatively large food particles Endocytosis: process of bulk transport of material into a cell Exocytosis: bulk transport out of cells. Vesicles form within a cell fuse with plasma membrane before contents of vesicles from the cell. Term secretion form the cell generally used if released material product of cell. Term voided from the cell generally used if released material waste product of cell.

Rigid cell wall forms exterior of plant, fungi and bacteria. Cell wall lies outside plasma membrane Primary cell wall: made of cellulose In certain plants, primary cell wall in certain tissues become thickened and strengthened.

Secondary cell wall: made of lignin in addition to cellulose Provide great elastic strength and support Allow plants to develop woody shrubs or trees

Nucleus: in eukaryotic cells, a membrane-bound organelle containing the genetic material DNA The control center of cells of animals, plants, algae and fungi Form distinct spherical structure enclosed in double membrane Nuclear envelope: membrane surrounding the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell. Cells that have a membrane-bound nucleus are called eukaryotes Prokaryotic cells: any cell without a membrane-bound nucleus. Cells that lack nuclear envelope Kingdom Monera (bacteria) DNA not enclosed within distinct nucleus Light microscope: Nucleus contains granules made of DNA. DNA dispersed within nucleus During cell reproduction, DNA granules become organized to rod-shaped chromosomes Nucleus contain one (or more) large inclusion known as nucleoli Nucleoli: aggregation of ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecule.

Living cells use energy all the time Adenosine triphosphate (ADP): compound containing adenine and two molecules of phosphate; in an energy-requiring reaction, it can combine with a third molecule of phosphate to form ATP. Usable energy supple for cells ATP produced during cellular respiration (respiration) ATP supplies in living cells continually being used and replaced Eukaryotic cells: ATP produced in mitochondria (mitochondrion) Mitochondria (mitochondrion): in eukaryotic cells, organelles that are the major site of ATP production. Cannot be seen under light microscope but electron microscope Outer membrane and highly folded inner membrane ATP produced by reactions in inner folded membranes. Prokaryote cells lack mitochondria

Ribosomes: organelles where protein production occurs Only be seen only through an electron microscope Ribosomes not enclosed by membrane Ribosomes attached to endoplasmic reticulum and found in cytosol. Proteins produced by ribosomes on rough endoplasmic reticulum transported to and from other parts of cell. Proteins made by free ribosomes (unattached to ER) for local use within cell. Mitochondria and chloroplast contain free ribosomes. Ribosomes composed or protein and ribonucleic acid (RNA) Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) come form nucleolus in cell. Particular part of DNA carries genetic code necessary for formation of ribosomal and other RNAs.

Proteins kept within cells: Contractile proteins (muscle cells) Haemoglobin (red blood cells) Proteins released to other cells: Digestive enzyme pepsin (lining of stomach and released into stomach cavity) Protein hormone insulin made by pancreatic cells and released to bloodstream Transport and substances within cells occur through system of channels known as endoplasmic reticulum. Golgi complex: organelle that packages material into vesicles for export from a cell. Several layers on membranes 1. Proteins produced by ribosomes go to membranous chambers in ER. 2. Packaged into vesicles and transported to Golgi complex where they may be concentrated

Ribosomes ER vesicles Golgi complex In Golgi complex, proteins packaged into secretory vesicles. Protein stored in cytosol then fuse with plasma membrane Protein discharged by exocytosis into tissue fluid Protein taken by other cells or into bloodstream (transported to other tissues)

Lysosomes: membrane-bound vesicles containing digestive enzymes. Sac-like structure surround membrane with fluid containing dissolved digestive enzymes. Use enzymes to destroy unwanted cell parts of damages molecules from within or outside the cell Unwanted material enclosed by lysosome and digested Lysosomes: controlled death zone of cells in embryonic human hand so fingers become separated.

Produced enzymes that digest substance Defects may occur in enzymes in lysosomes Substance accumulate in lysosome cell no longer function Tays Sachs disease (abnormal accumulation of lipids) Hurler syndrome (abnormal accumulation of complex carbohydrates) Peroxisomes and endosomes: small organelles with similarities as lysosomes in eukaryotic cells.

Small membrane-bound organelles in enzymes catalase and urate oxidase. Detoxify various toxic materials in bloodstream Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) biochemical process in cell poisonous if accumulate. Peroxide in different type of cells may contain different set of enzymes. Plant and animal cells

Accumulation of hydrogen peroxide prevented catalyst.

Only in animal cells Membrane-bound organelles Pass newly ingested material to lysosome for digestion Material enter cell by endocytosis.

Chloroplast: organelle (plant/algae) capture radiant energy of sunlight and transform to chemical energy in organic molecule Photosynthesis: complex proves of converting sunlight energy to chemical energy present in sugar. Double membrane (inner and outer) Inner: form membranous sacs lamella or thylakoids Stacked together to form grana Grana: chlorophyll located. Light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis Stroma: semi-fluid substance contain enzymes for light-independent reactions

Prokaryotes dont have chloroplast Photosynthetic bacteria: some bacteria have pigment that enable to capture radiant energy of sunlight make sugar from simple inorganic material. Chloroplast contain molecule of DNA, free ribosome, starch grains and lipid droplets

CELL SKELETON: Internal framework: Microtubules Microfilaments Intermediate filaments. Cytoskeleton: supply strength and support Network of filaments within a cell.

Microtubules: hallow

Made of sub-units of protein tubulin. Microfilaments: solid, thinner, more flexible Made of actin Intermediate filaments: very tough Made of variety of protein Tie cytoskeleton to other cells. Maintain shape Support structure for other components in cell Movement of material Movement of cell itself Microtubules play important role in movement of chromosomes during reproduction of cells (mitosis)

Occluding, communicating and anchoring junctions.

Cell membranes come together in contact with each other. No movement of material between cells

Gap junctions Protein lined pores in membrane of adjacent cells. Aligned like series of rods in circle with center gap. Passage of salt ions, sugars, amino acids, small molecules and electrical signals

Common between epithelial cells (skin and uterus). Called desmosomes Type of cell-to-cell junction in which protein filaments span the intercellular space and hold the cells together. Dense protein at junction between two cells. Fine fibrils from plaques to cytosol Great tensile strength

Acts throughout group of cell

Rigid cell walls and primary walls of adjacent cells held tightly by layer of pectine (sticky polysaccharide). Hence, plant cells have no need for structure such as anchoring junctions of animal cells. Secondary walls laid in each cell on cytosol side of primary wall structure relatively wide Junctions allow plant cells to communicate plasmodesmata Openings between plant cell walls through which adjacent cells are connected through cytoplasmic threads. Gap lined with plasma membrane to plasma membrane of two cells continuous. Also continuous with smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Plasmodesmata in all plants Communication between large number of cells Connected via cytoplasm Cells connect and transfer of material and messages occur through connections.