6.

1 Digestion

Terms Macromolecule

Definitions large molecules made up of smaller organic molecules. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids intake (eating) of food macromolecules break-down of food macromolecules, using enzymes digested food molecules pass into blood through plasma membrane molecules taken up by cells for use and further metabolism waste products of metabolism removed from blood, released as URINE materials that are not digested organic molecules which act as catalysts the substance acted upon by an enzyme

Name the four classes of macromolecules Ingestion Digestion

Absorption

Assimilation

Excretion

Egestion enzymes Substrate

(the thing being dissolved) Optimum pH the pH at which an enzymatic or any other given set of reaction or process is most effective under a given set of conditions any of a class of enzymes that break down fats, produced by digestive organs or certain plants enzymes that catalyze the hydrolytic degradation of proteins to smaller materials a digestive enzyme that breaks down materials

lipase

protease

amylase

State the name of the type of hydrolysis reaction which uses water to break down a macromolecule State the function of the mouth salivary glands oesophagus stomach chewing; mechanical and chemical secrete saliva muscle contractions pus bolus into the stomach muscular contractions continue mechanical digestion. Acid kills bacteria. uses bile to help in small intestine

liver

gall bladder pancreas small intestine (duodenum)

neutralises and emulsifies fat digest carbs, fats and proteins in small intestine bile from the liver and gall bladder neutralizes acid and emulsifies fats lower half of small intestine absorbs nutrients into the blood water is reclaimed and returned to the blood and semi-solid feces in rectum stores feces forces feces out increase surface area for absorption carries blood to and from villus, maintains concentration gradient transports lipoproteins (fats) to circulatory system increase surface area for absorption of digested food molecules

small intestine (ileum)

large intestine

rectum anus villi capillary

lacteal

microvilli

6.1.1 Explain why digestion of large food molecules is essential Most food is solid and in the form of large complex molecules which are insoluble and chemically inert (not readily usable) As food was synthesized by other organisms, it contains materials not suitable for human tissue - these need to be separated and removed Large molecules need to be broken down into smaller molecules that can be readily absorbed across membranes and into cells Small molecules can be reassembled into new products (e.g. amino acids can be reassembled to make new proteins)

Summary: 1. 2. Food needs to be broken down and reassembled. Large food molecules need to be broken down into smaller ones.

6.1.2 Explain the need for enzymes in digestion Enzymes are biological catalysts which speed up the rate of a chemical reaction (e.g. digestion) by lowering the activation energy Enzymes allow digestive processes to occur at body temperature and at sufficient speed to meet the organism's survival requirements Enzymes are specific for a given substrate and so can allow digestion of certain molecules to occur independently of others Summary: 1. 2. 3. Enzymes break down large food molecules into smaller ones. Speed up the process of digestion by lowering the activation energy for the reaction. Work at body temperature.

6.1.3 State the source, substrate, product and optimal pH conditions for one amylase, one protease and one lipase

6.1.4 Draw and label a diagram of the human digestive system There are two major groups of organs that comprise the human digestive system: Alimentary Canal: Contains organs through which the food actually passes (esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, etc.) Accessory Organs: Organs that assist in digestion but no food passes through them (liver, pancreas, gall bladder, salivary glands, etc.) Alimentary Canal Accessory Organs

6.1.5 Outline the function of the stomach, small intestine and large intestine Stomach The stomach acts as a temporary storage tank and is where protein digestion begins The stomach contains gastric glands which secrete digestive juices for chemical digestion Acids create a low pH environment (pH~1-2) that denatures proteins, while proteases like pepsin hydrolyse large proteins The stomach also releases a hormone (gastrin) that regulates stomach secretions The mechanical action of the stomach (churning) also promotes digestion by mixing the food The stomach turns food into a creamy paste called chyme Small Intestine

The small intestine is where usuable food substances (e.g. nutrients) are absorbed into the bloodstream The pancreas and gall bladder (via the bile duct) both secrete substances into the small intestine to aid in digestion The small intestine is lined with smooth muscle to allow for the mixing and moving of digested food products (via segmentation and peristalsis) It also contains small pits (crypts of lieberkuhn) that secrete intestinal juices The small intestine contain infoldings called villi, to increase surface area and optimise the rate of absorption Large Intestine The large intestine absorbs water and dissolved minerals from the indigestible food residues, and by doing so converts what remains from a fluid state into a semi-solid faeces The faeces is stored in the rectum and eliminated out the anus

Summary: Stomach: 1. 2. 3. Secretes HCL which kills bacteria. HCL provides optimum pH for pepsin. Secretes pepsin for protein digestion.

Small intestine: 1. 2. Intestinal wall secretes enzymes Receives enzymes from the pancreas.

3.

Has villi for absorption of food particles.

Large intestine: 1. 2. 3. Moves material that has not been digested along. Absorbes water. Produces faeces

6.1.6 Distinguish between absorption and assimilation

Absorption: The movement of a fluid or dissolved substances across a membrane Assimilation: The conversion of nutrients into fluid or solid parts of an organism ~ Absorption occurs when the food enters the body as the food molecules pass through a layer of cells and into the bodies tissues. ~This occurs in the small intestine which has many villi that are specialized for absorption. ~Assimilation occurs when the food molecules becomes part of the bodies tissue. Therefore, absorption is followed by assimilation. 6.1.7 Explain how the structure of the villus is related to its role in absorption and transport of products of digestion Microvilli: Greatly increase the surface area of the villus, allowing for a greater rate of absorption Rich capillary networks: Help to maintain a concentration gradient for absorption by rapidly transporting absorbed products away Single epithelial layer: Ensures minimal diffusion distance between the intestinal lumen and capillary network Lacteals: Absorb lipids from the intestine into the lymphatic system (which are later reabsorbed back into normal circulation) Intestinal crypts: Located between villi and release juices that act as a carrier fluid for nutrients Membrane proteins / mitochondria: High amounts to enable active transport into cells (contents then passively diffuse into bloodstream)

Features of a Villus

Summary: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Many villi increase the surface area for absorption. Epithelium is only one cell layer thick and so food is quickly absorbed. Microvilli on the villi increase the surface area for absorption further. Protein channels and pumps are present in the microvilli for rapid absorption. The mitochondria in the epithelium provide ATP needed for active transport. Blood capillaries are very close to the epithelium so diffusion distance is small. The lacteal takes away fats after absorption.

6.5 Nerves, Hormones and Homeostasis 6.5.1 State that the nervous system consists of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nerves, and is composed of cells called neurons that carry rapid electrical impulses Neurons are cells that are specialised for the conduction of nerve impulses and serve as the fundamental unit of the nervous system The nervous system can be divided into two main parts: Central Nervous System (CNS): Made up of the brain and the spinal cord Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Made of peripheral nerves which link the CNS with the body's receptors and effectors 6.5.2 Draw and label a diagram of the structure of the motor neuron

6.5.3 State that nerve impulses are conducted from receptors to the CNS by sensory neurons, within the CNS by relay neurons, and from the CNS to effectors by motor neurons There are three main types of neurons in the nervous system: Sensory Neurons: Conduct nerve impulses from receptors to the CNS (afferent pathway) Relay Neurons: Conduct nerve impulses within the CNS (also called interneurons or connector neurons) Motor Neurons: Conduct nerve impulses from the CNS to effectors (efferent pathway) The Stimulus-Response Pathway

6.5.4 Define resting potential and action potential (depolarisation and repolarisation) Resting Potential: The charge difference across the membrane when a neuron is not firing (-70 mV), as maintained by the sodium-potassium pump Action Potential: The charge difference across the membrane when a neuron is firing (about 30 mV) Depolarisation: The change from a negative resting potential to a positive action potential (caused by opening of sodium channels) Repolarisation: The change from a positive action potential back to a negative resting potential (caused by opening of potassium channels) 6.5.5 Explain how a nerve impulse passes along a non-myelinated neuron (1) At the resting potential ion channels for sodium ions and potassium ions are both closed (sodium outside, potassium inside) = positive charge outside and negative charge inside the cell.

(2) When the cells is disturbed by a stimulus the sodium channels open and sodium ions diffuse in. (3) The interior of the axon becomes increasingly positively charged compared to the outside and the membrane is depolarised (negative outside, positive inside) (4) The depolarisation moves along the axon = action potential. (5) Behind the action potential sodium channels start closing and potassium channels open to let potassium ions out of the cells - the interior of the axon becomes less positive again - repolarising (6) Sodium/potassium pumps start working to re-establish the resting potential. Saltatory Conduction Generation of an Action Potential

Summary: 1. 2. Resting potential rises above threshold level. Voltage gated sodium channels open.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Sodium ions flow into the cell, more sodium channels open. Inside of cell develops a net positive charge compared to the outside and results in depolarization. Voltage gated potassium channels open. Potassium ions flow out of the cell. Cell develops a net negative charge compared to the outside and results in repolarization. Concentration gradients restored by sodium-potassium pumps. Resting potential is restored.

6.5.6 Explain the principles of synaptic transfer Synapse: junction between two neurones. The plasma membranes of the neurones are separated by a narrow fluid-filled gap called the synaptic cleft. Neurotransmitters: chemicals that transfer messages across the synapse. (1) Nerve impulse reaches the end of the pre-synaptic neurone. (2) Calcium diffuses into the pre-synaptic neurone through calcium tunnels. (3) Vesicles of neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft. (4) Neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to receptors on the post-synaptic neurone. (5) Sodium ions enter the post-synaptic neurone - cause depolarisation. (6) The depolarisation passes down the post-synaptic neurone and initiates an action potential. (7) Calcium is pumped out. Neurotransmitter is broken down rapidly in the synaptic cleft and is reabsorbed into the vesicles. Overview of Synaptic Transfer

Summary: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Action potential reaches the end of a presynaptic neuron. Voltage gated calcium channels open. Calcium ions flow into the presynaptic neuron. Vesicles with neurotransmitters inside the presynaptic neuron fuse with the plasma membrane. Neurotransmitters diffuse in the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. The receptors are channels which open and let sodium ions into the postsynaptic neuron. The sodium ions cause the postsynaptic membrane to depolarize. This causes an action potential which passes down the postsynaptic neuron.

9.

Neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft are degraded and the calcium ions are pumped back into the synaptic cleft.

6.5.7 State that the endocrine system consists of glands that release hormones that are transported in the blood An endocrine gland is a ductless gland in the body that manufactures chemical messengers called hormones and secretes them directly into the blood Hormones act on distant sites (target cells) and tend to control slow, long-term activities such as growth and sexual development

Endocrine System 6.5.8 State that homeostasis involves maintaining the internal environment between limits, including blood pH, carbon dioxide concentration, blood glucose concentration, body temperature and water balance Homeostasis is the tendency of an organism or cell to maintain a constant internal environment within tolerance limits Internal equilibrium is maintained by adjusting physiological processes, including: Body temperature (normally 36 - 38C) Blood pH (normally 7.35 - 7.45) Carbon dioxide concentration (normally 35 - 45 mmHg) Blood glucose concentration (normally 75 - 95 mg / dL) Water balance (varies with individual body size) 6.5.9 Explain that homeostasis involves monitoring levels of variables and correcting changes in levels by negative feedback mechanisms Most homeostatic control mechanisms operate through a negative feedback loop When specialised receptors detect a change in an internal condition, the response generated will be the opposite of the change that occurred When levels have returned to equilibrium, the effector ceases to generate a response

If levels go too far in the opposite direction, antagonistic pathways will be activated to restore the internal balance

Negative Feedback Loop Summary: 1. 2. Homeostasis maintains the internal environment between limits. Negative feed back is used to do so. Any change from a set point results in an opposite change.

Summary: 1. 2. Homeostasis maintains the internal environment between limits. Negative feed back is used to do so. Any change from a set point results in an opposite change.

6.5.10 Explain the control of body temperature, including the transfer of heat in blood, and the roles of the hypothalamus, sweat glands, skin arterioles and shivering

The hypothalamus in the brain monitors temperature of the blood, as heat is transferred in the blood, and compares it with a set point (close to 37 degrees celsius). If the blood temperature is lower or higher than the set point the hypothalamus signals parts of the body by neurones to bring the temperature back to the set point (negative feedback). Responses to overheating: - Skin arterioles become wider - more blood flows through the skin - this transfers the heat from the core of the body to the skin losing the heat to the environment. - Skeletal muscles remain relaxed and resting so they do not generate heat. - Sweat glands secrete sweat to make the surface of the skin damp - water evaporates which has a cooling effect. Responses to chilling: - Skin arterioles become narrower - less blood is brought to the skin - the temperature of the skin falls and less heat is lost to the environment. - Skeletal muscles do many rapid contractions to generate heat (shivering). - Sweat glands do not secrete sweat - the skin remains dry. Thermoregulation by the Nervous System

6.5.11 Explain the control of blood glucose concentration, including the roles of glucagon, insulin and the alpha and beta cells in the pancreatic islets Cells in the pancreas monitor the concentration of blood glucose. It send hormone messages to target organs when the level is low or high. The responses by target organs affect the rate at which glucose is loaded or unloaded to/from the blood. Mechanisms involved are examples of negative feedback.

Responses to high blood glucose levels: - Beta cells in the pancreatic islets produce insulin. - Insulin stimulates the liver and muscle cells to absorb glucose from the blood and convert it into glycogen. - Other cells are stimulated to absorb glucose for the use in cell respiration instead of fat. These processes reduces the blood glucose level. Responses to low blood glucose levels: - alpha cells in the pancreatic islets produce glucagon. - Glucagon stimulates liver cells to break glycogen down into glucose and release it into the blood. This raises the blood glucose level. Blood Glucose Regulation by the Endocrine System

6.5.12 Distinguish between type I and type II diabetes

Diabetes is a condition in which the control of blood glucose does not work effectively.

There are two types: Type I: - onset usually during childhood - beta cells produce insufficient insulin - insulin injections controls glucose levels - diet is not sufficient to control the condition Type II: - onset usually after childhood (old people usually) - target cells become insensitive to insulin - insulin injection usually not needed - Low carb diet can control the condition http://i-biology.net/ibdpbio/06-human-health-physiology/nerves-hormoneshomeostasis/