Sudan University for Sciences & Technology

Faculty of graduated studies

Electronics engineering department Msc. Program in telecommunications engineering

Understanding Network Technologies

Sami Mubarak Ali Mahmoud

2009

Understanding Network Technologies

Table of Contents
Please note; These are LARGE documents. If your running Microsoft Internet Explorer 3, when you click on a link to go to the middle of a chapter, you will first go to the top of the page until it is done loading, then you will drop down to the area you wanted. If your running Netscape Navigator you will just wait while the page loads. If you have a slow connection (who doesn't), you may be better served by going to the top of the chapter. This way you will have something to read as the page loads.
Preface I II III IV On Becoming a CNE About This Course About This Coursebook Course Objectives

Chapter 1 1.1

The Growth of Networking Technology Modern Benefits of Networking 1.1.1 Data Sharing 1.1.2 Resource Sharing

1.2

The Development of Computer Networks 1.2.1 Life before Networking 1.2.2 Early Connections

1.2.3 Modern Networking 1.3 Chapter 1 Study Tips

Chapter 2

Local Area Networks

2.1

Network Topologies 2.1.1 Point-to-Point Topology 2.1.2 Bus Topology 2.1.3 Star Topology 2.1.4 Ring Topology 2.1.5 Mesh Topology 2.1.6 Special Topology

2.2

Components 2.2.1 Servers 2.2.2 Workstations 2.2.3 Network Interface Cards 2.2.4 Hubs 2.2.5 Peripherals 2.2.6 Software

2.3

Communication Schemes 2.3.1 Contention 2.3.2 Token Passing Scheme 2.3.3 Polling

2.4

Transmission Media 2.4.1 Twisted Pair Cabling 2.4.2 Coaxial Cable 2.4.3 Fiber Optic Cable 2.4.4 Cabling Summary

2.5

Wireless Media 2.5.1 Radio

2.5.2 Infrared 2.5.3 Wireless LAN Media Summary 2.6 Chapter 2 Study Tips

Chapter 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5

Connectivity Repeaters Bridges Routers Gateways Chapter 3 Study Tips

Chapter 4 4.1

Wide Area Networking Public Telephone System 4.1.1 Terminology 4.1.2 Wide Area Networking With Telephone Lines 4.1.3 Integrated Services Digital Network

4.2 4.3 4.4

Microwave Technology Laser Technology Switching Technology 4.4.1 Message Switching 4.4.2 Packet Switching 4.4.3 Circuit Switching

4.5

Chapter 4 Study Tips

Chapter 5

Data Communications Technology

5.1 5.2

Analog and Digital Signals Converting and Translating Data 5.2.1 Analog Encoding Methods 5.2.2 Digital Encoding Methods 5.2.3 Converting Signal Types

5.3

Multiple Signal Transmission Schemes 5.3.1 Time-Division Multiplexing 5.3.2 Frequency-Division Multiplexing

5.4

Chapter 5 Study Tips

Chapter 6 6.1

Networking Standards and References Reference and Standard-Setting Organizations 6.1.1 International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 6.1.2 Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE)

6.2 6.3 6.4

The Open Systems Interconnection Model Data Frame Construction and Use Important IEEE Specifications 6.4.1 Higher Layers and Management 6.4.2 802.2 - Logical Link Control

6.5

Chapter 6 Study Tips

Chapter 7 7.1

Lower Layer Protocols Physical Layer Specifications 7.1.1 The RS-232 Standard 7.1.2 Other Standards

7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8

Data Link Layer Specifications Ethernet Systems ARCnet Systems Token Ring Systems Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) LocalTalk Systems Chapter 7 Study Tips

Chapter 8 8.1

Software Protocols Novell NetWare 8.1.1 The IPX Packet 8.1.2 The SPX Packet

8.2

TCP/IP Protocols 8.2.1 The IP Packet 8.2.2 The TCP Packet 8.2.3 Additional TCP/IP-Related Protocols

8.3 8.4 8.5

SNA (Systems Network Architecture) GOSIP (Government OSI Profile) and OSI Other Protocols 8.5.1 AppleTalk 8.5.2 DNA (Digital Network Architecture)

8.6

Chapter 8 Study Tips

Chapter 9 9.1

Future Trends In Networking Total Transparency

9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5

Distributed Computing and Management Increased Access A Changing Business Chapter 9 Study Tips

Preface

Welcome
Welcome to Understanding Networking Technologies. This course is designed to provide you with up-to-date information on networking. The content focuses on local area networks and the technology for connecting them together. It is general enough to give a broad overview of today's technologies and trends, while detailed enough for you to see the inner workings of modern networking. This course is specifically designed for those who need to know networking from a technical and practical point of view. It is also designed to help prepare those who intend to complete Novell's Certified Netware Engineer program.

On Becoming a CNE

As a computer professional, you undoubtedly recognize that there is no substitute for adequate training. In working with hundreds of network administrators, I never cease to be amazed at the lack of information or worse yet, the subtle misinformation, that exists within our industry. The reason for these maladies is a simple one. Most LAN personnel have had to train themselves for the most part, pulling themselves up by the boot straps, foraging through cryptic manuals to fight the everyday fires. Many have not had the opportunities of formal training, and this leads to gaps in knowledge. Fortunately many companies are investing more resources in adequately training their network support staff. These educational dollars pay off in saving employees valuable time in troubleshooting problems that have already been solved, a fact of which Novell Inc. is keenly aware. For the market leader in network operating systems, training means more than a few dollars' savings for you, it means big bucks for them. This is painfully evident in the cost of Novell's Certified NetWare Engineer (CNE) program which, at this writing, hovers at best around the 5 grand mark. At first glance, one might balk at the thought of investing such a sum for the "privilege" of supporting Novell's products, but market demand, more specifically -- reseller demand, is driving up the salary offers to CNEs. Some analysts believe that acquiring the certification will command about 5 to 10 thousand dollars annually above equally experienced non-certified personnel. In anyone's book, that's an outstanding return on investment.
9

When rubbing elbows with those who have completed their certification, one finds an interesting mix. CNEs themselves come from all sorts of industries and possess extremely diverse backgrounds as far as education and experience. I have met people who viewed the Novell tests for certification as a mere formality having already gathered the nuts and bolts knowledge to successfully operate in the networking environment. Others began their training on networks by completing the CNE program. Obviously the latter are shy on experience but do get a good grounding in the networking world, that is, the world according to Novell. Whatever the case, all have had the similar experiences of enduring the rigorous testing and many hours of self-study involved in becoming a CNE, and there is universal agreement that the training is worth it. One of the best things about Novell's training is that it has exposed a weakness in the marketplace for focused education on such broad but pertinent subjects as networking. The Local Area Network Dealers Association (LANDA) has consequently toyed with the idea of borrowing Novell's concepts and establishing a universal certification for network support personnel. The success of such a program will largely depend on the success of the CNE program. Fortunately, interest in the CNE program is greater than it has ever been.

II

About This Course

Novell's official CNE training program is composed of several core courses and electives which are more closely geared toward your purposes or areas of interest. Of the core education, the course designed to equip participants with a general overview of networking is called Networking Technologies. This course, Understanding Networking Technologies, is designed to provide you with the same basic type of information as the Novell course with a few notable enhancements. First, the goal of this training is clarity and understanding. Unfortunately for Novell, their training materials rival their product documentation in clarity and quality. NetWare's manuals have been the bane of many a network administrator, and Novell's training materials are, in this author's opinion, terse at best leaving one with a not-really-grasping-the-wholepicture feel. Secondly, Understanding Networking Technologies, will provide more support data and up-to-date information on emerging technologies. These additional tidbits will be enclosed in shaded boxes so as to set them apart from standard course material. Thirdly, the perspective of this course is from a computer professional's point of view. Though some subject matter is theoretical in nature, every effort is made to focus on the practicality of network operation.

10

Hopefully it is clear now that the goal of this training is to truly educate you with the added benefit of prepping you to pass Novell's CNE testing. It is our goal at Atrium Learning Center to provide better training than you expect at a cost lower than you expect. Whether you are preparing for CNE tests or just increasing your base of knowledge, we hope that you'll agree that the training is worth the investment. We are pleased to be a part of the process.

III

About This Coursebook

This manual is designed to be written in, folded, dog-eared, doodled on, highlighted, scuffed, and otherwise cosmetically altered as that is the acceptable condition of all well-used references. You'll notice that there is liberal area for note-taking in the margins of each page as well as note pages at the end of each chapter. This coursebook covers a host of networking concepts from the basics of global networking to intricacies of data communication. Topics include the products, communication schemes and protocols used by today's market leaders. Also mainframe and PC connectivity, network design and prevailing standards are discussed. This manual was created to accompany the training class Understanding Networking Technologies. It is in this context that this book can be optimally utilized. Study tips are provided at the end of each chapter to assist in mastering course material. IV Course Objectives

This course will provide training on a host of networking topics. When a computer professional has completed this training, he or she should be able to comfortably discuss the following: 1. A general history of networking 2. Modern benefits of networking 3. Network design (physical and logical) 4. Components native to local area networks and their function 5. LAN communication schemes 6. Network media including cabling and connectors

11

7. Installation and benefits of transmission media 8. Wireless methods of transmission 9. Network bridges including types, operation and benefits 10. Repeaters including operation and benefits 11. Wide area networks and their components 12. Gateways and routers including types, operation and benefits 13. Services offered by telecommunications companies including standard and ISDN services 14. Signal broadcasting and satellite transmission 15. Data switching technology including types and advantages 16. Fundamentals of data communication including signal conversion and conversion devices 17. Broadband vs. baseband transmission 18. Types and characteristics of multiplexing 19. Organizations involved in setting standards and references 20. The Open Systems Interconnection model including an explanation of its components and their operation 21. Physical layer transmission interfaces 22. Data link layer control specification 23. IEEE specifications (802.1 and 802.2) 24. Ethernet - specifications, operation, frame characteristics 25. ARCnet - specifications, operation, frame characteristics 26. Token Ring - specifications, operation, frame characteristics 27. FDDI - specifications, operation, frame characteristics 28. LocalTalk - specifications, operation, frame characteristics
12

29. NetWare protocols and their use 30. TCP/IP protocols and their use 31. SNA protocols and their applications 32. OSI protocols 33. AppleTalk and DNA protocols 34. Future trends in networking

13

Chapter 1 The Growth of Networking Technology

1.1

Modern Benefits of Networking

For those of us who have grown accustomed to seeing and utilizing various networks, it's hard to imagine what life would be like without them. The many conveniences that we enjoy, such as easy sharing of data and sharing of printers, would be hard to part with even for a day. Since the technology for linking personal computers together as well as with shared peripherals is not that old, many of us can remember the pains we had to go through to get a copy of a file to someone, especially if that someone was some distance away. Fortunately, those days are past. Today networks link every part of the globe. As would be expected, they are primarily found in the developed nations, but new networks are popping up daily in developing nations. The influence of Hong Kong on Mainland China is spurring the growth of networking there as well as in surrounding Asian countries. The Middle East, especially Saudi Arabia and Israel, are investing in networks as well. Though Eastern European countries were technologically starved under Soviet control, many are now starting afresh, purchasing advanced technology, taking a sizable leap in the upgrade path. Gradually a global linking is taking place, and thousands more join in the benefits of networking daily.

1.1.1 Data Sharing

Sharing data today is easier than ever, thanks to networking. Perhaps nothing else illustrates this better than the proliferation of electronic mail. E-mail has become one of the leading motivators for companies to invest in networks. As a means of sharing important information, E-mail is indispensable among organizations from every industry imaginable. A large number of us have become used to seeing a flashing icon or some other indicator signaling a letter waiting in our electronic mailboxes. The letter itself may contain notes about a friendly after-work game of golf, or last year's fiscal report. The ability to effortlessly and quickly move data from one person to the next is an option too good to pass up for many organizations.

14

Transmitting E-mail is one method of sharing data, but obviously there are others. Shared files may exist in one location with multiple people accessing them or updating parts of them. Database applications are found in virtually every computerized organization. Networks offer the capabilities of multi-user access. As you can imagine, there is inherent danger in two people accessing and altering the same file at the same time. What happens if two people update the same record at once? In times past this scenario would result in the "deadly embrace", where both parties became locked up and had to reboot, resulting in lost or corrupted data. More sophisticated database applications incorporate record locking, a means by which a person updating a record has exclusive use of the record while others who attempt to access it can not do so. This certainly eliminates the problems surrounding lock-ups but doesn't really eliminate the frustration of waiting on a record that someone else is updating, especially if that someone forgot what they were doing and headed off to lunch. Novell attempts to add to database functionality by providing BTRIEVE. This package is NetWare's database manager and it allows the implementation of features like record locking in the NetWare environment. Not only data files may be shared, but executable files may be shared as well. When a user invokes an executable file on a network server, a copy of it is transmitted over the network into the memory of the local user's workstation. That is where the actual execution takes place, not on the file server. The fact that execution takes place locally is what distinguishes PC networks from mainframe networks where processing is done centrally on the host and the terminals merely display the result. Once the executable file has been copied, it is then available for copying by other users. In this manner, a single executable file on a central file server can work for multiple users. Great care should be taken, however, to ensure that sufficient licensure has been secured in a multiuser environment so as to remain legal.

15

Figure 1-1: Modern networks can contain several components for allowing data and resource sharing.

1.1.2 Resource Sharing

One of the distinct benefits of modern networking is the ability to share peripherals. Few companies have the available resources to place a printer on every user's desk. Networks offer a logical and cost-effective solution. Since, once again, the introduction of several users could cause conflict at the printer, spooling is utilized so that print jobs can be arranged in an orderly manner. NetWare provides such services in the form of print queues and print servers. The ability of sharing printers and disk space has been the driving force behind many companies installing PC-based networks. Networks are now found in nearly every type of industry there is. From small companies to large multinational corporations, all benefit from sharing peripherals, including modems. Shared modems are typically called modem servers. Today's incarnations support multiple lines and are feature-laden.

1.2

The Development of Computer Networks

Computers have been around for several decades now. Forty years ago when large organizations utilized them, they were neither inexpensive nor portable. It's interesting to watch television documentaries of the computer industry's growth, especially the old footage of gentlemen proudly standing next to a glittering behemoth, full of flashing lights and whirring tapes. Those same film
16

clips usually show roomfuls of data entry personnel clicking away at card punch machines, a sight you are not likely to see today.

Figure 1-2: Early computer systems had no provisions for networking. Data was shared via punched card or tape.

1.2.1 Life Before Networking

The early computers were large in size due to the fact that vacuum tubes were used to facilitate their processing. It wasn't until the transistor was developed, and then the integrated circuit, that hardware began to assume a more compact size. Memory in the early days of computing was extremely costly so machines had relatively little. The type of memory utilized was called "core memory" consisting of metal rings and rods that were bulky at best. Storing data involved transferring it to tape, to punched cards, or later, to large hard disk systems. There were no floppy drives, and computers were not hooked together, so there was no easy way of sharing data without first placing it on tape or on punched card. As you can imagine, this placed a great deal of overhead on data sharing, and time truly became scarce as the computer became useful to more and more departments.

17

1.2.2 Early Connections

The first computers were not sophisticated enough to allow several users to utilize resources at once. Early operating systems were designed to process one job at a time. This type of processing was often called "batch" processing. Later, multitasking operating systems were de-veloped to allow several jobs to be processed simultaneously. Up to this point, computers were not "interactive". That is, they did not permit a user or operator to interact with the program while it was running. As soon as the operating systems became multitasking, the next trend was to interactive systems. Operating systems had to be developed that could facilitate this. Once developed, multiple users could interact with the CPU simultaneously via a computer terminal. This alleviated the tremendous backlog of jobs waiting to be done in the single-user, single-task environment. Early connections for multiple users were the first fledgling steps for computer networking. As systems grew, it became evident that the complete burden of processing rested on the CPU. It had to withstand access and processing for many users and had to oversee the routing of output to printers and terminals. Managing a CPU's resources effectively meant offloading mundane tasks that ate up CPU time. These tasks included communication processes. As the number of users interacting with a machine increased, the need for a device to take over this type of task became evident. When developed, the front-end processor experienced widespread usage. Front-end processors are still in use today, freeing up mainframe CPUs for more important tasks. Once the attachment of several users to a mainframe at a local site had been mastered, the next task was to offer connections at remote sites. This was accomplished via telephone lines. Obviously connecting one user remotely didn't seem such a chore, but connecting multiple users via a single telephone line presented a greater challenge. Special devices were created to meet this need. Concentrators allowed the blending of signals at various rates from terminal devices. A controller could oversee the routing of these signals to the appropriate host. The combination of these two devices into a single device, called a cluster controller, allowed remote terminals to seamlessly interact with a host computer. This technology opened the door of computing to many organizations that couldn't afford to buy a mainframe of their own. Computer owners worked out time-sharing deals with less fortunate companies. In short, computer resource availability increased quite dramatically.

18

Figure 1-3: Remote access to computers via telephone lines greatly enhanced computer resource availability. In the midst of these new advances, however, there was a major drawback. Purchasing a computer from a particular company locked you into the support provided by that company and it also locked you into using the particular communication technology employed by that company. If they shut down, so did your support. This problem was exacerbated by the poor interoperability among early computer vendors. As has always been the case, third-party companies sprang up to meet the interoperability needs, but significant differences in architecture and hardware implementation made their tasks difficult at best, sometimes impossible. The major players on the block in early networking included the International Business Machines Corporation (IBM), which should be no surprise, and Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC). IBM's early networking followed a specification called SNA, or Systems Network Architecture. Several devices were developed using SNA allowing the combination of computer resources from several internal groups within a large organization. This feat was important because for the first time, companies could readily share data from one department with another as well as balance processing loads between computer resources. DEC's DECnet offered similar advantages.

1.2.3. Modern Networking

19

The ability to balance processing load and resources was the prime motivator for launching us into the modern era of networking. There was one very large organization that discovered the necessity of spreading out the loads on its numerous computers. That organization was the United States Government. Spearheaded by the Department of Defense, a move to create a network linking the government's vast computer resources was undertaken. The end result brought together just about any group that might be in some way involved in defense and defense research, including many educational institutions. This expansive network was called ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network). What was so important about the development of ARPANET was the creation of protocols for linking dissimilar computers together. The evolution of these successes in interoperability led to the development of a very dominant set of protocols (called a suite) called TCP/IP protocols (Transmission Control Protocol / Internetwork Protocol). This unique group of specifications governs and facilitates the linking of computers practically all over the world. The huge internetwork that sprang from ARPANET is now called the Internet. Development of networking on a more local level was also progressing, especially among developers of minicomputers. In the late 70s, DEC, Intel and Xerox developed a scheme for networking across multi-vendor platforms. This new type of localized network, called Ethernet, served these purposes well. Ethernet governs the physical aspects of interconnecting local computers such as the cabling type, allowable distances, how data is placed onto the wire, how the data is formatted, etc. Because of these characteristics, Ethernet is often referred to as a "media" protocol. Ethernet is still in use today, in the PC network era, offering speeds of data transfer up to 10 million bits per second (Mbps). Current Ethernet standards are governed by IEEE committee 802. About the same time, a company called DataPoint developed a new protocol called ARCnet, short for Attached Resources Computer network. Like Ethernet, ARCnet is a set of media protocols. Interestingly enough, ARCnet is still marketed today at a price that is very budget oriented. It's speed, which is slow compared to other PC network protocols, is only 2.5 Mbps. This was based on the speed of early computer disk drive system speeds. ARCnet standards are governed by an informal group comprised of ARCnet-related vendors, not by IEEE. Yet, ARCnet is probably the most standardized network in terms of interoperability because of the strong commitment to interoperability amongst the vendors. The ability to link computers, often those created by different vendors, is made feasible by the adoption of standards. Standards-setting organizations include

20

the International Organization for Standardization (formerly the International Standards Organization or ISO) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (or IEEE). The contributions of these entities have pushed us into the next logical step of networking which is internetworking -- the linking of networks, which may differ significantly. The technology of performing internetworking is still evolving as new featureladen products are introduced almost daily. Realizing the benefits and importance of data and resource sharing, many companies are now connecting their networks from various departments or subsidiaries to each other, and implementing management tools that can govern the entire collection. These departments or other organizational units might be geographically located on opposite sides of the world or in the same building. Some may link with other companies on different continents creating a truly global network. The extension of networks across organizational, geographical and political boundaries will serve to bring our information, resources, and consequently our world, closer together.

Figure 1-4: Some enterprise networks or global networks span nearly the whole world. From Novell's point of view, the movement toward global networking requires appropriate technology. The latest incarnation of NetWare reflects this line of thinking as it is specifically geared toward managing network resources beyond the confines of a single office, building or campus. NetWare 4.0 now allows a
21

multiple file server environment to be administered with greater ease than with previous versions. Also many of the inner workings of the operating system itself has been shielded from the user. The growth of modern networking will continue on its rapid curve for quite some time as technology continues to develop. Networks will continue to grow in both size and complexity. From their humble beginnings to the colossal systems of today, networks have evolved into an integral and necessary part of the corporate world.

1.3

Chapter 1 Study Tips

1. Be able to briefly identify the major developments in computer networking. 2. Know the beginning and development of the Internet and TCP/IP. 3. Know some of today's uses for computer networks. 4. Cite trends for future networking.

22

Chapter 2 Local Area Networks

This chapter will introduce you to networking concepts, terminology, and technology from the perspective of the local area network. Since most networking personnel get their feet wet in local area networks (LANs) as opposed to larger wide area networks, this seems the appropriate place to start. This chapter will approach the technology of networking by migrating from a general view to one of more specifics in order to fully cover the topic. Perhaps the best place to begin is to look at a definition of a local area network. Local Area Network - An interconnection of computers and peripheral devices contained within a limited geographical area utilizing a communication link and operating under some form of standard control.

2.1

Network Topologies

The interconnection mentioned above follows a physical and logical layout. This layout, called a topology, governs many aspects of LANs including how they function and how easy they are to troubleshoot.

2.1.1 Point-to-Point Topology

Point-to-point topology is the simplest of the physical layouts of network devices. Point-to-point connections mean that two devices (nodes) have a single path for data to travel between them and there is nothing that breaks up that path.

23

Figure 2-1: Point-to-Point connections can be established between many devices. A prime example of how this topology is implemented in networking is the manner in which terminals are now connected to mainframes or minicomputers. Instead of having many cables from numerous terminals hooked into one of these computers, a device known as a terminal server allows the data from several terminals to be transmitted over a single cable. This single cable connection between the computer's front-end processor and the terminal server forms a point-to-point link. In addition, some terminal servers form point-topoint links with the individual terminals (Figure 2-1). The point-to-point topology can be seen as one of the basic building blocks of larger, more complicated topologies. All major topologies include point-to-point connections, even if there is no wire between two devices, but some other medium instead. Satellite transmissions are considered to be point-to-point communications. Similarly, laser transmissions can also be viewed in this manner. A variant on point-to-point connections is a multipoint topology in which a single cable may split into several segments in order to connect to several devices. Point-to-point topology is not just limited to networking use. You should be aware that the direct connection of a PC to a printer follows a point-to-point topology. In fact, any externally connected device, including modems or hard disk drives would also fall under this classification.

24

2.1.2. Bus Topology

If you have ever had the occasion to visit San Francisco, you might have noticed that the world-famous streetcars in that scenic city utilize a common cable running beneath the streets to propel them up the steep hills. Similarly, other major cities have mass transit systems like busses that utilize common wires above the streets for power. These shared cables might be called "bus wires", an excellent description of one of the most popular topologies for LANs -- the bus topology. Just as in the example of the electric busses, all devices share a common wire to transmit and receive data through in the bus topology (Figure 2-2). This approach is very economical as a single cable is cheaper to purchase than several individual cables for each device. Additionally, a single cable is easier to install than several cables. These apparent advantages of the bus topology are offset, however, by the difficulty in troubleshooting a problem in this layout scheme. Since all devices use the common wire, how do you track down one that has gone bad? The worst-case scenario in this situation may involve a trouble-shooter visiting and detaching every unit on the LAN until the offending machine is located. In short, troubleshooting bus topologies may require a good pair of sneakers. On the ends of the common cable or bus, a device called a terminator is utilized to absorb signals that have traversed the entire length of the bus. Since everyone shares the same cable, no two machines can transmit at once or the bits of data from each will collide destroying both pieces of information. This event is called a collision and obviously too many of them can be disastrous to traffic flow on a network. The terminator's vital role in absorbing data that has traveled the whole network ensures that bits of information do not reflect back across the bus. A data reflection can occur any time an electronic signal encounters a short (where the wires inside a cable get connected accidentally) or an open (where the wires are left unconnected as in when a terminator is removed). The end result is the same -- reflected data collides with the "good" data on the LAN and traffic flow is impacted.

25

Figure 2-2: Devices all share a common cable for transferring data in a bus topology LAN. Signals are eventually absorbed by the terminator. Ethernet is perhaps the most common type of LAN utilizing bus topology. Ethernet's speed is quick (10 Mbps) provided there are not a lot of collisions occurring. Ethernet handles collisions by allowing machines that experience this event to retransmit their data again at different timed intervals. Ethernet also incorporates a mechanism to warn all devices when collisions have occurred so they will not interfere with the error-correcting process. More details on this technology are provided in a later section of this book. Ethernet is not the only type of network that can operate using a bus topology. ARCnet, briefly mentioned in Chapter 1, can also function in a bus type of scheme. ARCnet differs from Ethernet in that every device must take its orderly turn to transmit data. Consequently, collisions aren't a problem for ARCnet. One minor problem that often catches administrative personnel off guard is the accidental use of an Ethernet terminator on an ARCnet LAN. If unlabled, which is very common, the terminator could inadvertently be installed on the ARCnet network severely impacting, if not halting, network performance. Terminators differ in their resistance value (in ohms), which can be measured with any multimeter device. Ethernet's terminators should measure at 50 ohms while ARCnet's should measure at 93 ohms. Token Ring technology allows for devices with token ring cards in them to revert to a bus topology in the event their usual topology (a ring) is broken. For token ring systems, a small signal called a token is passed from one machine to another in a certain order. This signal gives permission for the device to transmit data. Unlike Ethernet bus systems, absorption of data that is already "used" is
26

done by the token ring network interface cards (NICs) themselves, not by an external termi-nator. Though tokens are mostly used with ring topologies (to be discussed later), standards exist for what is known as a token bus. This specification details how a token is used in a bus topology. In summary, the key strength for the bus topology is its minimal use of cable and ease of installation. Its major drawback is its difficulty to troubleshoot.

2.1.3. Star Topology

Today if you decide to install a LAN, your local LAN dealer will probably suggest you look seriously at star topology networks. Star topology networks are nothing new, they just offer some benefits that are hard to overlook. Star topology derives its name from the arrangement of devices so that they radiate from a central point. At the central point we usually see a device generically called a hub (Figure 2-3). Key to the benefits of the star topology is the hub unit which may vary in function from a simple signal splitter (called a passive hub) to one that amplifies and keeps statistics on data traveling through them (termed as an active and intelligent hub). In fact, hubs may be sophisticated enough to selectively disconnect any machine connected to them that is misbehaving, as well as allow network operators to dial into to them and monitor the performance of a single workstation. It's these advantages that make the star topology a popular choice in the networking marketplace. Hubs that amplify signals coming through are called active hubs or multiport repeaters. Star topologies do require more cable than a simple bus topology, but most use a relatively inexpensive type of cable called twisted pair cabling which helps control costs of wiring. The hubs themselves require expense and the level of that expense is directly attributable to how complex a hub is needed. Troubleshooting a star topology network is a bit easier than bus topology. At the very least, one may disconnect devices from a central hub to isolate a problem as opposed to visiting each individual machine. Above this physical level of troubleshooting, there is hub management software that can report problems back to you. It's obvious how the central hub device offers advantages, but there is one drawback. The hub itself represents a single point of failure. If you lose a hub, you effectively lose all workstations attached to it. Quality and reliability of hub products you purchase can not be over-stressed.

27

Figure 2-3: The star topology involves one or more devices radiating out from a central point (i.e. hub). Ethernet, ARCnet, token ring, and FDDI (fiber optic) LANs all use the star topology in some form of their implementation. The flavor of Ethernet that uses this layout is called 10BASE-T Ethernet. In this system, the hubs are referred to as concentrators. Each concentrator amplifies each signal passing through it so that data will travel further along the cabling connecting each workstation to the device. Each piece of cable radiating out from the hub device, along with its workstation, is known as a lobe. ARCnet has used the star topology for some time. Hubs for ARCnet comes in active and passive varieties. Passive hubs do not perform any re-amplification of signals passing through them. For that reason cables stretching out from passive hubs seldom extend beyond 100 feet in length. However, for about $50.00 more, one may purchase an active hub that does amplify signals allowing lobes to extend up to 2,000 feet from the device. That's a marked improvement and, in the opinion of this author, worth the extra 50 bucks. Token ring systems are unique in that physically they use a star topology, but logically they use what is known as a ring topology. The advantages of star topology are apparent in this type of LAN with its central hub device being referred to as a Multistation Access Unit (MAU, MSAU) or Controlled Access Unit (CAU). Inside this central device a ring is created connecting all lobes. This ring is what the token uses to travel from machine to machine on the network.
28

The specification for networks utilizing fiber optic cable is called FDDI, short for Fiber Distributed Data Interface. FDDI is often pronounced like "fiddy". FDDI networks are very similar to token ring networks in their layout and operation. Therefore, they share many of the same advantages, including a star topology. FDDI networks operate at speeds of up to 100 Mbps. There are a few other points worthy of noting concerning the star topology. It is also used by the AT&T-marketed StarLAN. StarLAN shares many characteristics with 10BASE-T Ethernet. Stars can require a lot of cable depending on how they must be physically laid out. Incidentally, the earliest commercially form of a Novell network operating system (NOS) used a star topology where every workstation had to plug into a single proprietary file server. Sold in the early 80s, this system supported a maximum of 24 workstations. Speeds on the network were rated at 232,000 bits per second (232 Kbps). Fortunately, Novell has come a long way since then, but, then again, so has everybody. Star topologies are not just used by local area networks. They are found in other areas of life as well. One of the most common star topologies found in any company is the phone system, which typically radiates out from a central site. Because of this, phone system equipment and cabling are often used in setting up LANs. In summary, star topology systems offer better troubleshooting and management capabilities, but require more physical resources than a comparable bus system.

2.1.4 Ring Topology

Ring Topology describes the logical layout of token ring and FDDI networks. In this scheme, a ring is created to which each device (workstation, server, etc.) attaches (Figure 2-4). A special signal, called a token travels around this ring visiting each machine, letting it know that it is that machine's turn to transmit. Since the token visits every node, every one gets the chance to transmit, creating a very "fair" LAN. This simplistic explanation belies the true complexity of ring topology systems available today. Token ring LANs, and their FDDI cousins, are the most sophisticated, fault-tolerant, and, consequently, the most ex-pensive systems available in the current marketplace. The logical creation of a ring allows information on such a LAN to travel in one direction. Since only one device is allowed to transmit at a time, collisions are not a problem on ring systems. Of course there are always problems that can occur like bad network cards or hub units that will bring a ring topology LAN to
29

a grinding halt, but they are often very resilient. Typical ring system network interface cards (NICs) contain the ability to perform what is known as signal regeneration. This means information received by them is copied and retransmitted at a higher amplification. Since every piece of data traveling around a ring must visit each device, the signal gets regenerated numerous times. This feature allows for greater distances between nodes and increased chances that good data will completely traverse the ring. More details on ring topology systems will be passed along in later sections of this coursebook.

Figure 2-4: Even though token ring LANs utilize a star topology physically, this illustration shows that a logical ring is created inside the MAU.

2.1.5 Mesh Topology

30

Figure 2-5: Every device has a direct path to every other device in the seldom used mesh topology. Mesh topology is uncommon today because of its sheer impracticality. In a mesh topology system, every node is connected to every other node. The pervading thought behind this is to offer the maximum amount of reliability for data transit and fault-tolerance (Figure 2-5). The major problem is the amount of cabling necessary to create this topology, plus each link from one device to another requires an individual NIC. Not only are physical components wasted, but the overall capacity to carry data is grossly under-utilized unless all nodes are transmitting to one another almost constantly.

2.1.6. Special Topology

Special topologies refer to those networks that are made of several different topologies. Another name given special topologies is hybrid topology. Special topologies are becoming quite common today as corporations continue to link their internal LANs together while adding external networks to the mix via wide area networks (WANs). This topology description usually refers to a collection of networks. An example of a special or hybrid topology would be one where a perhaps a ring topology network (token ring) is used to connect a series of star topology LANs (10BASE-T Ethernet). Then the ring network is connected to another network via point-to-point topology (Figure 2-6).

31

Figure 2-6: Special or hybrid topologies are often the combination of several different kinds of other topologies. From a troubleshooting point of view, techniques usually involve isolating sections of the whole hybrid network as to determine the source of problems. Once the troubled piece is located, techniques to finish off the problem vary by what type of topology may be used by that offending network. These special topology networks require special management tools that are capable of interacting with several different types of LAN environments. Novell offers a product called Network Management Services that is designed to handle these systems. In addition, several companies have embraced a standard called DME (Distributed Management Environment) in creating tools for hybrid networks. DME was created by an organization called the Open Systems Foundation (OSF).

2.2

Components

A local area network can be composed of several components. This section deals with what those components are focusing on terminology and functionality.

2.2.1. Servers

32

Server is a generic term applied to any machine running a "service" application. That service being performed might include access to shared files (file server) or access to shared printers (print server). Novell's file services are all governed by the portion of the Novell oper-ating system that resides on your file server. In addition, NetWare provides security services that offer login/password protection.

Figure 2-7: Several different types of servers are utilized on LANs. There are other types of servers besides file and print servers. Communication servers offer access to remote devices outside of a network. That access might be to a mainframe or minicomputer, or other networks, workstations or servers. Typically, a machine that allows multiple users to share one or more modems for external connections is called a modem server. Modem servers are becoming increasingly popular today as more and more companies find the need to access external information or E-mail services. Another type of server is known as a database server. This unique device assists users in interacting with databases by coordinating the data sent to the local workstation. It takes a burden off the local PC by filtering out all but required data, which also greatly reduces LAN traffic. File servers sit at the heart of just about every network. Their responsibility is to dole out files to users requesting them and to sometimes deny that access where appropriate. File servers must know which directories and files that certain users
33

are allowed to utilize in order to efficiently manage them. The responsibility of providing security information to the machine is that of the supervisor, administrator, or some other level of network management personnel. When users request a file, its contents are copied across the network into the memory of the user's local workstation. Once there, the user may use it however they wish. Some files are not designed to be simultaneously shared on the network. Many executable files, for instance, are only utilized by one person at a time. Consequently, if one user attempts to use one of these non-shareable files while another has it tied up, the file server will be responsible for letting the user know there is a conflict. For those files that are shareable, the file server will allow multiple copies of these to be sent to the workstations if the users only want to view the contents of them. If users are allowed to simultaneously update a file, its records being updated would have to be locked so more than one user can not be updating the same section of the file. This would pose a serious conflict and might result in the "deadly embrace". The file server must be able to distinguish whether or not a file is shareable or nonshareable. Often that delineation is done by the network administrator. A print server's role is very important in the shared peripheral environment as it carries out the crucial task of making sure data from an application successfully reaches its temporary holding tank (queue) and subsequently the printer for which it was destined. The queue mentioned above is a simple directory located beneath the SYSTEM directory on a NetWare file server. It is a holding place for files containing data to be printed. The concept of placing these files (called print jobs in NetWare) into a queue is called spooling, a term borrowed from mainframe vernacular. Spooling itself must be performed in any shared printer environment in order to eliminate the possibility of two print jobs reaching the printer at the same time resulting in conflict. NetWare makes sure that only one print job gets printed on a single printer at once. The print services may be controlled by software or hardware. Novell print services are software controlled. If you were to buy a device that attaches directly to your LAN and to your printer(s), that unit would be called a hardware print server. It carries out the role of making sure print data gets printed correctly. Examples of hardware print servers would include Intel's NetPort and Castelle's JetPress card for HP LaserJet printers. Other vendors of software-based print servers include LAN Systems with their LAN Spool product and Brightwork Development with their PS-Print product.

2.2.2. Workstations
34

We should be careful to delineate that the term "workstation" may be a little misleading depending on your particular involvement in the computer industry. In PC-based local area networking, a workstation refers to a machine that will allow users access to a LAN and its resources while providing intelligence onboard allowing local execution of applications. This would pretty well cover the gamut of all PCs. The term is also applied to some CAD (Computer-Aided Design) or CAM (Computer-Aided Manufacturing) machines that may not be attached to a LAN. In addition, there is a machine that is manufactured by Sun Microsystems, Inc., that is also called a workstation - a Sun Workstation. This device uses the UNIX operating system and can also function as a file server. Its speed and capabilities are generally superior to that of everyday PCs. Workstations may allow data to be stored locally or remotely on a file server. Obviously, diskless workstations require all data to be stored remotely including that data necessary for the diskless machine to boot up. Executable files may reside locally or remotely as well, meaning a workstation can run its own programs or those copied off the LAN. Though the source of data doesn't matter, the destination for execution does. Processing is done on local machines in PC LANs.

2.2.3. Network Interface Cards

The NIC is obviously a crucial component to networking. It allows a device to participate on the network. Token ring LANs require token ring NICs, Ethernet LANs require Ethernet NICs, etc. Software is required to interface between a particular NIC and an operating system (i.e. NetWare). This interface is called a driver. NetWare provides several drivers for different vendors' cards. The vendors themselves will provide drivers for their cards as well. Different drivers are needed for integrating a NIC on a workstation as opposed to a file server. That's because the operating systems on the two types of machines are different.

2.2.4. Hubs
35

Hubs are a crucial element to all star topology LANs. Hubs serve as a central device through which data bound for a workstation travels. The data may be distributed, amplified, regenerated, screened or cut off. Hubs have different names depending on the type of LAN. In token ring LANs they are referred to as Multistation Access Units or Controlled Access Units (MAUs or CAUs). In 10BASE-T Ethernet, they are referred to as concentrators. In ARCnet they are simply called hubs. Hubs vary in their capabilities and sophistication. ARCnet passive hubs are very inexpensive and only split signals among several devices. Other hub units cost several thousands of dollars providing state-of-the-art remote management and diagnostic capabilities.

2.2.5. Peripherals
Peripherals include any device that would ordinarily be attached to a computer. LANs allow many of these devices to be shared among several workstations. File servers, in effect, allow the sharing of one common peripheral - the disk drive. Other peripheral devices commonly shared include scanners, modems, plotters and printers.

2.2.6. Software
There are two main types of software utilized in the networking environment operating systems and applications. In the NetWare environment there are at least two operating systems utilized. NetWare is the operating system (OS) residing on and operating the file server. DOS, OS/2, Unix, or System 7 may the name of the OS on your workstation. The NetWare operating system allows rapid access to the shared hard disk(s) of a file server. It accomplishes this feat through intelligent placement of items in the file servers on-board memory (caching) relieving the need for continual disk access. NetWare also provides security to the files as well as provides output to you that closely or exactly emulates your local OS. The local OS might include one that you directly interact with such as DOS or one that operates behind a graphical user's interface (GUI) like the Macintosh System 7 OS.

36

The local OS must still oversee the execution of programs locally as well as handle all requests that are to be carried out on a local basis. For instance, utilizing DOS's DIR command requires the local DOS to cough up the file listing on the requested drive. An NDIR command in NetWare demands a similar response of the file server's operating system. Part of the functionality of NetWare files residing and operating on the local workstation is to determine whether or not commands should be routed to the local operating system or NetWare.

Figure 2-8: NetWare resides on the File Server and in the shell files running on the local workstation which may itself be utilizing another operating system. Applications for the LAN vary incredibly in their use and design. Applications that make use of certain network features (such as network drive letters) are considered to be "LAN-Aware". Some applications may be LAN-aware but limited in their functionality when in the network environment.

2.3

Communication Schemes

Communication schemes are those methods used by various types of local area networks for transferring data from one point to another. Another common term applied to this function is channel access method.

37

There are several schemes or methods used in networking today. The leaders include contention and token passing. Another method that has been used in the past is called polling.

2.3.1. Contention
The contention channel access method involves multiple devices sharing a common transmission media. An example would be Ethernet's modus operandi. In bus topology systems like this, all devices are attached to a common wire. As mentioned in a previous section of this coursebook, this means that only one device may use the common wire at a time. Since several devices may need to use the wire at once, machines are said to be contending for the media. If the system is operating within tolerable limits, every machine will eventually get the opportunity to transfer data.

Figure 2-9: With contention systems, devices must listen for the opportunity to transmit data. Ethernet systems use a channel access method known as CSMA/CD, short for Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection. Though this seems a lot of words, the meaning is quite simple. Carrier Sense means that each device checks the LAN before it starts transmitting to see if some other device is using the media then. If another signal (containing a "carrier") was present, then the device attempting to send would wait until the LAN is clear. Then it transmits its data. The collision detection part means that each workstation listens to make sure that only one signal is present on the LAN. In the event there are two then obviously the data from one device has collided with that of another. Once a
38

workstation detects a collision, it sends out a series of 1 bits alerting the rest of the network. At that point everyone stops transmitting and each workstation waits a random amount of time before attempting to transmit again. The delay time is regulated by a random number generator on-board each Ethernet card. LocalTalk LANs used by Macintosh PCs also use CSMA contention schemes, but these machines incorporate a technology called time- division multiplexing to allow avoidance of collisions. In fact, LocalTalk systems are said to be CSMA/CA systems, with CA standing for Collision Avoidance. The major advantage of contention systems is that devices may transmit whenever they like just as long as the LAN is free. Consequently the overhead of devices waiting on the opportunity is generally low. Since any device can participate at almost any time, no attempt is made to prioritize LAN access in any way. However, as traffic increases in a contention system, collisions can become excessive, severely impacting the overall performance of the network. The capacity of the LAN may be far underutilized in this event. The other major disadvantage is that contention systems do not follow an easily predictable pattern of performance degradation as traffic increases. The true loss in performance can only be guessed at statistically. The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) has created a standard for Ethernet-type systems that include specifications for implementation of contention in these types of LANs. The standard is called 802.3.

2.3.2. Token Passing Scheme

This technology is used for token ring systems. Its incorporation along with complimentary fault-tolerance capabilities yield a LAN with a fair amount of sophistication, manageability and reliability.

39

Figure 2-10: The token visits every device on the LAN giving each permission to transmit if ready. In this channel access method, a small signal called a token regularly visits each device. The token gives permission for the device to transmit if it needs to. If a transfer of data is needed, the device receives a set amount of time to broadcast its data. When it is done, the machine then retransmits the token to another machine giving that recipient permission to transmit, and so the system continues. This mechanism ensures opportunity for all devices to gain access to the LAN. Because of its predictable behavior, token scheme LANs offer the advantage of priorities, where a certain group of devices may have enhanced access to the LAN if warranted. Token passing systems may be implemented using either bus or ring topology. The IEEE standard governing token bus systems is called 802.4. The token ring specifications are called 802.5. Vendors count on standards such as these to help make sure that their products are interoperable with those of other vendors. As traffic demand increases on a token LAN, the overall throughput of data rises as well as until a point is reached where the networks simply cannot accommodate anymore. The function in this case is somewhat like a waterwheel. The wheel itself receives water from a sluice. You may increase the capacity of the wheel, but the sluice can only hold so much water, so there is a finite limit to the throughput of the system.

40

Because the throughput characteristics of token LANs are so predictable, and because of the characteristics of traffic demand vs. throughput, these systems are ideal for heavy traffic situations. However, the complexity of such a LAN does come at some cost. Token systems require overhead to carry out their many functions including fault-tolerance. Plus, token ring systems are considerably more expensive than Ethernet systems. Factors weighing in deciding which system to choose should include traffic demand and budgetary restraints.

2.3.3. Polling
Polling is a means by which a central controlling device may regulate the opportunity for machines to transfer data on the LAN. In effect, several devices attached to a controller unit are individually given permission to access the LAN. This technology is often employed in LANs associated with mainframes and minicomputers. The terminology used in polling systems is worthy of mentioning. The device that governs the access of other units is called a "controller" or a "primary" device. The units themselves can be referred to as "secon-daries". When the system is operating, the controller gives permission to a secondary to send via a signal akin to a token in functionality. The secondary then has exclusive use of the network to transfer data for a set period of time. When that time expires or if the device is through transmitting, the controller routes the same request for transmit to the next secondary in line. The obvious advantage of a polled system is the fairness factor. All devices are given access at a predetermined time. In fact, certain devices may be given more frequent access courtesy of priorities if warranted. In addition, polling systems are highly predictable in their behavior. As traffic load increases so does throughput until a certain point is reached. The example of the waterwheel as cited in the token-passing section applies to this LAN system as well.

41

Figure 2-11: Polling can be used by a controlling device to allow attached machines to transmit at predetermined intervals. Like the token passing systems, polling may not provide the best use of all the LAN's capacity at lower traffic levels. Obviously there is overhead involved in sending out requests to transmit, especially to devices that need to transmit nothing. They still have to be polled for this to be ascertained.

2.4

Transmission Media

Transmission media is what actually carries a signal from one point to another. This may include copper wiring in the case of twisted pair cable or coax cable, or electronic waves in the case of microwave or satellite transmission. A medium such as copper wiring is referred to as bounded media because it holds electronic signals. Fiber optic cable is said to be bounded media as well because it holds light waves. Other media that do not physically constrain signals are considered to be unbounded media.

42

2.4.1. Twisted Pair Cabling

Twisted pair cabling is the current popular favorite for new LAN installations. The marketplace popularity is primarily due to twisted pair's (TP's) low cost in proportion to its functionality. Its usage has been justified through years of implementation by phone companies as it is the medium used by them to connect our world together. In many cases, TP cabling has already been installed in a site by the phone company during telephone installation removing the need to put in any new cabling for a local area network. The construction of TP is simple. Two insulated wires are twisted around one another a set number of times within one foot of distance. If properly manufactured, the twists themselves fall in no consistent pattern. This is to help offset electrical disturbances which can affect TP cable such as radio frequency interference (RFI) and electromagnetic interference (EMI). These "pairs" of wires are then bundled together and coated to form a cable.

Figure 2-12: Twisted pair cabling is exactly what its name implies - two wires twisted around one another. Twisted pair comes in two different varieties - shielded and unshielded. Shielded twisted pair (STP) is often implemented with LocalTalk by Apple and by IBM's token ring systems. STP is simply TP cabling with a foil or mesh wrap inside the outer coating. This special layer is designed to help offset interference problems. The shielding has to be properly grounded, however, or it may cause serious problems for the LAN. Twisted pair cabling with no shielding is simply called unshielded twisted pair (UTP). Connectors used with TP included RJ-11 and RJ-45 modular connectors in current use by phone companies. Occasionally other special connectors, such as

43

IBM's Data Connector, are used. RJ-11 connectors accommodate 4 wires or 2 twisted pairs, while RJ-45 houses 8 wires or 4 twisted pairs. TP cabling has been around a while and is a tried and true medium. It hasn't been able to support high speed data transmissions until relatively recently however. New development is focusing on achieving 100 Mbps throughput on UTP without costing the user an arm and a leg. A copper version of fiber optic's FDDI, called CDDI, will continue to mature while standardization is worked out for 100 Mbps Ethernet systems by the mid 90s. Copper cable will not allow the speeds attainable with fiber optic cable. However, the standard for fiber stipulates LAN speeds of only 100 Mbps, far below the fiber optic cable's actual capacity. Twisted pair is grouped into certain classifications based on quality and transmission characteristics. The classifications are called "types" by IBM. UTP by itself is often grouped by "grades".

Unshielded Twisted Pair Grades

Grade 1 Suitable for voice transmission and data transfer up to 1 Mbps Grade 2 Capable of carrying data at 4 Mbps Grade 3 Carries data at up to 10 Mbps Grade 4 Rated at 20 Mbps Grade 5 Supports speeds at up to 100 Mbps

Twisted Pair Cable Types (IBM Standards)

Type 1 STP, two pair, 22 gauge, solid conductors, braided-shield Type 2 cable with additional four pairs of UTP Type 3 UTP, 22 or 24 gauge, 2 twists per foot, four pairs Type 5 Fiber optic cable used to link MAUs Type 6 Two pair, stranded (not solid) 26 gauge, patch cables Type 8 Two pair, 26 gauge, untwisted but shielded cable

44

2.4.2. Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable or just "coax" enjoys a huge installed base among LAN sites in the US. It has fit the bill perfectly for applications requiring stable transmission characteristics over fairly long distances. It has been used in ARCnet systems, Ethernet systems and is sometimes used to connect one hub device to another in other systems. This is due to coax's superior distance allowances. Construction-wise coax is a little more complex then TP. It is typically composed of a copper conductor that serves as the "core" of the cable. This conductor is covered by a piece of insulating plastic, which is covered by a wire mesh serving as both a shield and second conductor. This second conductor is then coated by PVC or other coating. The conductor within a conductor sharing a single axis is how the name of the cable is derived.

Figure 2-13: Coaxial cable's use of a second conductor doubling as shielding helps reduce effects of outside interference. Coaxial cable's construction and components make it superior to twisted pair for carrying data. It can carry data farther and faster than TP can. These characteristics improve as the size of the coax increases. There are several different types of coax used in the network world. Each has its own RG specification that governs size and impedance, the measure of a cable's resistance to an alternating current. One must be cautious in acquiring coax to make sure the right kind has been obtained. Different cable can differ widely in many important areas.

45

Common Coaxial Cable Types Used In Networking

Type RG-8 RG-11 RG-58 RG-59 RG-62 Common Usage Thick Ethernet Broadband LANs Thin Ethernet Television ARCnet Impedance 50 ohms 75 ohms 50 ohms 75 ohms 93hms

Twisted pair has one chief advantage, however, and it's an important one. TP is less expensive than coax. In addition, as mentioned in our earlier section, TP is often already available on-site due to phone installation. TP is also extremely flexible and easy to work with, though it may not be as sturdy as coax. Because of these factors, the current marketplace has migrated away from coax and it is no longer the "chic" cable to buy. Plus, most development research is based on improving performance on twisted pair systems. Coax still has specific purposes, which means it won't go away, but its role as primary choice for cabling is no longer accepted in the marketplace. Great caution should be used when selecting connectors for coax. There is standardly available about 4 different kinds of connectors. The first is the factory pre-molded connections. These tend to be quite sturdy and reliable. The second type is soldered connections. These too appear to be very reliable and durable. The third type is the crimped- on connections. Crimped connections are as good as the crimp tool and the crimper. If a proper tool is purchased (between $75 and $140, US), then getting the crimp right every time should be no problem. There is never any need to apply excessive force to the tool. The worst-case scenario is crushing the cable during a crimp resulting in a short. The fourth kind of connector is called screw-on connector. Screw-on connectors are notorious for being extremely flimsy and unreliable. You do yourself well to avoid them. All told, coax is an excellent medium for LANs, just expensive in comparison to UTP. Its widespread use will ensure that its existence is supported for quite some time.

2.4.3. Fiber Optic Cable

Carrying data at dizzying speeds, fiber has come into its own as the premier bounded media for high speed LAN use. Because of fiber's formidable expense, however, you're not likely to see it at the local workstation any time real soon.

46

Instead, fiber is used to link vital components (like file servers) in a LAN or multi-LAN environment together. Consequently we often hear terms like "fiber backbone" thrown around. Fiber optic is unsophisticated in its structure, but expensive in its manufacture. The crucial element for fiber is glass that makes up the core of the cabling. The glass fibers may be only a few microns thick or bundled to produce something more sizable. It is worth noting that there are two kinds of fiber optic cable commercially available - single mode and multimode. Single mode is used in the telecommunications industry by companies like AT&T or US Sprint to carry huge volumes of voice data. Multimode is what we use in the LAN world. The glass core of a fiber optic cable is surrounded by and bound to a glass tube called "cladding". Cladding adds strength to the cable while disallowing any stray light wave from leaving the central core. This cladding is then surrounded by a plastic or PVC outer jacket with provides additional strength and protection for the innards. Some fiber optic cables incorporate Kevlar fibers for added strength and durability. Kevlar is the stuff of which bullet-proof vests are made, so it's tough.

Figure 2-14: Fiber optic cable provides tremendous bandwidth for data transmissions. Its construction makes it a very durable medium. Fiber optic is lightweight and is utilized often with LEDs (Light-Emitting Diodes) and ILDs (Injection Laser Diodes). Since it contains no metal, it is not susceptible to problems that copper wiring encounters like RFI and EMI. Plus, fiber optic is extremely difficult to tap, so security is not a real issue. The biggest hindrance to fiber is the cost. Special tools and skills are needed to work with fiber. These tools are expensive and hired skills are expensive too. The cable itself is pricey, but demand will ease that burden as more people invest in this medium. Attempts have been made to ease the cost of fiber. One solution was to create synthetic cables from plastic as opposed to glass. While this cable worked, it didn't possess near the capabilities of glass fiber optic, so
47

its acceptance has been somewhat limited. The plastic fiber cables are constructed like glass fiber only with a plastic core and cladding. The bandwidth or capacity of fiber is enormous in comparison with copper cabling. Multimode fiber can carry data in excess of 5 gigabits per second (that's million megabits). Single mode fiber used in telecommunications has a theoretical top speed in excess of 25,000 Gbps. That much data is the equivalent of all the catalogued knowledge of man transmitted through a single small glass tube in less than 20 seconds. That's impressive. The standard governing implementation of fiber optic in the marketplace is called the Fiber Distributed Data Interface standard or FDDI. FDDI specifies the speed of the LAN, the construction of the cable, and distance of transmission guidelines. FDDI behaves very much like token ring, only much faster. An added feature for FDDI is a backup ring in case the main ring fails. This fault tolerance along with the fault tolerance already incorporated in token ring technology makes FDDI LANs pretty resilient. One minor drawback for fiber optic LANs is that they can be difficult to layout.

2.4.4. Cabling Summary

Now that we've examined the major bounded media, let's take a quick look at how they compare. Twisted Pair Cable Advantages Inexpensive. Often available in existing phone system. Well tested and easy to get. Disadvantages Susceptible to RFI and EMI. Not as durable as coax. Doesn't support as high a speed as other media.

Coaxial Cable
48

Advantages Fairly resistant to RFI and EMI. Supports faster data rates than twisted pair. More durable than TP.

Disadvantages Can be effected by strong interference. More costly than TP. Bulkier and more rigid than TP.

Fiber Optic Cable Advantages

Disadvantages Extremely costly in product and service. Sophisticated tools and methods for installation. Complex to layout and design.

Highly secure. Not affected by RFI and EMI. Highest bandwidth available. Very durable.

2.5

Wireless Media

The dream of being able to communicate data in networks without having deal with the constraints of physical cabling is very much realized today. Wide area networks obviously make use of wireless technology to transmit data around our globe. The acceptance of wireless networks on the local level has been significantly hindered, however, for a number of reasons. Perhaps the biggest drawback to the two major local wireless technologies radio and infrared - has been their speed. Neither could come close to matching the 10 or 16 Mbps provided by conventional bounded media LANs. In fact, until recently, these technologies were struggling within their confines to reach out of the Kbps range. Today, however, wireless LANs are climbing out of the doldrums with comparable speeds to token ring systems. The perception that they are slow and limited is still fairly widespread, however, which will limit wireless' acceptance on the desktop. Additionally, the size of the installed base of physical wiring plays a part in unbounded local media acceptance. The United States, for instance, has a very large installed base of physical cabling. It's readily available and fast. Other countries like Japan, surprisingly enough, do not have such a large installed base. Consequently, their marketplaces are more open to the idea of wireless

49

LANs and emerging higher speed technologies may find better acceptance there. Another major hurdle for wireless LANs will be the standardization process. This is necessary if there is ever any hope for interoperability in the marketplace between products from different vendors. The IEEE has created a committee that will oversee this standardization. The standard will be called the 802.11 standard.

2.5.1. Radio
Radio offers superior characteristics as a wireless media but suffers from a major hindering force known as the government. The government doesn't mean to hinder radio LANs, but the Federal Communications Commission must bridle radio for LAN use in order to responsibly manage our public airwaves, and that is, after all, what we pay them to do. Fortunately, radio LAN product manufacturers have isolated frequencies that are not licensed by the government and made use of these allowing them to scoot under the regulatory fence. Radio transmitters are omnidirectional and can easily penetrate walls, floors, ceiling and the like. Electrically speaking, the waves that are classified as radio waves have certain frequencies that are grouped together for certain uses. Some are available for data transmission, but the bandwidth necessary to perform high speed data transfers is not found at any given slot on the radio spectrum. Many vendors are now employing spread-spectrum technology where the available slots in the radio spectrum are all used together. Using this technology, speeds at up to 2 Mbps have been achieved.

50

Figure 2-15: Radio-based LANs use portable transmitters and receivers at each LAN device. Radio-based LANs do have to contend with the interference that occurs daily in the workplace. That interference can come from a number of different electrical sources and can be quite impacting on LAN performance. For radio systems using only a small portion of the radio spectrum (narrowband systems), this could mean that problem might be insurmountable. The vendors of spreadspectrum products claim that their products can isolate interference problems and avoid using those frequencies. Though radio offers portability to any node within range, its unbounded nature makes it somewhat less secure. A "non-friendly" could, in theory, listen in to your radio broadcasts. The eavesdropper would have to, of course, know what frequency or frequencies you were using. Once that hurdle was overcome, your LAN would be laid bare. Radio, though limited by its speed, may be the wireless transmission method of choice for many desktops because of its low cost and capabilities. However, the delay of regulation has cost radio a few months before standardization. This has given infrared vendors at least a little time to create competing products.

51

2.5.2. Infrared
Infrared technology uses the invisible portion of the light spectrum with wavelengths just a little less than those of red light. These frequencies are very high offering nice data transfer rates. Modern infrared LANs can achieve throughput at 16 Mbps with potential for better. We are used to seeing infrared technology utilized for our television or VCR remotes.

Figure 2-16: Infrared transmissions offer potential for high speed data transfer but are limited by inability to penetrate walls and floors. Infrared technology involves the use of an infrared transmitter like an LED or ILD along with a receiver, typically a photodiode. These components operate in a line-of-sight fashion. That is, nothing can obstruct the pathway between them. Fortunately these signals can be bounced off walls and ceilings providing transmission around obstacles. Line-of-sight means, however, that these signals cannot be broadcast through walls, severely limiting infrared LANs. Modern infrared systems use a repeater device simply to retransmit a signal from one room into another. This device is generally mounted on the ceiling or high in a corner to alleviate as many obstacles as possible. These systems also use a process called "diffusion" to send the signal in a wide path across a room thus reducing the chance of signals not getting past a single obstacle. The good news about infrared technology is that it may not be very costly to implement. Since infrared items have been around a while, significant resources exist to mass produce infrared products. Advances in the technology will
52

probably lead to faster products without as many limitations. Infrared transmissions now are limited to a relatively short distance, and used outdoors, are extremely susceptible to atmospheric conditions.

2.5.3. Wireless LAN Media Summary

Radio Advantages Transmission not line of sight. Inexpensive products. Direct point-to-point linking to receiving station. Ideal for portable devices.

Disadvantages Limited bandwidth means less data throughput. Some frequencies subject to FCC regulation. Highly susceptible to interference.

Infrared Advantages Higher bandwidth means superior throughput to radio. Inexpensive to produce. No longer limited to tight interroom line-of-sight restrictions.

Disadvantages Limited in distance. Cannot penetrate physical barriers like walls, ceilings, floors, etc.

2.6

Chapter 2 Study Tips

1. Know the various topologies and their characteristics including layout and troubleshooting considerations. 2. Know the difference between a physical topology and a logical topology. Give an example of each. 3. Know which topologies are commonly used for popular LAN types such as Ethernet and token ring.

53

4. Be familiar with the major components of most modern LANs including servers, workstations, print servers, etc. 5. Know the major communication schemes and be able to compare them according to traffic conditions. 6. Know what CSMA/CD is. 7. Be familiar with the major types of cabling available and the construction of each. 8. Compare the cabling mediums as far as cost, performance and susceptibility to interference. 9. Know the two major types of wireless media and their characteristics.

54

Chapter 3 Connectivity
Connectivity refers to the attachment of dissimilar devices together in a network. These devices might include servers, workstations or other key components that allow for the expansion of the network to other networks or resources. Specifically, this section is designed to give key information on four components that facilitate connectivity - repeaters, bridges, routers and gateways. Each of these devices has its own particular function, and some of these functions can be quite complex. In order to better understand the role and operation of these devices, we would benefit from taking a cursory look at what is known as the OSI model. The Open Systems Interconnection model was created by the Inter-national Standards Organization in the late 70's. It was to serve as a blueprint for all network communication technologies dividing up all the processes of networking activity into seven distinct layers. The highest layer is the application that a device is running and with which a user may interact. The lowest layer is simply the physical medium of data transfer such as coaxial cable. Each layer has its own distinct functions and services. Here is a summary: The Open Systems Interconnection Model Layer 7. Application Function Allows user interaction and generation of data to be transmitted. Programs communicate with other programs at this level so it includes file transfers and transactions. Manages the way data is formatted or encoded for transfer. It may place data in an ASCII or EBCDIC format. Oversees dialogue between users. Establishes and oversees logical relationships set up between users. Maintains quality of communication. Acts as the traffic

6. Presentation 5. Session 4. Transport

55

cop making sure flow is orderly. Ensures message validity and integrity. 3. Network 2. Data Link 1. Physical Establishes a communication route between devices on different local networks. Puts messages together out of the stream of bits coming in and out of the wire or other media. It also governs data flow. The medium that carries data.

We'll spend more time dealing with the OSI Reference Model in a later section of this book. For now, just an overview of its components will do. The primary purpose for looking at this standard model is provide a framework in which the various connectivity components can be understood, especially within their areas of functionality.

3.1

Repeaters

As networks begin to grow and expand, physical limitations are reached. The limitations may have nothing to do with running out of cable or components, but rather running out signal power, or worse yet - running into signal noise. In technical terms this loss of power of a signal is referred to as attenuation while the signal noise is called just that - noise. In order to minimize these phenomena, special devices called repeaters are incorporated into internetworks (combination of individual networks into larger ones). A repeater does what its name implies. It takes an incoming signal and repeats it, but at a higher power and noise-free. The repeater is not an amplifier only, as such a device would amplify the good part of the signal as well as the bad. Instead repeaters employ what is known as "signal regeneration". This simply means that the original signal is absorbed, copied and retransmitted along another segment of cabling. This new signal has been beefed up and cleaned up. When it leaves the repeater it is both renewed and noise-free.

56

Figure 3-1: Repeaters allow us to extend beyond typical distance limitations by regenerating signals.

In reference to the OSI model, the repeater is said to function on the Physical layer. It does not perform any error-checking or repackaging of the original signal that would be viewed as functions of the Data Link layer. Therefore, if a signal had gotten corrupted before reaching the repeater, the device would faithfully pass the corrupted data on to the attached segment. Signal regeneration takes very little time - generally in the microseconds range. In theory, you could use as many repeaters as you desire, but practically speaking, there are some limits. In Ethernet LANs, a small amount of time is required for a "jamming signal" to make its way completely across the network. If you will recall, the jamming signal is a series of 1 bits designed to alert all workstations attached that a collision has occurred so that no device will transmit while the situation is being remedied. This movement of data across the wiring of a network is called propagation. The propagation time is important to Ethernet, because if the jamming signal does not reach the whole network, two devices on one end may be trying to remedy a collision while the other end of the network doesn't know about and is transmitting as usual. For this reason, most industry experts recommend that a packet of data should not have to pass through more than five repeating devices to reach its destination.

57

3.2

Bridges

A bridge is a device that is smarter than a repeater. A repeater knows nothing about the data passing through it or the destination of that data. It only knows to regenerate a signal. A bridge on the other hand is informed of where data is going to, and based on that information, can make an intelligent call whether or not to allow the data to go to the destination. Bridges are able to perform their decision-making because they operate on the Data Link layer of the OSI model. It's on this layer that network systems group packets from data off the wire and make a determination as to where the data goes. Each device on a network has a unique physical station address. This identification is used by devices on network to determine how to send data to one another. A bridge allows two networks to be connected to one another, each having its own group of devices with unique station addresses. The bridge acts as a traffic cop, only allowing data to pass through that is specifically bound from one network to the other. It screens out all data that is transmitted from one device on a network to another device on the same network. This function is extremely important because it can significantly lower the flow of traffic across a large network. The idea here is to simply divide the network up into smaller networks separated by a bridge thus allowing traffic on one segment to be virtually unaffected by traffic on the other newly created segment. Of course accomplishing this requires a little forethought and planning. Most companies, when installing bridges, insert them between two geographical segments of network (i.e., between segments servicing two different floors in a building). However, for a bridge to have peak performance, the division would be made based on traffic patterns rather than geographic location of segments. For instance, let's say that a network had begun experiencing traffic problems because of its size and applications. The applications included a word processing package used by the secretarial pool on the first floor and a database package used by accounting and sales staff on the second floor. A contracted network whiz suggests and executes the installation of a bridge between floors. However, much to the whiz's chagrin, the traffic problem persists on the second floor. The reason is simple. Word processing packages like WordPerfect, even when installed on the LAN, do not generate a sizable amount of traffic. When a word processing user initiates the program, a copy of it is placed in their local workstation's memory. Now the only traffic on the LAN created by that user is when or if they edit files stored on a file server, and that only involves periodic transfers of data. The database application, by comparison, generates an enormous amount of data transfers. Queries

58

constantly require data to be accessed on a file server and subsequently transmitted over the LAN. Since the second floor usage was what created the bulk of the load to start with, isolating them with a bridge certainly helped the personnel on the first floor, but left second floor personnel still contending with traffic problems. There are a couple of possible solutions in this case. One would have been to place a bridge between segments so that each had an equal number of database and word processing users. This would have minimized traffic problems for everybody. The other solution is to incorporate another bridge to further segment the LAN on the second floor.

Figure 3-2: Bridges can help control network traffic. Whatever the case, care should be taken when placing a bridge to provide optimal separation of the two segments. Placing a bridge in the middle of a large LAN with all of the file servers located on one of the segments would be ineffective. As most of the traffic is bound for the file servers, the bridge would allow most of the data to pass through thus allowing a great deal of traffic on the servers' segment. However, placing servers most used by a department on the same segment with them makes more sense, and if the server itself is acting as a bridge (which falls under the capabilities of a NetWare server), then efficiency can be better maintained. Since networks use different technologies to operate on the Data Link layer, several different types of bridges are found to accommodate such differences. The most common bridge type is the transparent bridge. A transparent bridge builds a table internally as to which segment has which devices. As the devices send data, the bridge adds them to its internal table. Once the bridge has accomplished this, all packets broadcast on a LAN to another node on the same
59

network are discarded. Packets bound for the other LAN are allowed to pass. This simple bridge type requires enough local "intelligence" to be able to create a table and make decisions about it accordingly. Another type of bridge is called a source routing bridge. This type is incorporated into technology created and used by IBM. In the source routing scenario, each packet contains all the necessary information for routing it to its destination. Therefore the bridge simply forwards the packet to its next destination according to packet information. Obviously a packet bound for another device on the same network would be routed there, thus never crossing the bridge. Source routing makes life simple for a bridge because it does not have to maintain tables for information that the packet already had imbedded into it. The workstation or other device sending the packet has to have all the smarts. In order to embed the correct routing information in a packet, the transmitting device must first know how to get to the intended receiver. This is ascertained through the use of a discovery packet. This special kind of a packet is sent to a destination and may be multiplied as several routes to the destination are encountered. The destination must then reply to every discovery packet. When all the replies reach the source again, the original transmitter determines which route is the best one. It then encodes this data into each packet bound for that destination. The intelligence, once again, lies not at the bridge, but at the source routing device. Sometimes these two major types of bridges are combined to create what is known as a source routing transparent bridge or (SRT bridge). This bridge looks for the routing information inside each packet associated with source routing. If it doesn't find that type of data, it handles the packet transparently (using internal tables). This type of bridge allows for the easy connection of both source routing and non-source routing networks. In summary, a bridge functions at the Data Link layer of the OSI model thus allowing it "see" the physical station addresses of each device on the networks attached to it. On the basis of that knowledge, it is able to route data according to information contained in internal tables or data packets themselves. The primary use of a bridge is to isolate network segments so as to reduce traffic flow across the entire network.

3.3

Routers

Stepping on up the OSI model, we reach the Network layer next. The Network layer allows us to group devices together regardless of whether they share the same physical network or not. We might, for instance, have two distinct LANs
60

in our accounting department, but we might group all of those users as an accounting group by assigning each device in this area a unique logical station address. Then we could refer to the accounting department by way of its logical addresses. Routers use this type of logical information to perform a very useful task. They are able to determine the best route from a source to a destination regardless of what lies in between. An example would be sending information across the Internet. This huge global network is laden with routers. As we begin sending information over the Internet, each packet is individually directed to the destination. Each time a packet goes through a router, this device attempts to find the best path to send it on closer to its destination. The result is a very dynamic network that can speed data along identifying best paths based on traffic loads and functioning pathways.

Figure 3-3: Routers may serve as boundaries to distinguish networks. Here the router at Network A would choose Path A to send data to Network D because it requires the smallest number of hops (trips through other routers). In fact there are no other routers between Networks A and D . The methods for determining the best route are many and varied. Modern routers usually incorporate a number of factors in trying determine this type of information. This is necessary because basing a decision on only one factor may prove inefficient. For instance, let's say we are basing our best path decision on selecting the segments along the way with the fastest data throughput. We may end up going through dozens of segments before we reach our destination, thus
61

eliminating our segment speed advantage. Plus, the routers may have selected costly wide area network links, so our packets arrive slowly and our money departs quickly. If we were to choose the best path according to the number of routing devices a packet has to travel through (called hops), we might end up choosing slow or, once again, costly pathways. For these reasons, many routers make a best path decision based on a number of factors, some of which can be weighted subjectively by an administrator. Routers, due to their sophistication, can be very expensive and relatively slow. The cost of these devices often makes them impractical for small companies. The real benefits come for those companies who have large enterprise-wide networks. If their wide area links are proprietary, they benefit from being able to logically group networks in routing data from one to another in the most efficient way possible. If they are using a public or shared wide area links, then a router provides an extra measure of security, screening out packets that do not belong in a particular logical grouping (including a whole company). This screening capability can deter would-be hackers from getting into a company's networks or prevent electronic junk mail from seeping in off a public link. One small danger when using TCP/IP networks is the possibility of broadcast storms in which a great number of packets inundate a network thus increasing its traffic load and reducing its efficiency. Ironically, the source of broadcast storms is usually misinterpreted router packets. The processing involved in handling routing, regardless of the protocol spoken (like TCP/IP) is extremely CPU intensive. Therefore routing is typically much slower than simple bridging. Some manufacturers have combined bridges and routers together calling them brouters. These are effectively routers with secondary bridging capabilities built in. A brouter will look for logical station address information in packets that it receives. If that information is unavailable in the packet, the brouters will then simply act as a bridge allowing the packet to pass if its physical station address for the destination qualifies. Often brouters are used to connect different types of LANs together, like token ring and ethernet, while still providing routing services for protocols like TCP/IP. Another deviant from the marriage of router and bridge is a routing bridge used to give a some of the best path selection ability of a router to a bridge instead. These devices are limited as they are not fully functioning routers, only souped up bridges.

3.4

Gateways

We have established that repeaters work on the Physical layer of the OSI model, while bridges function on the Data Link layer and routers on the Network layer.

62

Devices that function at these layers and above to allow interconnection between different network types require a fair amount of sophistication. The changes necessary to create a mainframe-bound message from a PC-based NetWare LAN are significant. The data that is used in the PC world is encoded in a format known as ASCII. IBM host computers use data encoded into a format known as EBCDIC. To switch from one format to another involves the complete restructuring of data. Another thing to consider is that primarily keystroke and screen data are often transmitted along mainframe or minicomputer networks. PC networks can send whole programs and data files, not just terminal data.

Figure 3-4: Gateways enable such diverse systems as PC LANs and mainframe networks to communicate. The gateway typically functions on upper layers of the OSI model. The sophisticated device required to bridge these two very different environments together is called a gateway. Gateways are unique in that they have the capability of functioning on any level of the OSI model, whatever is necessary to bring together the vastly dissimilar networks. When you purchase a gateway, it is with a certain connection in mind. You might buy one for NetWare and IBM's SNA connections, AppleTalk to DECnet, etc.

63

Gateways are available in both external and internal models much in the same way that modems are available. External boxes containing the gateway's components tend to be a bit more reliable than their internal plug-in card cousins. Software usually accompanies a gateway, and these devices may be singular in their operation (dedicated) or be multi-functional (non-dedicated). Device Repeater Bridge Router Gateway OSI Layer Physical Data Link Network Any Performance Fast Fast Mid-range Slow Sophistication Low Fairly low Complex Very complex

Connectivity Summary: Internetworking Devices

3.5

Chapter 3 Study Tips

1. Know the connectivity components and how they operate. 2. Know what layer of the OSI model each of the components function on. 3. Know how a bridge can be used to reduce traffic problems. 4. Know what a router is used for.

64

Chapter 4 Wide Area Networking

So far we have concentrated our focus on those concepts dealing with local area networks and their components. In this chapter, we'll branch out to the next level of networking beyond local areas into wide areas. The technology for carrying data over long distances is in many cases very sophisticated, but has been generally slower than the throughput speeds we've achieved on LANs. The earliest attempts at wide area networking made use of the common public telephone system. This made perfect sense as these circuits were already in place. Modern wide area networking makes use anything from laser transmissions to satellite technology. As an industry with tremendous growth potential, wide area networking is allowing the formation of large multinational networks linking the operations of globally expanding corporations together.

4.1

Public Telephone System

When you think about it, the telephone system in the US is pretty amazing. Nearly every household has a telephone, most with more than one. At any given moment, you may pick up your receiver and the network will switch and connect circuits for you so you may call almost anyone in this country, or even outside of it. Some estimates place the number of phones in the US alone at above 310 million. To connect these together is quite an astonishing feat. When we refer to the phone system, we often mention the word "switched." Literally switches are used to complete the connections, or "circuits". For this reason, the official name for the public telephone system is the Public Switched Telephone Network (or PSTN). In times past, these systems allowed the communication of voice data only. To transmit the sound of a voice, a great deal of quality or bandwidth is not needed. To limit the bandwidth so that lines could be more efficiently used, filters were utilized. The result was acceptable voice quality, but poor digital data quality. Today's PSTN is growing up and addressing the needs of modern digital networking. A standard called Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is being implemented which offers digital services and voice services at set pricing

65

schedules. You only buy what you need. ISDN is currently offered in most major US cities.

4.1.1 Terminology
There are a few terms that are worthy of mentioning with regard to the public telephone system: CO Central Office - contains equipment necessary to allow switching and signalling to a subscriber. CO is identified by area code and first three digits of subscriber's phone numbers. Also called switching station.

Local loop The connection that runs from your local home or business to a CO. PBX A local switch that can connect to local loops. A PBX is like the operator's console you might see at a company with a large phone system. type of line designed to carry digital data. It is not filtered thus allowing more bandwidth for data transmission. Modular connectors that plug into your phone or in the wall to which your telephone line is attached.

T1

RJ-11 and RJ-45

LATA

Local Access and Transport Areas - created by the FCC to distinguish telephone company regional responsibilities. The point at which the phone company's lines meet your own consumer owned or company owned equipment. May be a jack, series of jacks or a punch-down block.

Demarc

Now that you are aware of some of the terminology associated with PSTN, let's look at its operation and how that affects wide area networking. You, as a subscriber to telephone services, are responsible for supplying your own phone equipment and an appropriate place that a phone company can connect to. In "telephonese", your equipment, be it a single line or whole phone
66

system, is referred to as CPE (Customer Provided Equipment). The point where the phone company hooks up to your system is known as the demarcation point or demarc as explained in the terminology section. The phone company, in attaching its wiring to yours, completes what is known as a local loop (also previously defined). This loop is simply a single circuit hooked back to the phone company's central office (or CO). The CO contains switches that can connect your line to anyone else's line. COs themselves are connected to other COs via lines called trunks. Trunks can carry large amounts of information, whether voice or data, between COs. An interesting tidbit is that trunks can occasionally get overloaded which means callers cannot get an available line on them. The result is a "busy" signal, but one that pulses at a faster rate than a normal busy signal. This fast-pulsing sound is referred to as a "trunk busy". Trunks may link callers from within a single CO or from multiple COs. The COs themselves are responsible for creating the ringing on your telephone. When your call traverses from one CO to another, the ringing you hear is not synchronized with the ringing that the person you are calling hears. As a result, someone may pick up the phone to answer even before you hear it ringing in your handset. The trunk lines connecting COs may have differing technology when it comes to putting several conversations at once on them. Some just contain circuits that allow you to hear what someone else is saying while you are talking. Others use sophisticated means of taking signals from several callers, chopping them up into bits and pieces, then interspersing the pieces of several calls on a single line. On the other end of the line, these bits and pieces are reassembled into coherent conversations for several people. More on that aspect in a later chapter.

67

Figure 4-1: A temporary path can be created from your phone through a CO, its trunk system, and another CO to reach your intended receiver. COs exist within certain regions called LATAs defined previously. LATAs are used in determining who gets to charge a caller. More than one CO may be located in a LATA. LATAs were created as the Federal Communications Commission broke up American Telephone and Telegraph in 1984. The longdistance companies like AT&T, US Sprint and MCI determine rates for calls from one LATA to another. If a call is placed inside a LATA to another point inside the same LATA, then local companies determine the rate and classification of the call. The local company may be one of several Bell Operating Companies (BOCs) that also resulted from the break up of AT&T in 1984. Incidentally, regulations also provide that each LATA has a CO that has a POP or Point Of Presence for each long distance carrier. That way, consumers may choose any long distance carrier that they would like. Long distance calls are simple routed to the CO that has the POP for the customer's long distance carrier.

In a nutshell, the PSTN is composed of several layers. Subscriber equipment composes the first layer. It connects to a local loop attached to a CO which is the second layer. Next the trunk lines connecting the switching stations comprise a third layer. Finally, the fourth layer is the long distance companies who govern what is known as inter-LATA calls.

68

4.1.2 Wide Area Networking With Telephone Lines From a wide area networking point of view, the above information is important for a number of reasons. For one, someone intent on using standard phone lines for digital communications must be aware of the limitations of such lines. The filtering processes that take place limit the effective bandwidth of voice lines considerably. That is why callers you speak with often sound "tinny". This filtering reduces the bandwidth (and consequently the speed) of data transmissions as well. When purchasing a modem, you may select one that operates at 9600 baud (that's bits per second). This speed is pushing the upper limits of what the limited bandwidth of standard phone services will allow. However, the actual throughput of data is often increased by using what is known as data compression. That means that more data is squeezed in over the same limited bandwidth. AT&T's "True Voice" technology is a sound enhancement feature that boosts the bass frequencies of sounds that are typically zapped by the limited bandwidth and increases the volume of a call by 4 decibels. This does not improve the quality of lines for data transfer but does create the impression that a caller's voice sounds closer and more natural. Secondly, voice-grade lines are not known for their quality. Telephone lines are susceptible to various types of electromagnetic interference or other natural (or man-made) disturbances. However, all-digital lines especially designed for data transfer are also susceptible to some problems. The good news is that the telephone companies do make an honest effort in most cases to keep their lines clean. A factor here is that when a number is dialed, a temporary pathway is set up through the phone company entities involved. By their very natures, temporary connections tend to be of a lower quality and more susceptible to problems than permanent connections. Also, since a phone call is really the creation of a point-to-point link for the caller by placing in several smaller links along the way, any single problem link can create poor quality for the whole. Since the same arrangement of links may not exist each time you call a particular number, some connections may appear to be very good while other seem very bad even though you have dialed the same number. Thirdly, there is the cost factor. Standard voice-grade telephone lines are obviously going to be cheaper than dedicated digital-grade lines. So choosing standard lines may seem the best choice. However digital lines offer increased bandwidth by removing filtering devices. This means increase speed of data transfers. A common digital line, called a T-1 link, allows data throughput at around 1.5 million bits per second. This stands in stark contrast to the 64

69

thousand bits per second capability on voice-grade lines using maximum data compression.

Figure 4-2: Modems will allow wide area communication, but throughput will be inferior to digital leased lines like T-1. As the demands of the digital world have increased along with the proliferation of digital technology, phone service providers have created a host of digital solutions. Faster lines are available to accommodate higher data throughput. Dedicated digital lines, if used for voice transmissions, could generally accommodate a large number of them. But in the case of digital lines, the entire bandwidth is reserved for data.
Line Type Voice-Grade T-1 T-1C T-2 T-3 T-4 Data Rate 64 Kbps 1.54 Mbps 3.15 Mbps 6.31 Mbps 44.73 Mbps 274.18 Mbps Voice Channels 1 24 48 96 672 4032

Standard Digital Lines As you can see the phone company can offer you a number of choices, but there are factors to consider. First, a permanently wired line is generally of better and
70

more manageable quality then the temporary lines of standard usage. Additionally, the most optimal choice according to cost is achieved when purchasing digital lines that stand to be used frequently and at all hours. Obviously, spending a great deal of money on lines that are only used from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. is not utilizing your resources as efficiently as possible. Your expensive leased digital link lays idle for 15 hours. Some batch processing may be scheduled over night. As mentioned earlier, advances in the digital realm are driving the phone service vendors to improve their data handling capacity and offerings. As a result a new standard has been developed called the Integrated Systems Digital Network or ISDN.

4.1.3 Integrated Services Digital Network This newer technology is called ISDN for short. ISDN features tiers of services offered to companies or individuals that include both digital lines and voicegrade lines. The consumer may select from any one of these tiers depending on what the need is. All the data whether network communications or voice data is digital. All data is multiplexed where several types of data may be carried a single physical wire. ISDN addresses the need to transmit and receive all sorts of data allowing the usage of voice and video mail, computer data, remote terminal input, interactive video, standard voice telephone, etc. Basically the possibilities are almost limitless. Any signal that can be placed in a digital format will be fair game for ISDN. In the future, the telephone and modem will merge yielding a single data handling unit. ISDN consists of digital lines that are broken up into "channels". These channels support different types of data and different throughputs. The services provided by ISDN are also called "interfaces". If ISDN services are installed at a company, that organization has purchased a specific interface.

ISDN Services ISDN Basic Rate Interface (BRI) Called 2B+D, "S" or "T" Interface

71

Supports 2 64 Kbps channels (2B stands for 2 bearer channels). Bearer channels may carry a voice conversation or be used as a high speed data link (64 Kbps compared with 9600 bps today). Bearer channels may be subdivided into several lower speed data channels. Supports 1 16 Kbps channel (D stands for 1 data channel). Data channels carry the control information necessary to connect and tear down the voice connections on the bearer channels. This channel may carry a 9600 baud signal in addition to the necessary control information for the bearer channels. Typically it is subdivided into three sub-channels called s, t and p. s channel - handles the signalling portion of a call controlling the setup and tearing down of a call. t channel - used for handling special data (called telemetry). The data may be something like temperatures from remote thermometers or thermostats. p channel - the 9600 baud digital channel. Two unshielded twisted pairs are used for the S interface, which cannot be more than 1 kilometer from a switching station. The "T" interface provides the same services as the S interface only that it uses one unshielded twisted pair instead. A company or individual using the T interface could be located as far away as 10 kilometers from a CO. Primary Rate Interface (PRI) Called 23B+D or 30B+D depending on bandwidths needed. These are the ISDN equivalents to modern T-1 lines. They may also handle 23 and 30 voice channels respectively. The 23B+D delivers throughputs of 1.544 Mbps while 30B+D delivers 2.040 Mbps. These arrangements feature separate 16 Kbps D channels for handling control information. PRI uses two twisted pairs to provide such services.

Additional channels available Channel A - Standard 4 KHz voice conversation line. Channel C - 8 or 16 Kbps line for handling control information (called out-ofband signalling) - very similar to D channel.
72

Channel E - 64 Kbps channel devoted to ISDN signaling and data handling. Channel H - Purely digital data channel available at speeds of 384, 1536 or 1920 Kbps. ISDN is a radical departure from what we have traditionally considered as phone services. An important thing to consider is that the ISDN standard is being promoted globally by the Consultative Committee on International Telephony and Telegraphy (CCITT). As the world standard-setting body, the CCITT pretty well drives development on a global scale. The advantage will be standard ISDN services available anywhere. ISDN telephones are now pretty expensive rivaling the costs of personal computers. Their front looks peculiar because it features a small LCD screen. The phone also sports an RS-232-C connector for attaching data devices. Typically they are feature-laden. One such feature is ID tracking. Every ISDN device sends out control information along the D channel to create voice connections. That info includes the source caller's telephone number. In addition, the special D channel can transmit other data as well - like credit card information. This leads to all sorts of phone order possibilities. The home shopping networks, complete with their onscreen graphical ordering interfaces, will get extra help from an accommodating ISDN device.

Some of the possibilities with future enhanced ISDN phones include: Ability to restrict callers from calling you. Presentation of caller's phone number and other information for call screening. Restriction of ISDN number from being sent to person being called. Call waiting where incoming caller information is displayed for user and person may choose to reject, accept or forward new call. Callers may be transferring data while carrying on a conversation. Telephones may support E-Mail for unattended sets. Caller may specify simultaneous ringing of telephones in multiple locations. Caller may send data to multiple locations simultaneously.

73

ISDN services may utilize circuit switching, which is used today for voice lines, or it may use packet switching. Packet switching is ideal for digital data, because this sort of information is grouped into frames or packets, which are simply a collection of bytes of data. In packet switching, information inside the packets is read as to where the packet is going. Then each packet is individually routed to its destination. Since there may be more than one pathway to the same destination, packets may be routed down more than one path to the endpoint. This occurs because a determination is made for each packet as to which is the fastest pathway. Since the dynamics of network pathways are constantly changing, this results in one path being the optimal path in one instant and not the optimal path the next. Consequently the destination gets a flurry of packets from many pathways. This would pretty well confuse the destination except for one thing. The packets being received all contain sequence information as to what order they were sent in. As a result the receiver can reconstruct the original message by placing the packets in the correct sequence. ISDN will implement packet switching for long distance transfer of data. Plans call for charges to be based on the number of packets one sends.

There are a number of reasons why ISDN will yet take some time to implement:

Standard not fully implemented around the world. ISDN equipment must be installed at all COs. Analog (or non-digital) switches far exceed the number of digital switches. Rural sites may not change over for many years. Consumers will have to purchase special telephone sets that support ISDN. Marketing and public relations campaigns must convince consumers of the necessity of ISDN products. Early ISDN equipment is still very price-formidable.

In summary, ISDN offers a lot to the digital-oriented consumer, but its implementation will take some time before coming mainstream. In the mean time, determining how to get the best performance from services offered by the phone entities can require research. The next page contains a brief summary of the options.

74

Option
Voice grade line with 1200/2400 baud modem Voice grade line with 9600 baud modem Dedicated line services ISDN Services

Performance
Very slow at 1.2 and 2.4 Kbps respectively Faster, but comparatively slow to other technologies with data compression yielding more performance Range from 1.2 to 64 Kbps Offers 64 Kbps on digital bearer channel Yields high performance when compared with voice grade lines - 1.5 Mbps Yields higher performance yet with speeds reaching up to 3.15 Mbps Higher performance still with throughputs of 6.3 Mbps Very high throughput at 44.7 Mbps requires fiber optic cable Extremely high throughput as wide area links go - over 274 Mbps - uses coax or fiber

Cost
Very low.

Still very low

Moderate to high Moderate to high depending on no. of lines requested High

T-1 line

T-1C line T-2 line T-3 line

High Very high Very high

T-4 line

Extremely high

Digital Data Throughput Options The pricing of the above levels of service are so variable from region to region that a practical comparison would be difficult. Be aware that there are three tiers of tariffs that affect the lines - local, state and interstate. In most instances, interstate tariffs levied by the FCC are the most costly. The least expensive dedicated digital lines are those that utilize only one CO. In general, the Public Telephone System (PSTN) provides a pre-existing network ideal for linking wide area nodes together. The cost of such linkage has to be weighed against throughput speeds. Quite often, the phone system provides a more economical choice against other wide area networking options

75

to be discussed in this chapter. The obvious migration in the future for the telephone services is digital. The proliferation if ISDN service is bound to occur, faster in some places, slower in others. Tennessee, the home of Atrium Learning Center, has proven to be one of the most aggressive states in the US with full ISDN services available statewide during 1994. Other states may not have the funding or backers of such a progressive implementation. Whatever the case, the increased usage of ISDN services will yield better wide area networking access for everyone.

4.2

Microwave Technology

Microwaves lie on the electromagnetic spectrum between radio waves and light waves. As a means of carrying data, microwaves offer advantages because their high frequency is less affected by atmospheric conditions. Technically speaking, microwaves lie between 890 MHz (that's 890 million waves per second) to 5 GHz (or 5 billion waves per second). This type of transmission is used for both point-to-point connections over land or water (called terrestrial) or satellite communications, and is known for being "line of sight". This simply means that the microwave transmitter and receiver have to be aimed at each other.

Figure 4-3: Microwave technology is used to transmit data over satellite links. Microwave technology that is earth-based allows us to get around restrictions that might be placed on physical cabling. For instance, if you were needing to send data over a cavernous gorge with a raging river, you might find laying

76

cable a bit perilous. By setting up special microwave equipment, you could just beam the signal from one point to another, potentially saving both money and life. A common use for microwave technology is beaming network data between buildings where installing cable between them would be tough or more expensive. Microwaves are also used for satellite technology. Since microwaves aren't strongly affected by atmospheric conditions, they constitute an excellent choice for broadcasting to satellites and back. Satellites themselves are extremely expensive, so large companies often pool their resources together and jointly purchase them. Then satellite resources are leased out. From a security point of view, microwaves may not be that safe. Anyone may intercept, jam or in some cases, supersede a microwave signal. Millions of Home Box Office(TM) viewers were surprised to see a message appear on the screen one evening from a techno-wizard who beamed his on signal to the satellite carrying this popular pay channel. The little prank showed a little weakness that earth-to-satellite transmissions have - that is susceptibility. From a reliability point of view, microwave technology fares well. Most earthbased systems beam a signal up to about 30 miles before the signal has to be repeated via a microwave repeater station. This station merely receives the signal and regenerates it. Then the signal is re-broadcast to the next receiving station. Generally the signals are not affected much by atmospheric conditions though rain and fog will occasionally affect them. Satellite microwave technology uses frequencies less susceptible to atmospheric conditions. Communications satellites use what is known as a geosynchronous orbit. That means they orbit the earth at the same rate that the earth is spinning on its axis. What effectively happens is that the satellite stays in one place above the earth. This is an interesting feat because gravity is constantly pulling on the satellite, so it has to orbit at a certain speed to maintain freedom from the gravity that would pull it to its fiery destruction. If the satellite orbits too fast, it will not be geosynchronous and it will move further from the earth. If it orbits too slowly, it will not be geosynchronous and it will fall to the earth. Scientists have learned the optimal geosynchronous orbit lies 22,300 miles from the earth's surface. That means a microwave signal must travel this distance to reach the satellite and a signal must travel the same distance coming back to your remote site on the earth. As you can imagine, this great distance interjects a time delay into the whole transmission and reception scheme. You have probably experienced this first hand if you have ever called overseas via a satellite link. You might hear your

77

own voice echoing back to you when you say something. This is a problem associated with satellite technology that affects not just voice but digital data as well. Fortunately this problem is alleviated through the use of "echo suppression circuitry". An advantage of microwave technology is the ability to receive transmissions from portable receivers. In terrestrial systems, this means the transmitter and receiver should be aimed, but once accomplished, can yield a good signal. In satellite technology, the portable unit must be aimed at the satellite. For security purposes, the beams of some satellites are "narrow beams" limiting access to certain geographical parts of the world. Satellites may also use "wide beam" transmission. This microwave carried message can be received on land, sea, or in the air. Use of this technology requires FCC licensing in the United States and foreign licensing in other countries. This process will add some time to using a microwave system, so one should plan on it as a part of any implementation program. In addition, all microwave equipment must be approved for the safety of the users and to avoid violation of frequency guidelines. Oh, and one other note: Don't place body parts on or near a microwave transmission apparatus. Cooked limbs are useless limbs.

4.3

Laser Technology

Light has a much higher frequency than microwave does. Higher frequencies mean that more data may be carried by the wave, and light can carry a great deal of data. In laser technology a very intense beam of concentrated light is used to carry a signal. Typically, this beam is not visible to humans because the frequencies used are just below that of what we can see. This range of light is known as infrared. Infrared light can be received by a special device known as a photodiode. A photodiode will allow a current to pass through it just as long as the device is exposed to light. When the light stops, so does the current. In the case of laser transmission, the light pulses in response to the data that is being carried by it. Technically speaking, the laser light is "modulated" by the data signal. This pulsing creates an interruption of the current moving through the photodiode. Since the light pulses in response to the data traveling with it, this pattern is replicated through the photodiode. Consequently, the exact pattern of digital data can be reconstructed.

78

Laser systems benefit from their superior speed of data transfer comparable to that of fiber optics. However, there are problems as well. For one thing, laser is susceptible to atmospheric conditions. It tends to diffuse rapidly when exposed to fog, rain, snow, etc. It also attenuates (or decreases in strength) over short distances. For these reasons, there are practical limits as to how far you can go with laser. Another problem that laser suffers is the fact that it is extremely directional - that is, the transmitter and receiver must be perfectly in line. Only recently one networking professional complained to this author of problems incurred with their laser system. The company was using laser between two buildings. The laser target on the receivers was five inches in diameter. However, during the day, temperature changes and the like would cause the buildings to move enough to throw the lasers off target. The wide area network link would fail and users would become aggravated. Fortunately these stories are far and few between, but be aware of laser's limitations.

Controversy in Laserland The concept of the LASER (Light Amplification from the Stimulated Emission of Radiation) was first put forth by a Columbia University graduate student working in physics in 1957. Gordon Gould posited that light could be generated in a highly concentrated form by producing it at a particular frequency with all the tiny waves in phase (lined up together). Realizing that this technology could be useful, Gould filed a patent for lasers in 1959. The only problem was that one of his profs at Columbia had stolen the idea and, along with a gentleman from Bell Labs, had filed for the patents in 1958. Gould was crushed and took the matter into litigation. Justice won out, and 20 years after conceiving of the laser, Gould was awarded the patents. He became an instant multi-multi-millionaire as a result. One wonders if there was anything left over after the legal fees were paid.

4.4

Switching Technology

Moving data across wide areas requires that we be able to form a link from the sending point to the receiving point. As mentioned previously in this chapter, those end-to-end connections are often created from a series of links in between. The entire connection is susceptible to one failed link in a chain of links that allow our message to pass through. To create these links, switching has to take place.

79

Switching in this instance means selecting a pathway that gets information to, or at least closer to, its destination, and then directing the data down that path. This switching may mean creating circuits from one point to the other much as the phone company does. Switching may mean selecting the best paths between machines that store messages. Switching may mean breaking up data messages into small units (packets) and individually directing each packet down the best path. Whatever the case, each method offers particular advantages and disadvantages.

4.4.1. Message Switching Whenever we use the postal service, we are using a variation of message switching. In this technology, an entire message (analogous to a letter) is routed to a destination (recipient). The message will follow several paths and decisions as to the proper pathway must also be made. The first decision is yours. You must take the letter to the appropriate mailbox. Placing the letter in the "metered" mailbox for instance is a good way to slow it down if you have placed a stamp on it, so the mailbox holds the letter until the postman is ready to receive it. The postman transports the letter from the box to the post office. Hopefully he will choose a route to the post office that requires minimal delay. Now the post office holds the letter until the postal system is ready for it. Once the letter is processed locally, a decision has to be made as the most expeditious manner of getting to a post office near its destination. The letter may go by air or truck to a receiving area that holds the letter until a postal service representative picks it up and takes it to the remote post office. Once there, it is held until it is processed and the proper route for delivering it is selected. Next the postman must get the letter and deliver it to the intended person or company where it is utilized.

80

Figure 4-4: A message switching network is also called a "store and forward" network. This system requires substantial memory resources and lengthy overhead. What you have seen in this example is an example of a store and forward network. In this scheme, messages are received in their entirety and stored while a route to or closer to their destination is being determined. Once the route has been established, then the message is sent to either its final destination or another intermediate storage and forwarding point. One of the prime users of this type of technology is electronic mail systems. In E-mail networks, all devices storing E-mail (typically called E-mail or mail servers) may not be connected all of the time. They may only connect with one another intermittently. When you think about it, that's not a bad idea. Many Email messages are not urgent, and paying for a dedicated line between servers could be expensive. E-mail servers can periodically dial each other up and upload (transmit) whatever messages need to be sent. In fact, the dialing process could take place at night to reduce phone line rates. So it makes sense just to store messages and upload several hours worth of messages at once. More sophisticated systems could actually look at the messages and not call any server for which it didn't have a message. In fact, each E-mail server may not be able to call every server, but only a few. Then those few servers might be able to call other servers, setting up a network in which a message could eventually get to almost anywhere. No exclusive pathway is required to get the message from Point A to Point B, only a series of links that are created as needed. The message itself contains
81

information as to where it is going. The nodes along the way temporarily store the message and select the next best route to send it on, maintain a listing of those pathways. The message is stored as many times as is necessary to forward it to the right place. The machines (or nodes) that are used in message switching are not really special machines other than the fact that they generally require a lot of disk space to accommodate long messages. Large hard disks can get expensive, so there is an economic factor to this technology. The machine also has the capability of sending multiple copies of a message out so it could be duplicated for broadcast to other nodes. Since messages are stored, we can choose how long we want to hold them. In fact we may give them a low priority that indicates that the message is held until all other messages of a higher priority have been sent. This prevents a clamoring for the nodes by many messages at once. In fact, storing data helps keep traffic minimized to some degree which always a positive thing on a network. A bad point from a wide area network point of view is that storing and forward on a message switched system is slow. Obviously to store a whole message, select a route, and then retransmit the message takes time. This mechanism is totally unsuitable for communicating in real time (interactively, with no gaps in communication). Playing a computer video game that includes a lot of interaction with an opponent on the network would not work very well with message switching, for instance. In summary, message switching offers good use of network resources providing several features stemming from the storage of messages along the way. However, the expense and delay of the store and forward schema are not practical for some organizations.

4.4.2. Packet Switching Packet switching involves the breaking up of messages into smaller components called packets. Packets often range in size from about 600 bytes to over 4000 bytes depending on the system involved. Each packet contains source and destination information, and is treated as an individual message. These minimessages are received and routed through optimal pathways by various nodes on a wide area network. There are two major types of packets to be switched, so let's look at their characteristics.

82

The first type of packet is called a datagram. The name datagram is reminiscent of the term "telegram", and this similarity is no coincidence. When one sends a telegram, they are leaving a lot up to chance. Think about it. If you call the telegram in, you have no absolute guarantee that the message will be sent to the proper destination. As it is being sent, you have no guarantee that the information may not be damaged in some way. Once received on the other end, there is no absolute guarantee that the delivery will take place. Now, probabilities are high that your telegram will be delivered completely intact, but there is always the slightest margin of error that can occur. Can you imagine what would happen if even one letter was transposed on a telegram bound for anxious parents during wartime. "Your son is not dead," may become "Your son is now dead." What a difference! Datagrams are simply broadcasts to a remote node. There is never a guarantee they'll get there or that the message will remain intact, a fact that could be worsened by a packet switched network. You see, when directing datagrams, there may be more than one route to take along the way. Each individual packet is directed down what seems to be the optimal path at transmit time. Obviously pathways can become better or worse depending on their congestion levels or whether or not they are operating at all. So a datagram from a message may end up taking a different pathway from another datagram from the same message. That doesn't really matter except for the fact that you must keep the packets in order or the message will be garbled.

Figure 4-5: Packet switching networks treat each packet as an individual message to be routed. Requires less overhead then message switching. Messages are broken into packets and reassembled via the PADs.

83

To alleviate this ordering problem, packet switched networks incorporate a special device known as a Packet Assembler/Disassembler device (or PAD). The job of a PAD device is to make sure the packets are placed in the right order as they are received. But how do you know what the right order is? This problem is solved by placing a sequence number in each packet designating which packet of a message is which. The PAD simply looks at that number in the packet and is able to subsequently reassemble the message that was originally sent. The pad is also responsible for taking messages coming into the network, breaking them up into packets and then assigning sequence numbers to each packet. Datagrams do not utilize any sort of relationship between the sender and receiver, such as agreeing on packet size. Datagrams also do not typically use acknowledgments, which is a packet sent from receiver to sender acknowledging the receipt of a particular datagram. However, the other major kind of communication mechanism in a packet switched network does utilize the two elements just mentioned. As a datagram is making its way toward its destination, decisions are being made on the fly concerning the pathway each packet will take. To improve reliability, a decision concerning the best pathway to a destination could be made prior to any data being sent. In this manner, a single, static path could be set up between two communicating parties, one in which the two would use exclusively for communicating with one another. This pathway is known as a virtual circuit. The idea behind virtual circuits is to remove some of the chance factors involved with datagrams. When creating a virtual circuit, the sender and receiver agree on which path will be used and on packet size. Then during the process of communicating, acknowledgments are sent from receiver to sender in order to verify receipt of the packets. Typically, information is traded between the two communicating entities concerning errors and speed of the transfer. These two factors are known as error control and flow control. A relationship can be set up to last long term spanning several communication sessions or just on a session-by-session basis. The whole purpose behind virtual circuits is reliability. Though virtual circuits create overhead for communication, they are necessary to ensure that data travels safely from senders to receivers. This is especially important for critical applications. Novell's NetWare uses virtual circuits in allowing administrators to control the file server remotely and in handling communications associated with printing.

84

In comparing datagram and virtual circuit packet switching with other switching technologies, you must consider several factors. First of all, packet switching is faster because messages are not stored in their entirety for later retrieval. Each packet is small enough to be stored in a routing machine's memory until it can be routed an instant later. Secondly, packet switching allows the avoidance of pathway failure due to excessive traffic loads or mechanical problems. This is accomplished by routing packets along pathways that are the most free and clear. Thirdly, using packet switching allows us to use pathways that may not ordinarily get much traffic. Instead of concentrating on a few paths that are always busy, packet switching spreads the load of communication across several paths. Packet switching does, however, involve some technology. Intelligent decisions have to be made concerning pathways, and that requires sophisticated machinery. Obviously while path decisions are being made, packets are being held, and that adds overhead as far as time is concerned. In addition, the very nature of temporary pathways is to be less reliable than transmitting data along a fixed physical link, so packet switching can be less reliable than another type of switching we are yet to explore.

4.4.3. Circuit Switching

85

Figure 4-6: In circuit switched networks, a single pathway is set up at the outset of communication and used throughout. This method is very reliable. Circuit switching involves the creation of a physical path for data flow between a sender and receiver. This method is used to create the links between you and another caller using the phone system. The whole connection of sender to receiver is called a "circuit". Circuit switching offers advantages associated with a physical pathway - like reliability of transfer, because no other devices are contending for the path. The problems associated with circuit switching is that overhead is required to create the physical pathway. It takes time to put all the links in place to complete the circuit. Once established, the circuit offers dedicated bandwidth to the sender and receiver. This condition is great while each of the pair are actively sending and receiving, but when the channel becomes idle, all that bandwidth is wasted. In short, circuit switching offers the advantages of having dedicated communication channel between senders and receivers, but suffers from overhead to create the channel as well as maintain it even after transmission is halted. All three of these switching technologies are implemented in modern WAN systems. System developers must make decisions as to which method best suits their needs.

4.5

Chapter 4 Study Tips

1. Know the operation and terminology of the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). 2. Know how wide area networking is accomplished via telephone lines. 3. Know the different types of digital lines and their throughput levels as well as their relative costs to one another. 4. Know what services are offered by ISDN and why ISDN is an improvement over our conventional telephone systems. 5. Know why ISDN will take time to fully implement.

86

6. Know how microwaves are used in wide area networking. 7. Know how LASERs are used. 8. Know the operation of the three major types of switching. 9. Be able to compare the switching technologies with one another according to time overhead, cost, resource utilization and reliability.

87

Chapter 5 Data Communications Technology

We've now had the opportunity to get a rather global view of how data is moved around the various networks out there, both local and wide area. Now let's go beneath the surface and get into the details of data is actually transmitted. The purpose of this chapter is to clearly explain the differences and characteristics of the two main types of data to be communicated - digital and analog. In addition, the methods for placing these types of data together or separately on a network are discussed.

5.1

Analog and Digital Signals

The term "analog" comes from the word "analogous" meaning something is similar to something else. It is used to describe devices that turn the movement or condition of a natural event into similar electronic or mechanical signals. The are numerous examples, but let's look at a couple. A non-digital watch contains a movement that is constantly active in order to display time, which is also constantly active. Our time is measured in ranges of hours, minutes, seconds, months, years, etc. The display of a watch constantly tracks time within these ranges. In effect the data represented on a watch may have any number of values within a fairly large range. The watch's movement is analogous to the movement of time. In this respect the data produced is analog data. Another prime example of an analog device is a non-digital thermometer measuring a constantly changing temperature. The action is continuous and the range is not very limited, though sometimes we wish it were. The data produced by a thermometer is analogous to the change in temperature. Therefore, it is an analog signal. Digital signals, on the other hand, are distinctively different. Digital signals don't have large ranges, nor do they reflect constant activity. Digital signals have very few values. Each signal is unique from a previous digital value and unique from one to come. In effect, a digital signal is a snapshot of a condition and does not represent continual movement.
88

Of course the most obvious example of digital data is that communicated onboard a computer. Since a computer's memory is simply a series of switches that can either be on or off, digital data directly represents one of these two conditions. We typically represent this on and off status with 1s and 0s where 1 represents an "on" bit and 0 represents "off". Analog data, by its nature, more closely captures the essence of natural phenomenon, with its action and subtlety. Digital data can only attempt to capture natural phenomenon by "sampling" it at distinct intervals, creating a digital representation composed of 1s and 0s. Obviously, if the interval between samples is too large, the digital representation less accurately represents the phenomenon. If the sampling occurs at too short of an interval, then an inordinate amount of digital resources may be utilized to capture the phenomenon. The changes involved may not be significant enough to warrant so frequent a sampling for accuracy's sake. To digitally represent sound authentically, a sample must be taken over 44, 500 times per second. A reference to digital resources would certainly include digital storage media. In terms of storage, digital samples of natural phenomenon, or encoding of analog signals from such phenomenon, generally requires a significant amount of recording media (i.e., disk space). To record a second of authentic sound, 1.5 million bits of storage is required. Analog signals don't require such great storage capacity, but they do suffer in the area of duplication. When copying an analog signal from one generation to another, deterioration of the original signal occurs. A prime example is when we copy a videotape. Since video recorders are analog machines, copying a tape several times results in the accumulation of unwanted analog values called "noise". Eventually these signals become so evident, that the original analog signal is compromised and the video "dub" suffers from intense graininess and poor audio sound. Our technology is limited in the transmission and duplication of analog signals because of the infinite number of values that are allowable. Digital signals, however, have basically two values. It is much easier to work with two values rather than an infinite number. Consequently our current level of technology allows us to maintain the original quality of a digital signal. With a value of "on" or "off", it's pretty heard to miss.

The Flap Over Digital Music When digital audio tape machines were trying to get started in the US market, record companies screamed bloody murder. Pirating has always been a problem
89

for the music entities. It's estimated that millions are lost each year on pirated copies of commercially available tunes. Some third world countries have made pirating an art form, releasing exact duplicates of hits from the US with domestically produced cassettes and cassette cases. This profitable business leads to corruption on several layers. I speak from experience having a had a copy of US tunes bound for a friend "disappear" as it passed through customs of a third world country. The only limitation for the pirates (other than laws that are sometimes poorly enforced) is the amount of noise and signal deterioration that accumulates through successive generations eventually destroying quality enough to render the dubs unmarketable. The obvious danger of digital recording equipment is the lack of deterioration over successive dubs. Consequently, the record companies balked at the notion of having such technology in the hands of the public. Who blames them? The resistance however has not been enough to prevent digital tape technology from being marketed in the US. It is currently available in a variety of formats which is one of the reasons why it is not used on a widescale basis. There is no clear cut standard that everybody follows without question. In addition, digital to digital copying takes place from one tape to another. However, copying something like a compact disk to tape requires that the digital signal from the compact disk be converted to an analog signal (sound) before going to the Digital Audio Tape (DAT) deck. There the signal is re-encoded into a digital format to be placed on tape. Since the tape holds digital data, there is no way to drop it into a standard cassette player and play it. The standard cassette player plays an analog tape. These restrictions will probably keep the would-be pirates at bay for the time being, but as DAT becomes more widely accepted in the marketplace, the bad guys will undoubtedly rise to meet the demand. Both analog signals and digital signals have found a home in the networking world. Analog signals are used in a certain type of network known as broadBand networks. Digital data is typically used in what is known as a baseband network. Broadband networks incorporate technology similar to that of cable television. Data, whether it is video, audio, or digital, is transmitted on the wire at certain frequencies. The typical medium is coaxial cable. Just like you can have cable TV at home bringing you several channels at once, so broadBand systems can bring you several channels of data. More on this type of network will be presented later. Digital technology is generally utilized exclusively for baseband networks. These networks devote the entire cable (and subsequently its bandwidth) to

90

network transmissions. The baseband network will be more fully discussed later in this chapter. In comparing analog and digital signals, advantages lie on either end of the spectrum. Analog signals suffer far less from attenuation over long distances. This rather makes sense. Since digital data can only be a 1 or 0, what happens when a signal becomes so weak that it is hard to distinguish between each state? Sometimes we just can't. Analog devices, on the other hand, are equipped to handle the infinite values between 1 and 0. Digital devices are a lot less sophisticated, meaning that they are fairly easy to manufacture and cost-effective. In addition, digital devices are more resilient to EMI and make more efficient use of the cabling bandwidths than analog systems do.

5.2

Converting and Translating Data

Converting analog to digital data, or vice versa, requires special machinery. These devices must be able to capture through sampling the continuous movement of naturally occurring phenomenon as well as reproduce an authentic representation of natural events from digital snapshots. The latter involves the conversion of digital data (1s and 0s) to analog data (like sound).

5.2.1. Analog Encoding Methods Analog data is carried by an alternating current. If we were to graphically represent alternating current, it would appear as a wave, with voltage bouncing above and below the zero level. There are three factors to consider: frequency, amplitude, and phase. Frequency is the rate at which the current alternates above and below the zero current level. When the current rises above zero, dips below zero and then returns to zero, we say the current has completed one "cycle". The name applied to the number of cycles per second is Hertz (Hz). Therefore, if there are 500 cycles per second for an analog signal, we say the frequency is 500 Hertz (500 Hz). Amplitude would be viewed as the height (peak) and the depth (trough) of the graphic wave. As analog data travels over distance, the amplitude of the wave decreases. This characteristic is called "attenuation". As mentioned earlier,
91

analog waves are less susceptible to attenuation problems, but occasionally they have to be amplified. The amplitude of analog waves is measured in watts, amps or volts. The measurement decibel is often used to describe the power of a signal. A decibel (dB) allows us to understand the comparison of two different power levels of a signal. For instance, let's say we measured the amplitude of an analog signal about to be sent across a LAN at 600 milliwatts. Now we measure the signal after it has traveled through the network and we find that it has a measurement of only 300 milliwatts. If our measuring device could report in dB, we would find that the change in the signal from source to destination was about -3 dB. The decibel is a measurement of relative change, not actual power. Therefore, the -3 dB change would have been the same even if the original power was 200 watts and the second measurement yielded 100 watts. Finally, phase describes the difference in the start of the cycle of one signal to the start of the cycle of another. One signal acts as a reference signal, the other signal is the phased signal. A phased signal is created by slightly delaying it in order to cause its peaks and troughs to be out of sync with the reference signal. The level of non-synchronization is measured in degrees. If a signal is 180 out of phase, it means that as the reference signal reaches zero voltage following a peak, the phased signal begins. Thus as the reference signal is peaking, the phased signal is (for lack of a better term) troughing. The figure below illustrates this more clearly.

Figure 5-1: Phasing is the result of creating a signal out of sync with a reference signal.
92

The importance in looking at frequency, amplitude and phase, lies in the fact that it is these components that can be varied in order to allow an analog signal to carry data. Altering the frequency, amplitude or phase of a signal is called modulation. You see, if we modulate a signal, we make it appear to be different from normal. If we know what the normal signal should be like, then we can compare the normal one with the modulated one. The difference between the two represents the data being carried. We must grasp this concept before we can understand signal conversion. Let's take this one step further by seeing some examples of how data is encoded into analog signals. AM radio is produced by taking a basic signal (radio wave) and modulating its amplitude according to another signal (i.e. voice and music). AM stands for Amplitude Modulation. We may use the same technology for carrying computer data as well. For digital data, it's called Amplitude-Shift Keying (ASK). Here are a couple of examples:

Figure 5.2: Amplitude Modulation can be used to encode data in analog signals. FM radio is produced by taking a basic signal (radio wave) and modulating its frequency according to another signal (i.e. music and voice). In this case, FM is an acronym for Frequency Modulation. In the digital data realm, the same technology can be applied using Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK). Figure 5.3 illustrates a couple of examples.

93

An analog signal may also carry data by having its phase modulated. This technology is used in producing multiple sound channels for motion pictures. Motion picture film has only limited space for carrying sound data. It may not have enough available space to carry the several channels required to create a realistic sound for the audience. By placing several different modulated signals out of phase with one another together, we can in effect carry several different channels of data on one analog signal (carrier). In transmitting digital data, modulating the signal phase is called Phase Shift Keying (PSK). Figure 5.4 provides some phasing examples.

Figure 5.3: Frequency Modulation may be used to encode data into an analog signal as well.

Figure 5.4: Phase Modulation can be used to encode data in an analog signal. The amplitude is varied in some technologies.
94

As you can see the difference is obvious between the different technologies but the result is the same. Data, whether audio, video or digital, can be encoded and transmitted via analog signals, However, some of these methods offer distinctive advantages over the others. In analyzing methods for carrying digital data, Amplitude-Shift Keying is fairly easy to accomplish. On the other hand, any kind of amplitude modulated signal is very susceptible to outside interference. This is evident if you have ever tried listening to an AM station during an electrical storm. Each lightning occurrence fires random radio waves through the air resulting in signal interference. The same thing happens to ASK devices. Therefore, ASK is not really suitable for transmission over long distances. Just as FM radio is not generally affected by weather, neither are FSK transmissions. In spite of this, Frequency-Shift Modulation is seldom used for transmission over high-speed lines as the technology does not allow as many bits per second throughput as PSK does. Phase-Shift Keying technology is what is utilized by most high speed modern modems. One standard for using PSK is called the Bell 212A specification. It allows four different phases (in degrees) to encode data. The result is a potential for 600 phase shifts per second. Each phase shift represents a certain combination of 2 bits (i.e. 00 01 10 or 11). It then logically follows that since two bits are transmitted per phase shift and there are 600 phase shifts per second, the Bell 212A supports 1200 bits per second throughput. PSK is very resistant to external interference as it enjoys most of the same characteristics that FM or FSK devices do. The signals encoded using PSK may be used for synchronization purposes as well for the sender and receiver.

5.2.2. Digital Encoding Methods There are numerous methods used to encode digital data directly in digital signals. First, it is important to distinguish digital signals from analog ones. An analog signal, as you recall, is a continuously varying wave. Digital signals simply represent ones or zeros, so they are much less variable than analog. Since digital signals generally only represent one of two values, they are much easier to decode than multi-value analog waves. Plus the lack of multiple values makes digital signals easier to decode even after they have been affected by interference.

95

Digital signals are used internally in computer devices as well as externally in networks. Earlier, we briefly touched on broadBand and baseband networks. Broadband networks typically use analog signals for transmission, while baseband networks generally use all digital signals. Digital signals rely on having a reference point on which to build a signal representing a binary digit (1 or 0). If the reference point changes, then distinguishing ones and zeros can be difficult. The reference point is created by grounding. If a network is properly grounded, then data errors are much fewer due to lack of reference voltage problems. Grounding is typically achieved by driving a metal rod several feet into the earth or by attaching the ground wiring to metal piping that is buried in the ground. All excess voltage "drains" off into the ground leaving a voltage considered to be a "zero voltage" or "ground reference voltage".

When Ground Isn't Ground Anymore Recently there has been much press on grounding problems incurred by networks around the world. The problems, as it has been discovered, often stem from surge protectors used to protect networks. When a surge protector senses a high-voltage spike of electricity, it can shunt the excess voltage to the ground circuit. This allows the potentially dangerous energy to harmlessly dissipate into the Earth. However, it has been shown in testing that the ground circuit itself experiences a temporary rise in voltage. Thus the zero voltage point for the network rises creating less of a distinction between 1s and 0s. The result is data problems. Newer grounding technologies allow handling of surges in different manners other than simply shunting them to ground. The result could save many network administrators a lot of headaches. A crucial element for digital signals is timing. Timing (or clocking) is used for synchronization so that the communications between two devices can be coordinated. The clocking may be controlled locally on each device after the devices synchronize with one another, or be assisted by "clocking bits", which are special bits used to help synchronize communications. The clocking bits are actually encoded in the information being sent from sender to receiver. When clocking and synchronization is not used, the communication between sender and receiver is said to be asynchronous communication. Asynchronous communications are slower due to the overhead involved in grouping data together. There must be a logical grouping to separate one byte from another since this is not accomplished via timing.

96

The various digital encoding methods vary from one another in the manner in which they carry binary data, susceptibility to interference and clocking information. What follows is a few examples of digital encoding methods with descriptions of each:

Polar Uses a positive and negative voltage to represent 1s and 0s. A separate clock signal is used to keep sender and receiver synchronized. Fairly resistant to interference because of the great voltage distance between 1 and 0 signals.

Unipolar Uses positive voltage but no negative voltage to represent 1s and 0s. Because of low voltage variance, unipolar systems are more given to interference problems. Most use separate clocking signals as polar systems because long streams of 0s and 1s may be confusing if clocks are not exactly synchronized at sender and receiver.

Bipolar Similar to the other polar methods except that a positive, negative and zero voltage are utilized. Whenever a 1 is encountered, the voltage jumps alternately to the positive voltage or the negative voltage. 0 is always represented by zero voltage. This type of encoding is very resistant to interference.

97

Manchester This coding scheme involves voltage changes midway through the item of digital data being encoded. This serves the dual purpose of providing the type of bit being represented plus providing a synchronization cue for clocking purposes. In this encoding scheme a positive to negative mid-bit voltage transition denotes a 0 and a negative to positive transition denotes a 1. The Manchester coding scheme is known as "biphase".

Differential Similar to the Manchester scheme, this method is also a Manchester biphase encoding scheme. The mid-bit transition from a positive to negative voltage (or vice versa) takes place to offer synchronization (clocking). A 0 is represented by a voltage transition at the beginning of a bit and a 1 is represented by no change in the voltage at the beginning of a bit. This type of coding scheme is implemented in local area networking for token ring systems, while the standard Manchester method is utilized for another popular LAN type called Ethernet.

98

RZ RZ (Return to Zero) encoding Is a variation on bipolar coding. As in bipolar methods, 1 is represented by a negative voltage while 0 is represented by a positive voltage. However, RZ involves switching mid-bit to zero. This provides clocking information for synchronization and better resistance to interference as it is easy to detect a voltage change mid-bit.

NRZ NRZ (or Non-Return to Zero) encoding utilizes transitions between positive and negative voltages to denote 1s and 0s. Transitions are relied on rather than specific voltage levels. A 1 is represented by a transition where 0 is represented by no transition. This method is not self-clocking.

It should be plainly evident now that there is a big difference between digital and analog signal types. The method for encoding signals is also radically different. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages so it is not likely that either is going to completely go away. In real life we often have to convert signals from analog to digital or digital to analog several times before a piece of data reaches its destination. In the next section we'll deal with what's involved to perform conversion from one type of signal to another.

99

5.2.3. Converting Signal Types Perhaps the most common device associated with signal conversion today is the modem. A modem receives digital data and converts to an analog form for transmission over a media, most typically a phone line. Modem is a shortened form of Modulator-Demodulator, which means that the device is involved in both creating analog signals from digital data and changing analog data back to digital data (demodulating). Here's how it works: 1. A modem receives its signal from a computer, also known as a DTE (Digital Terminal Equipment). 2. The digital signal is used to modulate an analog carrier signal by either frequency-shift keying or phase-shift keying. 3. The analog signal travels over telephone lines or another medium. Remember analog signals can be broadcast further without attenuation problems. 4. The analog data is detected by another modem which receives and decodes the data on the analog signal. 5. A digital signal is generated by the modem and transmitted to the DTE. This scaled-down explanation ignores other responsibilities of the modem such as determining at what speed the receiving modem can communicate, detecting carrier signals, dial tones, etc. The official designation for a modem is DCE. This acronym is short for Digital Communication Equipment. The designations of DCE and DTE all fall under a standard known as RS-232-C instituted by the Electrical Industries Association (EIA). This standard governs the way that computers, terminals and modems are hooked up to one another including connections and what pins carry what kind of data. Please note that Novell materials indicate that the acronym DCE, used above, stands for Digital Circuit-terminating Equipment. This is also correct. If you are preparing for the CNE exams, you may want to commit this other terminology to memory. Modems are not limited to telephone line use. As mentioned above, other mediums can be used to carry the analog data generated by a modem as well. We have made frequent reference to broadBand networks. Broadband LANs utilize modems to allow several different types of data to share the same piece of cable. Each discrete type of data, whether it is computer data, video, or audio may share the cable because each type of data is transmitted using its own unique frequency. Modems are used to encode data on broadBand LANs in
100

specific frequencies. The method of placing several "channels" of data on a single piece of cable is known as Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) which will be discussed later in this chapter. Modems utilized for broadBand networks are very high-speed modems. It makes sense to use a modem over long distances, but what about short ones. If we wanted to communicate between two DTEs in the same room, it doesn't make sense for us to hook up modems for them. Since the RS-232-C standard describes which pins carry what data, we can bypass a modem altogether by simply connecting the machines directly to one another. The RS-232 connector has several pins that are numbered. The number 2 pin is typically the one that carries data from the DTE to the DCE (modem). It is known as the transmit pin. The 2 pin of the DTE is connected to the 2 pin of a DCE. The number 2 pin on a modem is known as the receive pin. Knowing this, we can construct a cable that basically connects each DTE's 2 pins to each other's 3 pins to form a connection without a modem. Interestingly enough, such a cable is called a null modem cable. To send digital data over analog systems we use a modem, but to send analog data over digital systems, we use quite a different device. Today's digitallyoriented businesses are looking for more and more ways to convert traditionally analog data to digital. This makes total sense as digital data is extremely easy to regenerate, is less plagued by interference and is more cost effective. Further, digital data may be directly stored on computer storage media. It's seldom that we pick up a trade mag when some mention of imaging, multimedia or digital voice-mail, isn't made. This conversion can be performed via a CODEC (COder/DECoder). A codec simply receives an analog signal (such as voice) and samples it. Each sample is converted into a representation of several bits. The bits are transmitted across a digital medium, such as a LAN. As digital data, the voice imprint may be stored, retrieved, filed or digitally compressed or altered. It may be routed across a wide area network link where it will be stored on some other system until someone decides to use it. Then the piece of digital data is routed through another codec where its digital contents are converted back to an analog signal. If it were voice data, then the actual sound of the sampled voice would be heard. If the sampling rate of the original were high enough, the voice would sound quite natural. Though modems are better known than codecs, the day is coming when perhaps that will change. Most modern sound cards have built-in codecs for performing analog to digital conversion. Sound card sales have increased quite dramatically. Plus, the new standard being implemented for carrying digital data on the public

101

switched telephone network also converts voice data to digital. ISDN is a completely digital system that supports voice lines. Voice recognition technology will also heavily depend on codecs.

5.3

Multiple Signal Transmission Schemes

Networks require us to jump through some hoops if we are going to accommodate multiple signals utilizing a single piece of cabling. This need is seen throughout networking whether we are talking about local area networks or wide area ones. Modern telephone systems must place a large number of calls over a limited amount of bandwidth (i.e. a trunk). Broadband LANs must have several different types of data on a single wire at once. These are examples where "multiplexing" must take place. Multiplexing is the process of putting data from several different sources on the same wire, or, in some cases, putting a large amount of data from a single source on several smaller bandwidth wires. There are several different ways that multiplexing can be accomplished. We'll look at a couple of them.

5.3.1. Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) TDM is used both in networking and phone systems. It is a process whereby several slower speed signals are divided up and placed on a high speed transmission channel. A multiplexer (MUX) actually selects which source data will be sent at what amount and places that chunk of data on the wire. It then selects a different source and takes a portion of its data and places it on the wire next. In this manner several "samplings" from several sources can be interleaved on the high-speed communications channel. This can be accomplished because the individual sources are sending their data at a relatively slow speed (i.e. 300 baud), while the outgoing channel has significant speed to accommodate a sampling from each source (i.e. 1200 baud). When the data reaches its destination, another multiplexer disassembles the combination data and places each chunk of data on an appropriate channel to its destination, once again at the slower speed at which it entered the original MUX. Figure 5.5 illustrates the concept of time-division multiplexing. This same technology is used by phone service providers who must grapple with the task of getting a large number of conversations over limited numbers of wires contained in trunks. If the conversations are broken up and put back
102

together fast enough, no one notices it. For this reason, high speed trunks use time-division multiplexing to carry several conversations at once - and no one is the wiser. Sampling a conversation of data from several sources may take place on the bit, byte or block level. When only a bit from each source is placed on the wire, we call it "bit interleaving". When a byte is sampled and then placed on a wire with other sampled bytes from other sources, we call it "word interleaving". MUXs, at both ends of a high-speed link, must synchronize with one another so that the time required for each sampling matches. Otherwise, the demultiplexer would not be able to determine which source signal goes with what destination channel. Timing is obviously an extremely important element to a time-based methodology like TDM.

Figure 5.5: Time-Division Multiplexing allows several devices to share a single medium via interleaving. One disadvantage of multiplexers that use TDM is that they allocate time for a source's data even if the source is not currently sending any. This is a waste of resources. Special MUXs have been created that only make slots for sources when those sources need to send data. This type of multiplexer must communicate with the MUX at the other end of the link whose data is being sent. TDM can be used on baseband networks. If you recall, baseband networks only carry one kind of data - digital. Digital data is susceptible to attenuation and interferences. Fortunately, digital data can be used with repeaters that actually regenerate the digital signal and rebroadcasts it at a higher level.
103

Broadband systems may also use TDM for a particular frequency. The frequencies on a broadBand network are many and varied. They are the product of another type of multiplexing called Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM).

5.3.2. Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) FDM allows us to take signals from various sources and place them on a single wire by giving each signal its own frequency. The total bandwidth of the entire cable can be divided up into several smaller bandwidths. These are analog signals that carry data. The information carried by the analog "carrier" may be encoded using any of the analog encoding methods. Each individual signal source must be routed through a modem. The modem takes the digital data and uses it to modulate an analog signal at a unique frequency. A modem with a different frequency is required for each signal source. A modem must be on the receiving end as well, listening for a unique carrier frequency from the sender.

Figure 5-6: Frequency-Division Multiplexing is used to allow multiple channels of data share a common wire (broadBand networks). FDM may also be utilized by phone companies who wish to maximize their usage of a limited amount of cable. As mentioned in an earlier chapter, the phone companies typically allow about 4 MHz of bandwidth for calls after filtering.

104

Broadband networks use technology similar to that of cable TV companies in placing several channels of data on a cable at once. Broadband systems use the different frequencies to separate directional traffic and provide special services. Both analog devices and digital devices can use a broadBand network, but only analog signals are carried on the wire.

5.4

Chapter 5 Study Tips

1. Know what an analog signal is and know examples. 2. Know what a digital signal is and give an example. 3. Compare analog and digital signals as far as susceptibility to interference, costs, distance limitations, reliability after amplification. 4. Know the ways a digital signal may be encoded into an analog signal (including ASK, FSK and PSK). 5. Be able to graphically represent ASK, FSK and PSK. 6. Know what comprises a digital signal. 7. Understand the different digital encoding methods. 8. Know what a self-clocking digital encoding method is. 9. Know what MODEM stands for, what the item is, and how it operates. 10. Know about CODECs. 11. Understand TDM and sketch out a diagram to represent it. 12. Understand FDM and sketch out a diagram of its operation.

105

Chapter 6 Networking Standards and References

Standards play an important role in networking. Without standards, manufacturers of networking products have no common ground on which to build their systems. Interconnecting products from various vendors would be difficult, if not impossible. Standardization can make or break networking products. These days many vendors are hesitant to support new technology unless there is a standardization base from which to work. Vendors want to know there will be some measure of interoperability for their hardware and software. Otherwise, releasing a product could be a marketing nightmare if it is not compatible with standards that are later embraced by the marketplace.

6.1

Reference and Standard-Setting Organizations

There are several sources for standards. Vendors may provide standards and references. Anybody who ever purchased in IBM clone can testify to that. Also standards may be created by organizations devoted to setting them up. Among the most well known are the International Organization for Standardization (called by the old acronym of ISO) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE or "I triple-E").

6.1.1 International Organization for Standardization (ISO) The ISO was founded in 1946 and is currently headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. Its mission at its inception was to create international standards regarding the threads of screws used for manufacturing world-wide. As needs for other standards arose, the ISO (then called the International Standards Organization, hence, ISO) stepped in to handle the task, and their influence crept into all areas of manufacturing and services. The primary focus for the ISO hasn't really been in the electrical and electronics area. Many of the standards set up in those areas were created by an older standards-setting organization called the International Electrotechnical
106

Commission (IEC), also based in Geneva. However, the ISO has responded to the needs of computing standards by forming a joint committee with the IEC dealing with information technology. The ISO has published networking standards even though they did not necessarily create them but borrowed them from other sources. An example is the 802 series of standards developed by IEEE and reissued by the ISO as the ISO 8802 protocols. These deal with subjects such as Ethernet LANs and token ring LANs. The International Organization for Standardization is made up of over 160 technical committees with over 2,300 subcommittees across the globe. Most of these committees work with national standards organizations from several countries. All told, there are over 75 of these national groups. In the US, the standards-setting body and member of the ISO is the American National Standards Institute (ANSI - pronounced an-see). ANSI is headquartered in New York City. It has been around since 1918 providing voluntary standards for both the private and public sectors. It has been instrumental is assisting in the adoption of industry standards dealing with many areas of information technology, including everything from programming languages to disk drives. Perhaps the most notable contribution that the ISO has provided to networking is the OSI model (Open Systems Interconnection). The OSI model basically details all the functions of networking and provides a framework in which all vendors around the world can create systems that can communicate with one another. All networking vendors to some degree have adopted and supported the OSI standards. The OSI model is discussed at length in this chapter.

6.1.2 Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) The IEEE has done notable work in the standards area of networking. This organization is huge with over 300,000 members made up of engineers, technicians, scientists, and students in related areas. The Computer Society of IEEE alone has over 100,000 members. IEEE is credited with having provided definitive standards in local area networking. These standards fall under a group of standards known as the 802 Project executed by the Computer Society's 802 subcommittee. The 802 standards were the culmination of work performed by the subcommittee starting in 1980. The first published work was 802.1 which specified a framework for LANs and internetworking. This was followed in 1985 with specific LAN-oriented standards titled 802.2 - 802.5. Since that time
107

there have been other references set up as well. Most of the work performed by the 802 Project committee revolves around the first two layers of the OSI model initiated by the ISO. These layers involve the physical medium on which we move data (cable type) and the way that we interact with it. It addresses such crucial issues of how data is placed on the network and how we insure its accuracy and flow. In order to better define these functions, the IEEE split the Data Link layer of the OSI model up into two separate components. This is illustrated in Figure 6.1. Here is a summary of what committees there are and what standards areas are being defined within IEEE: 802 IEEE committee responsible for setting standards concerning cabling, physical topologies, logical topologies and physical access methods for networking products. The Computer Society of IEEE's 802 Project Committee is divided into several subcommittees that deal with specific standards in these general areas. Specifically the Physical layer and the Data Link layer of the ISO's OSI model are addressed. 802.1 This work defines an overall picture of LANs and connectivity. 802.1B This set of standards specifically addressed network management. 802.1D Standards for bridges used to connect various types of LANs together were set up with 802.1D. 802.2 Called the Logical Link Control (LLC) standards, this specification governs the communication of packets of information from one device to another on a network. Specifically it deals with communication, not access to the network itself. 802.3 Defines the way data has access to a network for multiple topology systems using Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Detection (CSMA/CD). A prime example is Ethernet and StarLAN systems. These LAN types operate at 10 Mb/sec. 802.4 Standards developed for a token-passing scheme on a bus topology. The primary utilizer of this specification was the Manufacturing Automation Protocol LANs developed by General Motors. Operates at 10 Mb/sec. 802.5 This standard defines token ring systems. It involves the token-passing concept on a ring topology with twisted pair cabling. IBM's token ring system uses this specification. The speed is either 4 Mb/sec or 16 Mb/sec.

108

802.6 Metropolitan Area Networks are defined by this group. MANs are networks that are larger than LANs typically falling within 50 kilometers. They operate at speeds ranging from 1 Mb/sec up to about 200 Mb/sec. 802.7 These are standards concerning broadband LANs. 802.8 This group sets up standards for LANs using fiber optic cabling and access methods. 802.9 This specification covers voice and digital data integration. 802.10 These members set standards for interoperable security. 802.11 Wireless LANs are the subject of this particular subcommittee's works. Both infrared and radio LANs are covered. There are groups within these groups defining more of the specifics of each of these topic areas. Many of these broad topic areas are further defined. A case in point is the different ways in which Ethernet can be used. Ethernet LANs may use twisted pair and star topologies. It may use coax cable with a bus topology. It may use fiber. These are all defined within the 802.3 area and are referred to with names such as 10BASE-T, 10BASE2, 10BASE5 and 10BASE-F. These are covered in more detail in the next chapter.

6.2

The Open Systems Interconnection Model

Figure 6.1: The Open Systems Interconnection model has seven layers that describe functions of data communication for networking.
109

Perhaps no other standard has affected networking more than the OSI model. Presented by the ISO in the late 1970s, this model was to serve as a framework for worldwide communications. It has been adhered to in one respect or another by all network vendors. However, few have based their own implementation completely on the model with its seven layers of functions. Most believe that having individual functions broken into so many layers is impractical for their protocols (packet types) because of the overhead each layer adds. This will become clearer to you as we examine the functions of each layer and what's involved in using those functions. If all the world used one type of computer, our lives would be so much simpler. Unfortunately, a reality check tells us that not only will we see a great variance in the types of computers from one company to the next, but we are likely to see a wide variance from one office in our company to the next. Hardware differs depending on whom we purchase our machines from and what purposes we intend for it. One group might need a mainframe, while another might require a couple of PCs. As need for information grows, we eventually reach the point where we want those different machines to communicate. It's times like these that the OSI model proves useful. Every machine that can be connected to a network goes through similar process in transferring that data out on the wire. An application that we are running on that device generates some data that it wants to send to some other entity on the net. The information must be placed in a format suitable for the application that will receive it on the other side. Once this is done, the machine goes through the process of encoding the data into a network-ready format. This is done by breaking the data up into small units called packets. The packet not only contains raw data (just a few bytes in each packet), but it contains other important information such as where the data will go. We'll spend more time on the actual contents of several types of packets in the next couple of chapters. As the data is being prepped for transfer it is, in effect, passing down through the layers of the OSI model. The highest layer is the application, the lowest is the cable or other physical medium. While passing through these layers, other information may be tacked on to the packet in order to ensure the data is delivered correctly. Once the information is received by the recipient machine, the data passes up through the layers where information that has been tacked on at the sender is peeled off. Last on the layer list is the application running on the receiver device. It gets the raw data originally sent by the source machine. Figure 6.2 illustrates this concept. Let's take closer look at what the various layers of functions are:

110

Layer 1 - Physical This is the realm of cables, microwave beams and other transportation mediums. It's on this level that LAN cards (NICs) operate putting streams of bits out on the network. The principles here involve electrical properties such as impedance, inductance and attenuation. Agreement of how two devices will physically trade bits (handshaking) takes place on this lowest layer of the OSI model. Layer 2 - Data Link At this layer the bits going to or from the network are logically grouped into "frames". Some error detection and correction occur here along with flow control. This layer adds its own information such as source and destination addresses to a frame thus increasing its size. Layer 3 - Network On this layer a packet can be routed to a device on another network. This can be accomplished because networks have their own unique identification. This layer adds network data and routing data to a frame. Layer 4 - Transport The validity of communication between one node and another is maintained at this layer. Relationships can be set up between the nodes here allowing packets received to be acknowledged with a special acknowledgment packet back to the sender. This layer also helps keep data in the right order as well as control the speed of the communication. This layer adds sequencing and what is known as "socket" information to network data. Layer 5 - Session The session layer is in charge of managing the dialogue between the applications of two machines. It allows a conversation to be set up between the devices and monitors the conversation to keep it flowing. On this layer, one machine may invoke a procedure on another machine then retrieve the resultant data. This layer may place requests into network data. Layer 6 - Presentation The formats of files, screens, characters, etc., are handled on this layer. This layer is concerned with making the data look right for the application running on the application layer. Layer 7 - Application This is the highest layer on the model. It's on this layer you interact with your computer and generate data. That data is also received by other devices and utilized by their applications. The application layer generates the raw data that will eventually be placed in a packet for travelling on the network. That's a rather brief explanation of the functions of each layer. However, it is sufficient for you to be able to grasp each layer's function. We'll provide any other information concerning the layers' functions as needed.
111

6.3

Data Frame Construction and Use

As data is making its way through the successive layers of the OSI model prior to sending, pieces of information are tacked on that will be useful in getting the data to the right layer on the receiving end. Let's look at an example of how and when this is accomplished. Let's say that you decide to send an electronic mail message to a co-worker asking that person to call you. You create a message, "Call me." The application at the application layer appends what as known as a "header" (represented by AH, PH, etc., in Figure 6.2) to your message to identify what kind of application this message is for (E-mail application). Then the message passes down to the presentation layer. The presentation layer takes both the data from the application and application header and groups it together. This group is known as a "data unit". On to this data unit, the presentation layer may add its own presentation header before passing it down to the session, transport and network layers. Each of these may add their own headers as necessary. Every time a header is added, it is grouped with the information that it has been appended to, and the whole collection becomes a data unit for the next layer. Eventually the data reaches the data link layer. Here the data is grouped into frames by placing framing information before and after each group of a predetermined number of bits or bytes. In addition, address information is added, which basically tells where the frame is going (destination) and where it is coming from (source). Plus, control information is added as well as the Frame Check Sequence (FCS). The FCS is used for error detection. It is a 32bit value created by putting values from other fields in the frame through a polynomial equation. The result is unique to that frame. When the frame is received the same process of using the polynomial equation is repeated to determine if the data in the frame has gotten corrupted. This method is extremely reliable. The chance for a corrupted frame slipping through this errorchecking process is one in four billion. The next step is to move the data down to the physical layer. At this level the media, whatever it is, is accessed. The streams of data bits are placed on it and its serial communication from one device to another is monitored. Eventually, the data bits get to the other machine. Here the entire process is reversed. The streams of bits coming in from the physical layer are checked by the data link layer. If there is a problem, then the upper layers can be informed
112

of it. The data link layer can request a packet to be re-sent if it didn't pass the frame check sequence test. The header and trailer information placed on the data at the source is stripped away and the data eventually reaches the application layer on the receiving machine where your co-worker is. The program that handles E-mail then intercepts the message and informs your co-worker to call you. Another way of thinking about data frames is to think of an onion. Each layer of the OSI model may add an additional layer to your "onion" (or application data). When the packets are received, the data is reconstructed by peeling the onion.

Figure 6.2: Information is added to data as it descends through the OSI layers. When received the data will be reconstructed by removing the information added. 6.4 Important IEEE Specifications

As mentioned earlier, the IEEE has provided many useful specifications. Several of these are discussed in the next chapter which deals with popular network types. We'll start by introducing a sampling of the 802 Project Subcommittees' works. Each subcommittee deals with specific functions of the OSI model.

113

6.4.1 802.1 - Higher Layers and Management Earlier, we introduced you to bridges that were devices that allowed networks to connect together at the data link layer. The 802.1 committee is responsible for providing specifications for bridges. So far, the committee has given standards for "Spanning Tree Bridges", which are those which are implemented currently with Ethernet systems. The 802.1D subcommittee is working with "Source Routing Bridges" which are an IBM offering. This type of bridging is used with token ring systems. In addition, 802.1A is responsible for adopting a network management specification that is consistent with the OSI model. As IEEE has spent a great deal of time and effort defining standards around this model, it makes since to focus management tools around it as well. The 802.1B subcommittee develops network management protocols. Currently there are a few competing protocols. 802.1B attempts to keep these in order and stabilize the network management picture.

6.4.2 802.2 - Logical Link Control One of the first things that this subcommittee did was to divide the traditional data link layer of the OSI model into two separate layers. The resultant Logical Link Control layer and Media Access Control layer (MAC layer) made life much easier for the network designers by adding flexibility. At this point, only the MAC layer is dependent on what protocols you are using (i.e. Ethernet, token ring). The LLC layer functions independently providing a pathway for data to flow to the upper layers of the OSI model without those layers having to worry what kind of network you are using. The Logical Link Control layer's main function is to make sure that communication takes place on the network with no errors. Basically, It has to report to the bosses in the upper layers and it would just as soon not have to report any problems. The communication processes involve error correction, acknowledgments for receipt of information, creating of connections between network devices and the tearing down of those connections, and the ability to number (or sequence) each packet. Some of the services provided by LLC overlap those of the transport layer of the OSI model. Therefore, if those services were not provided by the transport layer, they may be available through LLC.
114

The LLC layer communicates with higher layers via Service Access Points. When, for instance, the network layer wants to pass a data unit down to the data link layer, it requests the data link layer to accept the data and continue preparing for transmission at a Service Access Point (SAP). When data is traveling up through the layers, the SAP allows the LLC layer to request that the network layer take the data and remove the network header (NH in Figure 6.2). Several processes from the higher layers may be requested. Each process will have a unique SAP address. In this manner, the MAC layer that is discussed below (which has only one address as far as the network is concerned) can communicate with several higher layer processes.

Figure 6.3: Service Access Points (SAPs) provide a way for lower layer processes to communicate with higher layer processes. The other layer of the IEEE's data link layer is the Media Access layer (MAC). Here data is placed in the proper format for the type of network you are using. This layer is in charge of providing source and destination addresses, error detection and grouping of data into frames. When data descends to the LLC layer, it is divided into frames. A LLC frame consists of several components that together are referred to as a Protocol Data Unit (PDU). There are three kinds of these PDUs. One carries information in a data transfer, another supervises that transfer, and another creates or destroys the communication.

115

Figure 6.4: The LLC frame contains several fields of data. The LLC layer frame begins with a specific SAP field specifying what process is requested by the sender. This field is known as the Destination Service Access Point field (DSAP). It is 8 bits in size. When the frame passes down to the MAC layer below it prior to transmission on the wire, it acquires a MAC header that directs the frame to a particular node. Plus, the frame gets a Cyclical Redundancy Check (CRC) field that is used for determining if the data has any errors. The DSAP is followed by the Source Service Access Point field (SSAP) that informs the recipient what process at the sender is communicating with the recipient's process in DSAP. Next a control field that is used for various purposes depending on the processes uses up 8 or 16 bits. This field is what determines which type of PDU the frame is. It is also used for keeping frames sequenced in the event that frame sequencing is used. Finally, we have the information that has been passed down from the layers above the LLC layer. The amount of bits in this field may be determined by the type of network being utilized. Once again, verification of the packet information takes place on the MAC level so the LLC layer doesn't have to re-perform this testing. The LLC layer is responsible for helping to correct errors. This is done in a variety of ways. The LLC layer can send acknowledgments from a receiver to sender to ensure data was received. Obviously, failure to receive an acknowledgment may mean data was lost so the sending entity knows to send again. The LLC layer also has the ability to place sequence numbers in each packet so that packets received can be properly ordered. This also prevents any errors and the receiver knows if certain packets have not been received. In addition, if a
116

relationship (connection) is established between sender and receiver, the LLC layer can monitor the connection. If there is a momentary failure of the entities to communicate, the LLC layer can reset the connection and allow the transfer of data to continue. Depending on the circumstances, some data could be lost. The LLC layer also provides protection against errors using flow control in which the sender is informed if it trying to send data too fast. There are several methods of flow control. Most are similar to what we see in everyday modem communications. Previously we had mentioned that three types of PDUs exist for use in the LLC layer. The Control field of the LLC frame contains information that determines which type of PDU is being used. Each type of PDU is used to provide a different kind of service. Let's look at the services provided by LLC. 1. Connectionless, Unacknowledged Service means that there are no special relationships set up between sender and receiver. Plus, there are no acknowledgments sent beck from receiver to sender. This service involves very little overhead, is very fast, and is least reliable. 2. Connection-Oriented, Acknowledged Service means that a relationship is set up between sender and receiver. They agree on parameters for communication. There are acknowledgments sent back from receiver to sender to ensure flow control and error checking. This service provides the slowest performance due to overhead, but the most reliable means for delivery. 3. Connectionless, Acknowledged Service means that there is no special relationship set up between sender and receiver, but acknowledgments are traded yielding flow control. This is the best of both worlds from the other service types. It has some overhead, but has reliability features as well. These types of services are grouped into what is known as LLC Service Classes. The classes differ in which services they contain.

LLC Classes of Service LLC Service Class I Provides connectionless, unacknowledged service only (Service 1). LLC Service Class II Provides connectionless, unacknowledged or connection-oriented, acknowledged ser-vices (Services 1 and 2).
117

LLC Service Class III Provides connection-oriented, acknowledged or connectionless, acknowledged services (Services 1 and 3). LLC Service Class IV Provides all three types of services. It would probably worth our while to discuss the flow control mechanisms of LLC in more detail. When we send data serially, we must have some method of checking the validity of the data. Usually this involves calculating a number based on the number of 1s or in a block of data and placing the calculation result onto the data block. We call it the Cyclical Redundancy Check or CRC. The same calculation is performed at the receiving end, and if there is a discrepancy, a retransmission is requested of the sender. In order to let the sender know the CRC test was successful, an acknowledgment is sent back from the receiver. Traditionally the sender had to stop broadcasting while waiting on a positive acknowledgment from the recipient. The technical term for this is positive acknowledgment with retransmission. This refers to the acknowledgments and the what happens if an acknowledgment is not sent - retransmission. Novell calls this feature stop-and-wait technology, so be aware of the difference in terminology. Since data can only be traveling from sender to receiver or receiver to sender (acknowledgments) at one time, this is inefficient use of network resources. The solution is to be able to send a packet without having to wait for an acknowledgment for the previous packet. This methodology is called "sliding window technology". The basic premise behind sliding windows is that we are busy sending instead of waiting. For example, let's say we have nine packets to be sent. We would transmit packet #1 and then go on to #2 without waiting for the acknowledgment (abbreviated ACK) for #1. We continue to send packets until we reach what we have pre-determined to be our window size at #6. At this point we do receive an ACK back for #1. The packets that have been sent but are as yet unacknowledged, are said to be "in the window". At the point that #1 ACK is received, the window slides up and the #7 packet is released. In this manner, we always have packets going out ahead of the acknowledgments. Figure 6.5 illustrates this for you graphically.

118

Figure 6.5: The standard stop-and wait method as compared to the sliding window technology yields much less throughput across a network. The window size can be adjusted for the network. Obviously, a small window means that there is potential waiting for ACKs. A fast network could potentially accept a large amount of packets, so a window might be larger in such cases. In every instance, both the sender and receiver carefully keep up with what packets have been sent and acknowledged. In 802.2 implementation, LLC Service Type 2 uses sliding widows flow control where LLC Service Type 3 uses what Novell calls stop-and-wait.

6.5

Chapter 6 Study Tips

1. Know what major standards-setting organization there are. 2. Know what the leading contribution the ISO has made to modern networking. 3. Understand what ANSI's relationship is to ISO. 4. Know what IEEE stands for and what the organization does. 5. Be able to briefly describe what topic area each 802 committee deals with and the appropriate 802 number for that committee (i.e. 802.3).

119

6. Know the seven layers of the OSI model and what functions take place on each layer. 7. Know how the IEEE 802.2 committee altered the OSI data link layer. 8. Know how data is processed through the OSI layers including the addition of headers and trailers. 9. Know what a Service Access point (SAP) is and how it functions. 10. Know the functions of the 802.2 LLC layer and MAC layer. 11. Know the contents of an LLC frame and what each field does. 12. Explain the terms "connectionless", "connection-oriented", "acknowledged", "unacknowledged", "sequence number". 13. Know the LLC classes of service. 14. Explain the function and advantages of "sliding window" technology.

120

Chapter 7 Lower Layer Protocols

The first layers of the OSI model include functions of the physical, data link, and network layers. It is important that we grasp what is going on at these layers in order to comprehend the various protocols that we often hear of. We will begin by examining the first level of interaction with the transmission medium itself - the physical layer and its specifications.

7.1

Physical Layer Specifications

Today's popular LAN types delineate themselves by how they allow data to reach the transfer medium (coax, fiber optic, etc.). In effect they control aspects of both the physical layer of the OSI model and the data link layer. There are, however, specifications dealing with just the physical layer. These are important because they control movement of data between devices that often interact with the networks including PCs and modems.

7.1.1 The RS-232 Standard

Figure 7-1: The DB-25 connector is typically used in implementing RS-232 specifications. Note each pin has a unique function. PIN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Description Protective Ground Transmit Data Receive Data Request to Send Clear to Send Data Set Ready Signal Ground
121

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Carrier Detect Reserved Reserved Unassigned Sec. Carrier Detect Sec. Clear to Send Sec. Transmit Transmit Clock Sec. Receive Data Receiver Clock Unassigned Sec. Req. to Send Data Terminal Ready Signal Quality Detector Ring Indicator Data Rate Select External Clock Unassigned

This standard was developed by the Electronic Industries Association (EIA) to provide a reference for connecting Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) with Data Circuit-terminating Equipment or Data Communications Equipment (DCE). An example would be connecting a PC to a modem. This connection would take place over a standard type of connector and cable according to the RS-232 spec. The cabling type has changed through the years. The concepts have not. The specification calls not only for certain cabling and connectors, it also details voltage levels on the cable and what these voltage levels represent. RS-232 formerly described a 25 pin connector (typically a DB-25 connector) and the functions of data traveling down each pin. As this is a physical layer process, the data is simply electrical impulses. Figure 7.1 illustrates the arrangement of the pins and what they represent. The cabling is to be no more than 50 feet in length and capable of supporting all 25 channels of impulses. The voltage levels include -3V to represent a binary 1 and +3V to represent a binary 0. The speed of the transmission is no more than 20 Kbps. If two computers wish to communicate through modems, a standard procedure called "handshaking" takes place. Handshaking is simply a way to initiate data transmission.
122

RS-232 Handshaking 1. The Data Terminal Ready pin (Pin 20) gets a voltage when PC is turned on. 2. The Data Set Ready pin (Pin 6) gets a voltage when modem is turned on. 3. The PC supplies a voltage to Pin 4 (resulting in a Request To Send). 4. The modem responds by applying voltage to Pin 5 (Clear To Send). Next it sends out a carrier tone to the other modem. 5. The receiving modem hears the carrier tone and supplies a voltage to Pin 8 (Carrier Detect). 6. The PC sends data via Pin 2 (Transmit Data) to the modem that converts it to sound and sends it to the receiving modem. 7. The receiving modem converts the sounds into digital data which is sent via Pin 3 (Receive Data) to the receiving PC. PCs may communicate directly with one another without a modem if proximity allows. This is done by purchasing or making what is known as a "null modem cable". It simply alleviates the need for a modem by connecting receiving and sending pins on both devices together in an appropriate fashion. Typically this would involve cross-connecting pins 2 and 3, 4 and 5, and 6 and 8. The RS-232 standard is very similar to the CCITT V.24 and V.28 specifications. It is also similar to ISO 2110.

7.1.2. Other Standards The EIA enhanced the RS-232 standard in the mid-70s and created the RS-449 Specification. This spec describes a more resilient connection of devices with more intricate data transmission specifications and increased distance capabilities. The result was a faster but more costly and cumbersome system. A newer specification called EIA530 solves problems by allowing the RS-449 specs to be used with RS-232's common DB-25 connector. The Consultative Committee on International Telegraphy and Telephony (CCITT) has its own set of physical layer specifications called the X series. The X series is numbered (i.e. X.25) and mainly deals with public data networks.
123

The specs numbered 1 through 39 deal with all manner of data transmission techniques and devices. Those numbered 40 through 199 involve network activities including structure and transmission methods. CCITT's V series specifications deal with communication interfaces and speeds. The telecommunication industry also uses its own specifications. T-1 is a designation of a specific type of transmission line capable of carrying data at 1.544 Mbps in the US and 2.048 Mbps in Europe. The T-1 can be dedicated to carry only digital data or it can carry 24 voice channels that have been digitized. The T-3 lines can carry data at 45.54 Mbps. It is the equivalent of many T-1 links. It, too, may be used for all-digital data or for digitized voice lines. 7.2 Data Link Layer Specifications

The physical layer takes care of getting data on the wire and off of it again. At the data link layer, we must take this incoming stream of data from higher or lower layers and create frames from it. Handling the data requires a solid protocol that can perform better error checking and more efficient throughputs. The first to really address these needs was the Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC) protocol from IBM. Developed for their Systems Network Architecture (SNA) systems, IBM created what is known as a bit-oriented protocol. This meant that specific bits themselves had meaning. Information wasn't formed just on the byte level. SDLC supported the computer structure of the 70s with provisions for host systems. Primary devices as well as secondaries were supported. Primary devices are those that control a communications channel to themselves or other devices. The other devices are called secondaries. (See Chapter 2 - "Polling".) Later, devices were able to assume the role of either primary or secondary depending on the need. Functionality beyond this was added by the standardssetting organization who adapted and renamed SDLC. The ISO termed it as High level Data Link Control (HDLC), ANSI called it Advanced Data Communication Control Procedures (ADCCP) and CCITT later termed it Link Access Procedure - B (LAPB). A SDLC frame consists of several fields that comprise a command that is sent to secondaries. The secondaries use their own unique frame to respond to the commands. There are three different types of command frames. 1. Supervisory frames carry acknowledgments, flow control and status information. 2. Data frames carry general carry information for upper layers.
124

3. Unnumbered frames are used for station initialization and testing procedures. The first field in the SDLC frame is the flag field. It carries a special arrangement of bits that ordinarily would not occur elsewhere within the frame. In order to make sure the flag field is unique, SDLC uses "bit stuffing", a method by which any consecutive group of more than five 1s are broken up by a 0. The receiver recognizes this and removes the 0. The same flag is used to signal the end of a frame.

Figure 7-2: The SDLC frame has three variations. The address field contains the unique address of a secondary that the SDLC frame is coming from or going to. The control field follows with one or two bytes worth of information. It denotes whether the frame is a supervisory, a data or an unnumbered frame. Supervisory frames are mainly used to allow or disallow transmission between a secondary and primary. The control frame begins with a 10 pattern that signifies that the frame will be a supervisory one. As a response to an information frame, this field may communicate that a frame has been rejected, that a secondary is ready to receive, that a primary is polling a secondary, or that a secondary is not able to accept any more frames. The 10 pattern is followed by a P/F (Poll/Final) bit. This bit is used to control acknowledgments. A sender may send multiple frames without requesting an acknowledgment. When it is ready to check to see of all frames have been received okay, it sets the P/F bit to 1.

125

Information frames' control field begins with a 0. This is followed by a send sequence number, a receive sequence number and the P/F bit. The send sequence number is the number of the frame that a sender will send next. The receive sequence number is the number of the packet that the sender has just received. If there is a problem then the receive sequence number is not changed and the packet with the error can be resent. After the P/F bit, an information field follows. The Unnumbered frames are used to create and destroy connections between senders and receivers. The control field for an unnumbered frame begins with a 11. The frame itself contains no sequence numbers. Each SDLC frame contains a Cyclical Redundancy Check field (CRC). This special value is created from the contents of the frame and is used in error detection. The sender places the frame contents through an equation and generates a CRC. It then sends the CRC with the frame. The receiver runs each frame through the same equation. The CRC that it comes up with must match the one in the frame, or the frame is discarded. SDLC uses a 16 bit CRC. HDLC uses a 32 bit CRC and is very similar to SDLC. As a close cousin, its functions are virtually identical to SDLC with the exception of a few minor differences. The importance of HDLC lies in its three transfer modes that are borrowed for yet another SDLC cousin - LAPB. HDLC's transfer modes are as follows: 1. ARM (Asynchronous Response Mode). This mode allows a secondary machine that normally must receive permission from the primary to transmit, to communicate at will with the primary. 2. NRM (Normal Response Mode). This mode allows secondaries to transmit only after having received permission to do so from a primary device. 3. ABM (Asynchronous Balance Mode) This mode allows machines that function as both primaries and secondaries to communicate at will. LAPB is very similar to SDLC and HDLC. LAPB operates only in an Asynchronous Balanced Mode fashion.

7.3

Ethernet Systems

Ethernet was originally conceived of in the early 70s by Xerox designers. Its successful use in the Xerox Alto PC led two a consortium of three companies
126

who wanted to be able to interlink various minicomputers. The companies were Digital Equipment Company (DEC), Intel Corporation and Xerox Corporation. Intel took on the task of providing the chips for NICs. Xerox wrote the software to operate it and DEC stepped in to make use of the technology for its minicomputers. The result was a high-speed connection that provided an alternative to IBM's networking architectures. In 1980 these companies released a specification for Ethernet Version 1. This version was followed by a second version in 1982. These early versions comprise the standard we should refer to as "Ethernet" today. However, they are so close to another standard put forth by the 802.3 Committee of IEEE, that these standards are often confused and the terminology is used interchangeably. There is a difference and we will point out these in this chapter. Version 1 Ethernet's specifications called for a contention access method to the physical cabling. This meant that machines had to monitor the LAN for an opportunity to use the wire if necessary. This technology is called Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection or CSMA/CD. We have discussed this concept in a previous chapter. The physical cabling was and is known as thick coaxial cable (.405 inches in diameter and fairly rigid). It supported a standard throughput of 10 Mbps and the maximum length of cable allowed between nodes of about 500 meters (about 1500 feet). Ethernet's frame size and content was defined by the Version 1 standard as well. This early standard has become known as the DIX Standard. DIX is an acronym for DEC, Intel and Xerox. This frame size may be between 72 and 1526 bytes in length. The spec also called for Manchester encoding be used for the digital signal. In case you don't remember how Manchester encoding works, take a quick glance back at Chapter 5. Soon after Ethernet Version 2 was released in 1982, the IEEE 802 Committee issued its own standard for Ethernet-type networks. Not surprisingly, the 802 spec was startlingly similar to Ethernet 2. Let's compare the frames of Ethernet and 802.3 so you can see the differences as well as the similarities.

127

Figure 7-3: The Ethernet and IEEE 802.3 Frames Compared The preamble for the Ethernet frame is 8 bytes (technically called octets) in length. It is actually the repetitive pattern of 10101010 for seven bytes followed by one byte with a 10101011 pattern. The preamble for 802.3 is identical except the final byte is called the "Start Frame Delimiter" or SFD. The destination address follows for both frame types. This field is 6 bytes in length. It is followed by a source address field that is also six bytes in length. In the Ethernet frame, the next field is the type field that specifies the software protocol (TCP/IP, NetWare) with which the Ethernet frame is being used. This field is typically called the Ethertype field. In the 802.3 frame, the type field was replaced with a length field that provides the length in octets of the data field to follow. The data field contains information bound for the higher layers in the OSI model. This structure can vary in length from 46 bytes to 1500 bytes. In IEEE framework, the data is considered to be a data unit from another layer. If that data unit is less than 46 bytes, it is padded to bring it to that minimum length. Therefore a pad field may or may not exist. Finally, both frame types have a 32-bit (8 byte) CRC check field that is created out of information from other fields. In the Ethernet frame, CRC is computed from the address, type and data fields. In 802.3, the CRC is created from the address, length, data and pad fields. It should be plainly evident that in spite of striking similarities between the two frame types, there are a couple of crucial differences. First, Ethernet has no
128

length field and 802.3 has no type field. Upper layers that might use this information would obviously get confused. Second, Ethernet provides no padding to make sure its data field is at least 46 bytes in length. This task would have to be performed by another layer. There is one other difference worth noting. The oldest version of Ethernet does not use a special signal known as SQE (Signal Quality Error) so using it with more modern Ethernet-type systems presents a problem. Since the 802.3 frame is the most commonly used today, we'll limit our discussion to it and the specifications surrounding its use. And for the sake of keeping our vernacular constant with what we experience today, we'll refer to the 802.3 frame generically as "Ethernet". Ethernet as a protocol (packet type), deals only with the Physical and Data Link layers of the OSI model. The layers above these are involved with software protocols such as NetWare's IPX and SPX packet types or TCP/IP packets. In transmitting TCP/IP on an Ethernet LANs, the TCP/IP information is placed in the data field of the Ethernet frame. When the frame is received, the Ethernet stuff is stripped away leaving TCP/IP information for higher layers. There is another crucial difference between Ethernet specs and 802.3 specs. Ethernet only specifies one type of physical medium - thick coax. The 802.3 standards provide for several physical media including coax, twisted pair and fiber. Each of these standards has been given a unique designation by the 802.3 subcommittee. An example of one of these designations is "10BASE5". This specifies that the LAN throughput is 10 Mbps (10). It is a baseband network, meaning only digital data is transmitted on it (BASE). Finally, the maximum length of medium acceptable between any two nodes is about 500 meters (5). Here is a breakdown of what designations there are and what they entail.

IEEE 802.3 Physical Medium Specifications 10BASE-T This is Ethernet for twisted pair cabling. It specifies that each segment may not be more than 100 meters in length. It uses a star topology with hubs known as "concentrators". Fiber optic cable can be used with this specification only it allows up to 500 meters for segments. 10BASE2 This is commonly called "Thin Ethernet" or "ThinNet". The cabling medium is RG-58 coax cable (about a quarter of an inch in diameter). The maximum distance between nodes is 185 meters (rounded to 200 meters, hence the 2 on 10BASE2).

129

10BASE5 This is the equivalent to the standard Ethernet specifi-cation. It requires thick coax (RG-8) and a maximum distance of 500 meters per segment. 10BROAD36 This is the specification for a broadband network that works very much like a cable television system. It uses a device known as a headend that receives a signal on a particular frequency from one node and sends the signal on a different frequency to a destination node. 1BASE5 This specification is for LANs referred to as StarLAN systems. Data throughput is only 1 Mbps. The arrange-ment of nodes is in a star topology using UTP. There is a main hub (called the header hub) that can have several "intermediate" hubs attached, each with its own nodes. Ethernet offers distinct advantages over other popular LAN types. It is cost effective and offers very high throughput for traffic patterns that are variable and not always heavy. With light traffic loads, Ethernet performs splendidly.

7.4

ARCnet Systems

ARCnet could be called the protocol that would not die. That's because although there are newer and faster networking solutions, ARCnet has a loyal following due to unrivaled interoperability among vendors and budget-oriented pricing. The Attached Computer Resources network (ARCnet) was created by a company called Datapoint in the late 70s. Later on this technology was licensed out to SMC (Standard Microsystems Corporation) who is still manufacturing ARCnet products today. The interesting thing about ARCnet is that its speed was based on the fastest speeds of disk drive subsystems in the late 70s. Who would have thought at that time we'd ever need more than 2.5 Mbps throughput (about 7.5 Mbps slower than Ethernet)? Obviously this was the same line of reasoning behind our early PCs. Who would have ever thought we'd need more than 640K memory, right? ARCnet typically uses a star topology, though it can use a bus, and supports coax, TP or fiber. ARCnet can actually combine topologies as in the case where nodes are hooked up in a bus topology radiating from a central hub device.

130

Figure 7-4: ARCnet LANs can utilize a star topology (from hubs) and a bus topology (legs of the star) together. In order to accommodate all of the different types of mediums out there, ARCnet vendors have created just about every kind of connector you can imagine. This includes coax to TP converters as well as coax and fiber converters. Let's look at what the ARCnet packet types look like, then we'll mention some of the limitations of this popular type of LAN.

Figure 7-5: There are five ARCnet packet types. ARCnet uses several types of packets each with a particular function. In practice, ARCnet works very much like a token ring system in that a special packet like the token visits each node giving it permission to transmit. Before a node transmits data to another node, it queries the intended receiver to see if
131

that node can in fact receive a frame. With a positive acknowledgment (ACK) from the receiver, the sending node will began transferring data. Each data packet is acknowledged. After the data transfer is finished, the sender sends the token-like packet to the next node in line. The "token" in ARCnet is called an ITT frame. ITT stands for Invitation To Transmit. ARCnet nodes each have a number assigned to them between 1 and 255. The ITT always travels sequentially from node to node. Therefore when node 5 is finished, node 6 gets the ITT, or whichever active node that is closest to node 5 in sequential numbering. ARCnet packets begin with what is known as an "alert burst" composed of six consecutive 1 bits. The ITT has an alert burst followed by an End of Transmission marker (EOT) and two Destination IDentifiers (DIDs) which comprise an ARCnet node identification number. If a node needs to transmit, it must wait for the ITT. Once received the sending node transmits a special frame called an FBE (Free Buffer Enquiry) to its data's destination node. The FBE is designed to find out whether or not the destination node has enough free memory to accommodate a packet. This packet begins with an alert burst followed by an ENQuiry field containing an ASCII request to see if buffer space is available. The ENQ is followed once again with two DID fields. The destination node then responds to the FBE by sending either an acknowledgment (ACK) or a negative acknowledgment (NAK) to the sending station. If a NAK is sent then the transfer cannot take place. If a ACK is received than data is transmitted to the destination via the data packets. In the ARCnet structure, each node has a limited time in which to transmit once it has received the ITT. The ACK and NAK packets simply contain an alert burst followed by the ASCII code for a positive or negative acknowledgment. Note that there is no source or destination information contained in the ACK or NAK. Since only one machine has been given permission to transmit, it is assumed that the ACK or NAK is to be used by the one node. The data packet is called a PAC (short for packet). It contains an alert burst followed by 1 byte Start of Header (SOH) field. Next is the 1 byte Source IDentification field (SID) and two bytes of DID. This is followed by 1 to 2 byte count field that indicates the size of the data field to follow. The data field of an ARCnet packet can be from 1 to 508 bytes in length. This is much smaller than Ethernet's 1500 or so bytes of data. This small packet size is advantageous if a packet has to be re-sent due to an error. It's a little faster to resend a small packet than a larger one. However, smaller packets carry less data

132

at one time. This means more ARCnet packets than Ethernet packets would be required to move most data. Plus, ARCnet requires an ACK to be received between each packet. This overhead adds up to slow throughput for ARCnet. The data field is followed by two Cyclical Redundancy Check (CRC) fields used to determine the validity of the data at the destination node. As a choice for LANs, ARCnet offers advantages in its cost efficiency and its ease of use. However, its speed has crippled it in the marketplace. Attempts have been made to beef up ARCnet. In 1989, ARCnet Plus was announced. This system uses ARCnet protocols at 20 Mbps, currently faster than Ethernet or token ring. Unfortunately, ARCnet Plus has not really gotten off the ground. Thomas Conrad modified the ARCnet protocols and created the Thomas Conrad Network System (TCNS). This proprietary offering zips along at 100 Mbps. So far the system has proven functional on coax, fiber and shielded twisted pair cabling. The cost is still formidable yet, but this network offering was and is quite an achievement. ARCnet LANs are quite limited in size. There is a finite number to the nodes that can participate in an ARCnet LAN, and that number is 255. This is limiting for larger organizations, but most large operations go with Ethernet or token ring anyway. For a smaller shop, this is manageable. There are a couple of different hubs that can be used with ARCnet, passive and active. Passive hubs simply split signals and limit nodes to about 100 feet out from the hub device. Active hubs regenerate the signals so that nodes may be stretched up to 2000 feet from the hub. ARCnet is considered to be deterministic in its function. That is, its throughput is somewhat predictable under load conditions. There are some cases where ARCnet LANs outperform Ethernet LANs in high traffic conditions. There is an interesting event that occurs in ARCnet LANs. Since every node is numbered, there has to be a way to maintain the orderly flow of information from one node to the next. The ITT helps assure that everyone gets a chance to transmit, but how does the token know where to go once it is finished at a particular node? Each node is responsible for keeping up with the node ID for its downstream neighbor (sequentially). This information is called the NID for Next IDentification. Now this works out great until a new node enters the system or a current node leaves (as in gets turned off). These conditions trigger what is known as a reconfiguration event or a "recon". During a recon, a signal is sent
133

to all nodes instructing them to drop what they are doing and reset there NID to match their own SID (they become their own Next ID). Next, the highest numbered node begins incrementing its Next ID. When it reaches 255, the NID starts at 1 and continues to increment from there. Each time the node increments its Next ID, it sends out a packet with the NID as the DID number. Eventually, it gets an ACK from the next highest node indicating that the NID is now correct. Next the original node sends a token to the node matching its newly set NID and the other node can now go about the same process to find its downstream neighbor. Although it would seem that the recon event would create a great deal of time overhead, it actually requires very little. Recon events occur only when necessary and only require a few seconds. In smaller systems, the event may be barely recognizable. One method advocated for getting around frequent recons during a workday, is to make sure all nodes are turned on together in the morning and left active all day. Turning machines on and off during the day should not be encouraged not only due to recons, but to strain that powering up a PC over and over again can create on the machine's internal circuitry.

7.5

Token Ring Systems

Token ring systems are continuing to grow in popularity. There are probably numerous reasons why. Token ring systems are fault tolerant and deterministic. They are far superior to Ethernet in handling high traffic environments. IBM markets and continues to support token ring. The IEEE has adopted a standard for token ring systems. All these factors play in.

134

Figure 7-6: A token ring system uses a circulating token that visits each node giving permission to transmit. When IEEE 802.5 committee started working on specifications for a token passing system utilizing a ring topology, it became evident that IBM had already invested quite a bit into researching and developing the system. Consequently, the 802.5 standards are very close to IBM's token ring, though there are some differences. IBM's Token Ring Network utilizes what appears to be a star topology (because of a central hub-like device) but is actually a ring topology. The central device is known as a MultiStation Access Unit (MAU or MSAU). The cabling may range from level 3 UTP to fiber optic. The choice of cabling will impact how many nodes may safely participate on a given ring. For instance, a token ring LAN using data grade IBM coax may support a little better than 250 nodes, while a system using UTP (level 3) may only support about 70. Within the MAU, a ring is formed from connected nodes by relays which may also bypass a node and take it out of the ring. A ring is necessary because data flows in only one direction from node to node. Each node is responsible for taking the data transmitted to it from its upstream neighbor and passing it on to the downstream neighbor. The data travelling through a token ring card is simply repeated unless the card happens to be the one sitting in the destination machine. In this case, the data is copied into memory, then it is re-sent right on out along the ring again. Eventually the data gets back around to the source that absorbs the data off of the ring and checks to see if the message was acknowledged by the intended receiver. The ring makes this scheme possible, and, incidentally, even MAUs can be hooked together into a ring. The 802.5 specs call for special packets in token ring systems to either control the ring's operation on the media access control (MAC) layer or send data from the logical link control (LLC) layer on up to other OSI layers. Let's take a look at what is involved with these packet types.

135

Figure 7-7: Token ring systems use three packet types each with a specific function. The token seems to be nothing more than just a three byte packet with simple function. However, each byte of the token contains important information. The starting delimiter contains non-data symbols as well as binary zeroes creating a unique pattern that in no way can be mistaken for data. The second byte, known as the access control field, contains four components - a priority mode, a token bit, a monitor count and a priority reservation. The priority mode is 3 bits that represent priorities. A 111 combination represents the highest priority while 000 represents the lowest. Each node on the ring must be assigned a priority equal to or higher than the priority of the token before the machine will be allowed to transmit. A token bit follows indicating whether the frame is a token frame or a data frame. The token is represented by a 0 in this bit, anything else by 1. A monitor count bit follows. If the token or data has passed by the active monitor (a node that monitors the ring), this bit is set to one. If the active monitor sees a frame with a 1 here, it assumes that for some reason the frame was not removed from the ring and then does so. Then it resets the ring and sends out another token. The next three bits are called priority reservation bits. They allow a node to request a token of a higher priority thus only allowing certain other stations to participate in the transmissions if those other nodes have the same or higher priority. Finally, the last byte of the token is the ending delimiter that contains non-data information that violates the Differential Manchester encoding scheme (Chapter 5) used for token ring. Plus the byte contains binary 1s. It also contains a bit that is used to signal if the frame has an error in it. This bit is flipped if the receiver's CRC doesn't match the sender's CRC. The token ring data frame (802.5) begins with a starting delimiter, once again containing binary 0s and violations of the Differential Manchester Coding. This is followed by the access control byte containing priority information just like the token. In this case, the fourth bit is a binary 1 differentiating the data frame from a token frame. The Frame Control byte then follows. It contains an indicator that details whether the frame is carrying data or command information. If data is being carried, then it is utilized by the LLC layer on the receiving machine. If a

136

command is received, it executes on the MAC layer. Commands deal with setting up a ring and maintaining it with its active monitor machine. Next the destination and source addresses follow. These addresses can be burned into the actual token ring card, or they may be assigned by a network administrator. If IBM token ring is being used, then a routing information field is next, otherwise the information field follows with a LLC PDU contained to be passed up to higher layers on the receiving machine. The length of this field is variable because each machine has a set amount of time to broadcast data and when it must stop, the information field is complete. The next field is the frame check sequence field. Just like other protocols, it contains a CRC created from other fields within the frame (control, destination and source addresses, and information fields). Just like the other protocols, the FCS is computed at the sender and receiver. They have to match or there is an error in the packet. The ending delimiter is then next followed by the frame status byte. The frame status byte is composed of several bits that include reserved bits plus two types of other bits known as Address Recognized (AR) and Frame Copied (FC) bits. There are two bits of each of these types. All of these bits are set to 0 when transmitted. The destination node sets the AR bits to 1 when a packet is received and sets the FC bits to 1 also when the frame is copied into the receiving station's memory. If the frame gets back to the sender without the AR bits being flipped, then it knows the destination is not actively on the ring at that time. If only the AR bits are changed, but not the FC bits, then some error caused the receiver not to copy the data. It may have been bad, or resources might have been too limited. The sender can then attempt to re-send the packet. Please note that Novell has used the term "Address Resolution" rather than "Address Recognition" for the AR bits. The abort packet is sent to interrupt the normal transfer of tokens and data around the ring in cases of errors or other problems. Token ring systems are very complex possessing advanced fault tolerance capabilities. For instance, if a card senses that something is wrong on the ring, it begins a process known as "beaconing". Beaconing starts when a node, after detecting a problem on the ring such as a break, sends out a special packet. The packet helps to isolate the problem area and causes the ring to attempt to work around the problem.

137

Right now, one of the major hindrances to token ring is its price. A token ring card can cost double what an Ethernet card does. And for light sporadic traffic, Ethernet can outshine token ring. However, for large LANs with a high degree of traffic, token ring may still be the best choice.

7.6

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)

FDDI, in a nutshell, is like very fast token ring on fiber. Its throughput speed is 100 Mbps, and compared to standard token ring and Ethernet, that is fast. FDDI was designed for a couple of main reasons. First, it allows mainframe and minicomputers networks to move data at a much higher speed, or it can serve as a high speed backbone for several LANs. Second, highly processor and data intensive applications such as Computer-Aided Design (CAD) systems needed to be able to move and retrieve huge volumes of data in a rapid fashion. FDDI shares many commonalties with token ring. Its layout is similar. It uses a token. It is similarly fault-tolerant. It can be easily managed, and FDDI can be easily integrated with token ring. As far a frame construction, FDDI is very similar to token ring in that there are token frames and data frames. Here is a breakdown:

Figure 7-8: FDDI uses two main frame types. Each node in a FDDI network has built-in clock that allows data signals to be correctly interpreted. The preamble contains a group of sixteen 1s to synchronize the receiving station's clock. The starting delimiter is next followed by a frame control field that provides information such as whether the transmission is synchronous or asynchronous, whether a 16-bit or 48-bit address will be used, and whether the frame is used on the receiver's MAC layer or passed up to the LLC layer.

138

The destination and source addresses follow. They are typical addresses. If the first bit of the destination address is a 1 then the message is designed to go to every node on the ring. It is a "broadcast" message. The data field follows with a frame check status field behind. The FCS carries a 32-bit CRC created from the frame control, address and information fields. The end delimiter signifies whether or not the frame was a token or data frame. Finally the frame status field works just like token ring's. It signifies if a frame has been received and copied into the memory of the intended receiver. The FDDI token has only 4 fields. It has a preamble, start delimiter, a frame control field and an end delimiter. The end delimiter contains information signifying that the frame is a token, not a data frame. FDDI is replete with fault-tolerance offering a dual counter-rotating ring for redundancy. If the primary ring fails, the secondary ring will allow nodes to continue to operate. Machines on the ring are classified in A or B groupings. A stations are those that make use of a second ring for fault-tolerance. B stations are only on the primary ring. Thus, if the primary ring fails, all Class B nodes would be inoperative. According to specification, FDDI rings are not supposed to have over 1000 nodes or extend beyond 200 kilometers in circumference. About every 2 km or so, a repeater is needed to boost the signal along the fiber optic cabling. Fortunately, fiber optic cable is not susceptible to EMI. When data is not traveling around the FDDI ring, a token circulates, so there is always minimal traffic. In practice, each node sees a token and absorbs it, hanging on to it if there is a need to transmit data. Once a frame of data is transmitted, the token is then released. If that combination reaches another FDDI node, the data frame is just copied right through the node, but the token on the end signals the node that it can append any data it needs to as well. Eventually all of the data frames get reabsorbed by the sending nodes and the token is all that is left, constantly circulating on the ring. FDDI does not use Manchester data coding like Ethernet. It does not even use Differential Manchester encoding. It uses what is called Non-return to zero encoding (NRZ-I to be precise). Coding of data on the ring is done by symbols. A digital character is changed into a FDDI symbol. For FDDI, this is typically represented by five bits. This pattern is put into NRZ-I digital coding to be moved around the ring. This encoding method was chosen because of the amount of data it can carry. In order to achieve a 100 Mbps throughput in FDDI, a 125 MHz signal is needed.
139

As you probably noticed, FDDI supports both synchronous and asynchronous transfers of data. In fact, it allocates bandwidth for both types of transmissions. Most of the bandwidth is reserved for the typical synchronous communications, but in the event two nodes decided to talk asynchronously, they may do so. The asynchronous bandwidth is distributed based on priorities. Two nodes could take complete control of the async bandwidth for an extended period if necessary. This state is called "restricted token mode". Here the two nodes would carry on a conversation using all the async bandwidth until one of them issued a non-restricted token thus freeing up the bandwidth for other nodes desiring async communications. FDDI, like token ring, uses beaconing to track down errors on the ring (like a break). Once the location of the break has been established the ring attempts to reconfigure itself around the problem. FDDI with its many features and speed will continue to grow in its acceptance as a practical backbone for most LANs. Mass production has decreased the expense of getting into FDDI. Some vendors are selling their FDDI wares at half the price they were a year ago. These trends are favorable for what is a costly system to implement. One day, FDDI may be commonplace at the desktop. The main companies supporting FDDI are Intel, Codenoll, Cisco Systems, Fibronics, Interphase, Rockwell/CMC, Advanced Micro Devices, National Semiconductor and IBM.

7.7

LocalTalk Systems

LocalTalk is the built-in networking systems that comes on every Apple Macintosh. It isn't heavy duty and is not designed to support a massive LAN. In fact, the LocalTalk systems are limited to 32 nodes and operate at a blinding speed of 232 Kbps. What's great is that you get this workgroup type capability on every Mac, built into the package. That's the sort of nice feature that has made Macintosh a household word. By specification, your Mac LAN with LocalTalk can have segments up to 300 meters (about 900 feet). The encoding method for the data is called biphase encoding. The system uses a bus topology, so there is a contention system for use of the wire. Nodes on the LocalTalk LAN select an address during power-up and check out on the LAN to see if it conflicts with anyone else's. Machines are distinguished as being servers or clients. Servers are given special allowances due to their capacity to be busy.
140

Let's take a look at what goes into a LocalTalk frame, then we'll discuss more specifics about LocalTalk's operations. The protocol that LocalTalk uses is known as LocalTalk's Link Access Protocol or LLAP.

Figure 7-9: The LocalTalk Frame The preamble is first. It contains a couple of bytes that include the 7E (hexadecimal) flags indicating a start of frame. One byte of destination node address follows containing an address that represents a number 1 to 127 for clients and 128-254 for servers. The destination address of 255 in a packet means that the message is sent to every node on the LAN (a broadcast). A source address follows. It too is a number from 1 to 254. A type field is next denoting whether the frame is a data frame or a command frame. There are four kinds of command frames. These include acknowledgments (ACKs), free buffer enquiries, requests to send data (RTSs) and clear to send messages (CTSs). These packet types will be detailed a little later. The data length field precedes the data field. The data length field describes exactly what its name implies. Interestingly enough, only the low-order bits of these two bytes are used in declaring the length. The high-order bits are reserved for use in higher layers of the OSI model. The data field can be between 2 and 600 bytes of data. In order to prevent widespread chaos that would occur if stations mistook patterns of bits in certain fields including the data field as a start frame delimiter, LocalTalk uses a technology called "bit stuffing". Bit stuffing is accomplished by preventing any more than five consecutive 1s from occurring together. A zero is inserted after five consecutive 1s to ensure uniqueness from the starting and ending trailer fields. A frame check sequence follows with a 16-bit CRC created from all fields but the starting and ending trailer fields. The trailer flag field then follows containing the same 7E hexadecimal value as the preamble. Lastly, the abort field signals the end of the frame with a series of one bits. LocalTalk is very similar to IEEE 802.3 Ethernet type specifications in that the Apple system utilizes CSMA technology. If you remember, this means that each
141

device must monitor the wire to make sure it is clear before attempting to send anything. By LocalTalk rules, there must be a 200 microsecond delay between packets. The nodes wishing to access the LAN must listen for and hear at least 400 microseconds of silence before attempting to transmit (start a new dialogue). Instead of just sending data out there like Ethernet, LocalTalk sends a Request To Send (RTS) packet to the receiver. The receiver must then send a Clear To Send (CTS) signal back. If the CTS is not received, then the sending station will assume there was a collision and will back off and wait a while before attempting again. Unlike Ethernet, LocalTalk uses no jamming signal. It simply attempts to avoid collisions by sending out RTSs and CTSs. For this reason, LocalTalk is referred to as a CSMA/CA technology with CA standing for Collision Avoidance. By contrast, Ethernet is referred to as a CSMA/CD technology with CD standing for Collision Detection. LocalTalk uses shielded twisted pair cabling and RS-422 connectors. Its communications are very slow compared with other LAN systems, but its shipped-with-the-product convenience is very nice. As a mechanism for linking large number of nodes, LocalTalk is impractical with a limitation of 32 nodes. However, it is a quick and easy choice for small workgroups. The software network operating system used with LocalTalk networks is called AppleTalk. It will be discussed in the next chapter. The systems discussed in this chapter have all been ones that function on the physical and data link layers of the OSI model. This is only part of the process of allowing us to network applications. There must be a mechanism for moving data from the lower layers to the higher layers of the model. That responsibility falls to the network operating system protocols discussed at length in the next chapter.

7.8

Chapter 7 Study Tips

1. Know who developed the RS-232 specification and what OSI layer it functions on. 2. Know what "handshaking" is. 3. Know the names of the other physical layer standards.

142

4. Know what SDLC stands for, and why it was developed. 5. Know the spin-offs from SDLC. 6. Know the frame content of an SDLC frame and know what three variations exist for. 7. Know the three transfer modes of HDLC. 8. Know how Ethernet operates and how Ethernet and IEEE 802.3 differ. 9. Know the frame contents for Ethernet and IEEE 802.3 and what each component does. 10. Know the physical medium specifications for 802.3 LANs. 11. Know what ARCnet stands for and who developed it. 12. Know the different frames for ARCnet and their contents as well as function. 13. Know who developed token ring networks and how token ring systems work. 14. Know what the IEEE specification is for token ring. 15. Know the contents of the three token ring frames and how they operate. 16. Know what FDDI stands for and its operation. 17. Be able to describe the FDDI frame contents and each field's function. 18. Know who developed LocalTalk and how it operates. 19. Know the contents of the LocalTalk frame and how each component functions. 20. Know which higher layer protocol typically functions with LocalTalk.

143

Chapter 8 Software Protocols

Once we move above the Physical and Data Link layers, we get into the realm of protocols (packet types) used by the various network operating systems. Sometimes the systems stand alone (like Novell's NetWare). Sometimes they are part of another type of operating system (like TCP/IP support in UNIX OSs). Whatever the case, these NOSs are responsible for bridging the gap between applications running on a machine and it's Physical and Data Link layers.

8.1

Novell NetWare

It is appropriate that we start with NetWare because the NOS is the most popular for PC based networks today. Starting in the 1980s NetWare grew in popularity mainly due to its speed and its pretty solid file and print services. The Novell company has made some good decisions concerning acquisitions and has done a good job at positioning themselves in the marketplace much to the chagrin of other would-be network behemoths (i.e. Microsoft). The credit for Novell's success with their NetWare product should go to the team of forwardthinking programmers and Ray Noorda, President and CEO. NetWare's design is fairly straightforward from a networking point of view. The NOS appears fairly transparent to the user. Printers are easily accessible through "captures" which simply re-route data from external ports to a spooler system on a file server. The file server itself appears as just another drive letter to the user. This transparency was not new with the NetWare product. A company called Corvus provided transparency for users around 1980. The goal of Novell is the have NetWare run on any machine platform. That way NetWare becomes the common denominator to all systems. That's what Novell's marketing people want, and through a series of partnerships and agreements, the company has moved a long way toward accomplishing this goal. Almost weekly, the trade mags announce another joint effort between Novell and some other vendor. NetWare does seem to be reaching a certain degree of "common denominatorness" in the networking industry.

144

In order to have NetWare run on and co-exist with such diverse platforms as DOS, OS/2, Macintosh, UNIX and DEC's VMS, special attention has to paid to what services are being provided by the NetWare protocols at what level of the OSI model. The components of the NetWare OS fall into the layers above the first two of the OSI model. Not all the layers' services are provided by NetWare, but enough are required to be able to categorize NetWare in the OSI model. NetWare supports about every major network type there is. ARCnet, token ring, Ethernet, FDDI, and others are all operable with the NOS. The direct interface with these network types on the network layer is the IPX packet type. IPX stands for Internet Packet eXchange. This basic building block of networking messages allows us to provide a number of different LAN types with numerous applications. The SPX packet type used in NetWare allows us to benefit from the services provided on the transport layer. SPX stands for Sequenced Packet eXchange. Through this packet type, we can set up very reliable and fault-tolerant dialogues across a NetWare LAN. In filling out the rest of the OSI model, Novell has provided a protocol called the NetWare Core Protocol (NCP) that operates on the file server running the NOS. In a nutshell, NCP is a series of application functions that interact with a workstation to create the client/server environment. It allows a whole host of services including file and printing. NetWare provides a NETBIOS emulator for applications requiring the session and presentation layer services. NETBIOS, as you recall, was IBM's contribution to LANs. For applications requiring these layers' services via NETBIOS calls, the emulator allows things to operate seamlessly. Novell's packet types are based on a set of packet protocols developed by Xerox in the late 70s and released in 1981. These protocols were called XNS (Xerox Networking Systems) protocols. A close examination will show the similarities. XNS served as a model for the protocols of other companies as well including Banyan. Let's look more closely at the packets that are created before the Physical and Data Link layers might receive them.

8.1.1 The IPX Packet

145

The IPX packet provides a means of communication that uses no special relationship between sender and receiver and does not provide any data transfer reliability like sequence numbers in a packet. Technically, this is called connectionless, unacknowledged service and is analogous to what is called a datagram (see Chapter 4). When the IPX packet is used there is no real guarantee that the data will be successfully sent or received, but the packet does provide very rapid service due to the fact that no overhead is required for connections and acknowledgments. IPX makes sure that data gets to the right place regardless of what network the destination machine is on. The packet can be routed and is used for doing so since it contains a destination address as well as a network address for where the destination node is. IPX relies on information provided by a protocol known as Routing Information Protocol (RIP) to make decisions about proper routing. RIP basically is a special protocol used by routing devices. The protocol lets the device known how many different pathways there are to the destination and which are the shortest paths. This typically updates a routing table inside a routing device. Let's look more closely at the IPX frame.

Figure 8-1: The IPX Frame The frame begins with a checksum field that is 16 bits in length. All the bits in that field are set to 1. The length field follows and it is also 16 bits in length. The size of the entire IPX frame is contained here. Sizes range from 30 bytes to unlimited size as long as the packet is not routed, at which point, the limit for the IPX frame is 576 bytes. The transport control field keeps up with the "hop count" of the packet. The hop count is how many times the IPX packet goes through a routing device. After 16 hops, a packet is discarded. This is necessary to prevent endlessly circulating packets. This field is one byte in size. Next, the packet type field holds data determining to what other higher layer protocol the data in the IPX frame will be passed to. For instance, if this field contained a 17, the data would be passed to the NetWare Core Protocol. Other choices would include SPX, PEP (Packet Exchange Protocol) and an indicator that the message should go to an unknown packet type. This field is 8 bits in length.

146

The destination network field contains a 32 bit address for a network that the packet is bound to. The network of the receiver may or may not be the same as that of the sender. If the nets are the same, then this field is zeroed out. The next field, the destination host field, requires 6 bytes of information. This space is filled with 1s for packets to be sent to all destinations. If all of this space is not required, then some bytes may be padded with 0s. ARCnet has five bytes padded and one byte used for addressing. The destination socket follows specifying which higher layer process will be utilizing the data contained in the packet. Each process has been given a unique socket number. This field specifies whether the packet will require file services, RIP services, NETBIOS services, etc. This field is 16 bits in length. The next field specifies the source network, followed by the source host field and the source socket (process) field. These fields are 32 bits, 48 bits and 16 bits respectively. Finally, there's the actual data field. It can be from 0 to infinite length. This information will be used by applications or services running on the receiver.

8.1.2. The SPX Packet As you recall from the OSI model section, the transport layer allows us to ensure delivery reliability. Novell uses the SPX packet type to carry out the functions of this layer. As mentioned earlier, SPX stands for sequenced packet exchange. The SPX packet provides connection-oriented, acknowledged services. This ensures message transfer reliability, but there is overhead involved. Most commonly the SPX packet is used for the NetWare printing facilities and for the administrative remote connection to the console (RCONSOLE). If an entity would like to use the SPX packet to communicate with another, the relationship (or virtual connection) must be established. Effectively a pathway is set up between the two entities that will not change while the two are maintaining the connection.

Figure 8-2: The SPX Frame

147

The SPX packet is identical to the IPX packet except that is adds 12 bytes to the header. The IPX look-alike portion has only minor differences including a special value in the packet type field indicating an SPX packet, and the destination address is restricted so that broadcasts are not allowed. The connection control field is one byte in size containing four bits which control data flow. The bits represent an End of Message, Request for Acknowledgment, Attention Message, or System Packet. This is followed by a second byte called the datastream type field. This field identifies what type of data is contained in the frame. It also can carry data that creates and tears down connections. The source connection ID follows with an identification of a specific connection number (required to create a virtual connection) at the source and the same for the destination follows. These connection numbers are analogous to mailboxes with specific address. The sender may transmit data from its mailbox to the mailbox connection of the receiver. The receiver can then reply to the specific mailbox number of the original sender. If the server was the sender, it may be maintaining virtual connections with several workstations at once. The destinations would all be different, but the source would be the same. A sequence number follows uniquely identifying each packet. This field is 2 bytes in length. This field is followed by a two byte acknowledgment number field that contains the sequence number of the next packet that the receiver should expect. Since each node only has a limited amount of memory resources available to accommodate incoming packets, an allocation field is necessary to help keep the sender apprised of available receiving buffers (memory locations for holding received packets). The allocation field is two bytes in length and follows the acknowledgment number. Finally, the data field rounds out the SPX frame providing data for the higher levels of the OSI model. NetWare provides numerous services. Many of them fall under the responsibility of the NetWare Core Protocols (NCP). Here is a brief summary of the many services provided by NetWare:

File Services - allowing users to open, close, erase, read to and write from files on the file server. Connection Services - enable a user to attach to a particular file server. Security and Validation Services - govern the access of users to the server and to file and directories. Usually this involves accessing the
148

NetWare bindery files. The bindery is a collection of objects, each with unique properties. An example is a user (object) with a password (property). Message Services - allowing users to send messages to one another and to receive broadcast messages from the file server console. Accounting Services - enabling the file server to track the usage of its users and to charge them for that usage. AFP (AppleTalk Filing Protocol) Services - allow the file server to be used to store both Macintosh and DOS files. Printing Services - enable a user to re-route print data from local ports to a network holding tank (spooler) where it is subsequently routed to a shared network printer. Synchronization Services - enable the file server to lock records and files preventing possible corruption or "the deadly embrace". Service Advertising Protocol (SAP) Services - a method of making the existence of NetWare file servers known to other servers and network devices such as bridges. A server will send out a packet every 60 seconds announcing itself to the network. It can also send out a packet requesting the identity of all other servers on the network. Transaction Tracking Services - tracks all transactions to a database. If a transaction fails, it can be backed out.

As you can see the services are many and varied, but the above list is by no means exhaustive. NetWare has several value-added applications that can extend its functionality. These applications are called VAPs (Value Added Processes) and NLMs (NetWare Loadable Modules). These services might include additional print services, SNA gateway, E-mail, database support, remote communication services, other transport protocols, etc. These programs are supplied by Novell and third-party vendors.

Just The Fax, Ma'am Recently our company decided to install a fax NLM into one of our file servers. We learned the hard way that throwing on a value-added service may prove to be less valuable than it seems at first. The NLM allowed us to have access to a fax card in the server from anywhere on our LAN. Plus, incoming faxes could be routed to us individually. The system worked like a charm, except for one minor problem. Utilization shot up to 90+ percent whenever an incoming fax was being processed. That file server really slowed down, and so did anything you were doing on it at the time. Be careful about throwing extra loads on a file server. If you need to have shared faxing capabilities, why not consider a fax

149

server. Users may be grateful for the faxing and the continued LAN performance. One of the most important elements of NetWare is the client applications referred to as the "workstation shell". At this point, NetWare has two different types of shell files in existence for DOS users. One is called the DOS Workstation Shell and the other is called The DOS/ODI Workstation Shell. The former which is the older of the two creates a hardware interface to LAN cards and provides the various types of NetWare packets through one application called IPX.COM. The latter is modular and is designed to allow multiple types of packets to use a single LAN card in a machine. DOS/ODI will continue to be serviced by Novell in the future, where IPX.COM will likely not be. The shell file called NETX.COM or NETX.EXE functions as a redirector or gatekeeper. This means each application request is screened to see if it needs to be routed to the network or dropped to the local operating system. For instance, if we were on a DOS machine and we typed in DIR C:, the request would be dropped to the local OS. If, however, we typed NDIR F:, the request would be passed to the IPX.COM application where it would be converted into NetWare Core Protocol requests and subsequently transmitted tot he file server. The NCP requests would be fulfilled, and the resultant data is transmitted back to the workstation for display. The user or application does not have to worry about whether the information came from a local OS or a network. This transparency, pioneered by Corvus Systems in the late 70s, has been implemented quite nicely into the NetWare scheme.

150

Figure 8-3: The Novell NetWare Network Operating System is comprised of applications that run on both the file server and at the workstation (client). This transparency is extended in the NetWare environment to resources other than just the file server. This is accomplished via NetWare Remote Procedure Calls (RPCs). This system, developed for Novell by a company called NetWise, allows external applications to have easy and transparent access to NetWare. Maintaining shared files can be a challenge in any networking environment due to the possibilities of conflicts and lock-ups. NetWare is certainly no exception. In order to reduce the chances of two people editing the same record at once, NetWare jumps through a few hoops. First of all, synchronization services are provided through NCP that allows accurate tracking of file and record locks. Also, NetWare transmits shared files around the LAN using a very small packet size and disables background caching of shared files to workstations. These are just safety precautions. In addition, NetWare offers a package with makes use of NetWare's file and record locking capabilities called BTRIEVE. This package grants speedy access to database structures based on binary trees. NetWare has been gradually evolving to a more open and modular structure over the last few years. This is necessary in order to implement the "NetWare running on anything and everything" strategy Novell is shooting for. One such modular structure is support for STREAMS technology. This mechanism requires us to think of data passing through the OSI layers like a stream. We can put various modules into the stream and alter what comes out. Let's say we have an application that must send data to another node. This sets up a flow through the OSI layers. We would use what is known as a "stream head" to handle application requests. The stream head would hand this data off to what is known as a "Transport Layer Interface" or TLI. This could place the data in the proper format for NetWare SPX or IPX, or even TCP/IP. The final step is to send this new stream to the driver for the LAN card we're using. Each phase of this process can be altered by plugging in or removing different modules (i.e. a different driver). NetWare Streams allows for efficient, modular delivery of data through the OSI layers. Novell has to date attempted to provide what compatibility they have felt necessary in order to assure their corporate success. There are plenty of competitors out there (like Microsoft) who would like to push Novell out of the market, but the company's deep roots will keep it thriving for a long time. Being compatible with a competitor is tough to do sometimes, but the consumer can be better served that way. Novell's NETBIOS emulator is a good example.

151

In the mid 80s when IBM was getting full swing into PC LANs, the largest computer company on earth decided to introduce a set of protocols called the NETwork Basic Input Output System. NETBIOS combined several functions on the session and presentation layers of the OSI model that NetWare didn't really use or need. However, NETBIOS was a significant force in the marketplace. Novell responded by writing an emulator for NETBIOS found in the NetWare file called NETBIOS.EXE. This emulator serviced the various calls made by applications designed to use NETBIOS. Therefore, NETBIOS apps were fully functional within the NetWare environment. Novell has also pushed forward to provide compatibility with other standards as well. Novell's Message Handling System (MHS) follows the X.400 standard set by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). This global message schema will be or currently is supported by several E-mail packages. X.400 specifies the format of messages for global delivery. In addition, NetWare 4.X products support ANSI's X.500 standards for global directories. In fact, many experts agree that the adoption of this standard was facing a fair amount of resistance until Novell tossed their hat into the X.500 ring. Though Novell altered the official specification a little bit in NetWare's implementation, the final product boasts a hierarchical structure of organizations, resources and users that fits into the global standard. The future of NetWare appears to be good now, but no one has proven to be an accurate judge of the marketplace. Novell's earlier attempt at providing control of a network, not just a server, was a dismal failure. This product was called NetWare Naming Services. Many insiders agree that the Naming Services product should have never been marketed as it was crippled to begin with by its limitations. Novell will continue to hope that this second attempt at supporting internetworks will be successful.

8.2

TCP/IP Protocols

Perhaps no other protocols designed to work above the Data Link and Physical OSI layers are as popular as TCP/IP. That's primarily because this global protocol suite has been used by and continually promulgated by thousands of government and educational institutions world-wide. TCP/IP is the major protocol used on the global Internet created by the US government to facilitate computer load distribution and exchange of defense152

related information. Not surprisingly, the government announced some time ago that it was going to focus on converting its entities to another type of protocol based directly on the OSI model called Government OSI Profile (GOSIP). Recently, this move has been questioned and the move toward GOSIP is under reconsideration. TCP/IP was designed to allow any type of computer communicate with any other computer. A brief recap of TCP/IP might prove helpful in understanding its offerings and structure now.

In the mid 70s the US Department of Defense (DoD) sponsored funding of a protocol development project by Bolt, Beranek and Newman as well as Stanford University. The funding came through the DoD's Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). At that time, DARPA had set up a network called ARPANET that connected government agencies, educational institutions and research sites together. Its mission was to allow the rapid flow of ideas and data concerning defense projects from one entity to another. This task was daunting because so many different types of machines were in use. The answer was to create a protocol that worked on top of any physical structure. That's why TCP/IP functions on layers above the Data Link and Physical OSI layers. In the early 80s TCP/IP was fully implemented across the ARPANET. This new level of interoperability resulted in incredible growth on the system. The Internet is now the largest internetworking collection in the world offering packet-switched services to millions of individuals. The Internet grew out of ARPANET that still exists as a subset of the larger entity. Managing this giant became cumbersome so an independent organization called the Internet Activities Board (IAB) was formed. This group coordinates the various research projects on the Internet. Each project is overseen by a task force that offers suggestions for facilitating and/or improving the project. The IAB also doles out access to the Internet by providing Internet addresses. A major development for TCP/IP occurred in 1982 when developers at Berkeley University in California added TCP/IP support to their UNIX operating system (known as Berkeley UNIX). Since this OS was so popular among universities, TCP/IP became the overnight choice for these institutions. Today TCP/IP is a commercial success almost becoming the defacto standard for internetworks. The continual development by universities and research sites has led to literally zillions of TCP/IP-supporting applications available for free on the Internet.
153

The TCP/IP protocol suite (also known as the Internet protocol suite), provides services that function on all layers above the Data Link layer on the OSI model. There are a myriad of different protocols each designed to provide a specific service for a host of environment. Some of these were originally developed in the late 70s. Others have been added by third-party vendors more recently. 8.2.1 The IP Packet Very similar to NetWare's IPX packet type is the IP packet (that's the IP part of TCP/IP). This packet type simply moves data from point A to point B and does not provide any special relationship between the sender and receiver. Nor does it guarantee delivery of data from sender to receiver with acknowledgments. For this reason, the IP packet type is referred to as an unacknowledged, connectionless protocol. Information placed into an IP packet is known as a datagram. Datagrams carry data that has filtered down from the network layer. This data along with transport layer information comprises what is called a Transport Protocol Data Unit (TPDU). The TPDU is routed across the network, visiting routers that determine the best path on which to send the packet. Sometimes, proper routing requires that the TPDU be downsized and broken apart. The IP protocols allow for this process and the subsequent reconstruction of the TPDUs at the receiver. Reconstruction is accomplished via sequence numbers. The IP packet is composed of several fields. Instead of referring to the length of IP packets according to bits and bytes, the IP frame uses a length measurement of 32 bits referring to that grouping as a word. Consequently, any diagrams used to illustrate IP frame construction will divide the frame into 32-bit words. The first field is four bits in length and is called the version field. It contains the version number of the IP software used to create the datagram so that any device along the way that looks at the datagram will know what format it is in.

154

Figure 8-4: The IP Frame The IP header length follows (HLEN) gives the total length of the datagram header. The type of service field is next. It is divided into five distinct sections. The first 3 bits comprise the precedence section. Though data in this section is rarely used, it details the importance of the data contained within the datagram. The range is 0 through 7 with 7 being the highest priority. Eventually, devices will utilize this data to allow control information to pass more quickly than data. Intelligent management of data routing will be aided by this. In addition, the next three bits comprise yet another management aid. Referred to as the D, T and R bits, respectively, the fourth through sixth bit of the precedence requests a specific type of transmission pathway. D stands for low delay. This is used for data that requires minimal delay such as control information. T stands for high throughput. This is requested by applications that need to move a large amount of data very quickly (i.e. voice communications). Finally R stands for high reliability. This request asks for very fault tolerant and reliable pathways. Electronic monetary transactions might be benefited by this. Though the routers along the path may not be able to accommodate the datagram's request, at least there is some degree of control of pathways taken by the sender. The last two bits of the precedence field are unused at this time. The total length field appearing next, contains the total length of the entire datagram in bytes. The IP datagram is virtually unlimited in size. It can be as large as 65,535 bytes, a size which few applications can even begin to approach. However, in the future, higher speed networks may suffer from this limitation. We have already mentioned that datagrams may be broken up or "fragmented" to accommodate routing. When this occurs, each portion of the original

155

datagram gets its own copy of the datagram header information. Each portion then becomes its own mini-datagram and is treated accordingly being routed individually to the destination. The next field is the identification field containing a combination of an integer and the internet source address. Together these create a unique ID for the datagram. This same information is used to keep the fragments of a datagram together. Once a datagram has been fragmented, the datagrams created from the original have virtually the same header. The only difference lies in the next field -- the flags field. Only the last two of the three bits in this field control fragmentation. The first of the two is called the "do not fragment" (DF) field. If this bit is on, then a datagram does not get fragmented. The next bit is the "more fragments" bit specifying whether or not the current fragment is the last fragment. The fragment offset is next signifying what portion of the overall datagram is contained in a fragment. Each successive fragment will have a higher offset than the previous. The first fragment has an offset of zero. The fragments will not have to arrive in order, but will eventually be reassembled into the original datagram. The next eight bits comprise what is known as the "time to live" field. This field is a safety preventative to keep data packets from swarming around an internet forever. Each datagram is given a lifetime length when first transmitted. This value is in seconds and gets decremented whenever the packet reaches a routing device. These devices must decrement the field by at least a value of one. Most record the amount of time that a packet has been held by the device and then decrement the field accordingly before transmitting the packet on out along a pathway. Next we have the protocol field that contains eight bits specifying what higher layer functions are being used. These higher layer protocols might be TCP/IP protocols or some other protocol type. Since the higher layer protocol is specified by this field we may have several protocols active at the receiver and this data would ensure the packet was used by the correct one. The header checksum follows. This 16 bit field assures the integrity of the IP header itself. Every time the datagram gets routed, the time to live field gets decremented. Consequently the checksum must be recalculated at each hop. The source and destination fields are next. Each address is 32 bits in size and contains a unique IP address. Which bits within these fields are used for what is determined by the class of the internetwork entity. For instance, the Internet
156

groups their members into three distinct classes. Class A sites have 24 bits of the address available for designating different hosts (a large number of them). Class B sites have 16 bits available to designate hosts, and Class C sites have only 8 bits. Obviously the last of these has the fewest possible combinations of bit patterns, so therefore fewer hosts are allowed. The address field may be divided up to accommodate subnetworks of a network. This is often utilized when a company or institution wants to route data to individual network segments. The next to last field is a variable length field known as the options field. It is used to allow additions to the header information such as time stamps or security designations. This field is often used in experimentation and tracking functions. Finally there is the data itself. 8.2.2 The TCP Packet The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is analogous to NetWare's SPX protocol. Both involve the establishment of a relationship between sender and receiver, sequencing of packets, and flow control. Also like SPX, the protocol allows several relationships between entities to exist at once therefore servicing several application requests at once. The construction of TCP, like IP, is based on 32 bit words. The components of TCP include full addressing and acknowledgments. Let's take a closer look. The first field is known as the source port field. This 16 bit grouping of bits uniquely identifies the type of upper layer protocol that issued the TCP frame to begin with. There are several upper layer protocols and each has been assigned a unique number. The destination port follows, also 16 bits in length, specifying the upper layer protocol that will receive the data. The sequence number follows identifying the unique frame in the stream of data from sender to receiver. The sequence field is 32 bits in length. Next is the acknowledgment number. This field represents the se-quence number of the next packet the sender expects to receive. Acknowledgments are often delayed in TCP implementation. Several packets may be acknowledged in a single acknowledgment in order to speed the communication process.

157

Figure 8-5: The TCP Frame The data offset field indicates the size of the total TCP header in 32 bit words. This is necessary because of the headers variable length. In essence, this field tells the receiver how far within the packet is the data located. This field is four bits in size. The reserved field follows. It has no specific function as yet. In the future this field will be used. It's six bits in length. Next is the code bits (CB) field (called Flags field by Novell). The CB field contains bits that when set, indicate the proper way to interpret other fields within the frame.

Code Bit (Flag) Settings URG The data contained within this packet is urgent (i.e. keystroke data). The urgent pointer field is active and valid. ACK The acknowledgment field is valid. PSH

158

Forces an immediate pushing of all data through lower layers to transmit or the pushing of all data from the transport layers to the upper layer protocols. This feature circumvents TCP typical collection routines that may hold data before releasing to higher or lower layers if other processes are underway. RST Reset the connection. This occurs when some unexpected event interferes with communication. SYN Synchronize the sequence numbers. This bit initiates a communication relationship. The sender will send a packet with this code active. The receiver will acknowledge with a properly sequenced acknowledgment and its own sequence number. The sender will then respond with its own properly sequenced acknowledgment to begin the communication.

FIN Data transmission is finished. This connection is a candidate for termination. The window field follows with a length of 16 bits. This field advertises the amount of buffer space available at the sender each time a packet is sent. This is an important concept as TCP utilizes the "sliding window" concept described previously in this book. If a sender, by advertising fewer buffers, controls how many packets its communication partner will send in the next transmission before waiting for an acknowledgment. This equates to real-time flow control, and is highly effective in the connection-oriented environment of TCP. After the window field a 16 bit checksum is added to ensure the integrity of the frame header. This is followed by what is called the urgent pointer. This pointer works in conjunction with the urgent code bit in the code bit (or flags) field. This 16 bit field contains the location of the byte immediately following the last byte of urgent material bound for the upper layer protocols. Next we have the options field that, like the IP packet, can be of variable length. It too can store all sorts of data including that for experimentation, tracking and security procedures.

159

The final field is the data field.

8.2.3 Additional TCP/IP-Related Protocols There are several additional protocols designed to assist TCP and IP. Since routing is so important on a packet-switched network like the Internet, specialized protocols have been designed to assist in this function. Special protocols for determining addressing on the Internet have also been devised. Additionally, some additional protocols may be involved in error-checking and flow control, just to name a few. Let's explore some of these additional protocols that are included in the TCP/IP suite of protocols.

FTP File Transfer Protocol allows the transfer of copies of files between one node and another. FTP is not hardware-dependent so its services can function just about anywhere. Using this utility to copy data is typically referred to as "FTPing" a file. NFS Network Filing System was developed by Sun Microsystems Inc. It provides shared access to files in a very transparent and integrated way. This protocol is discussed in more detail a little later.

TELNET Remote Terminal Emulation allows users to communicate with diverse hosts. The TELNET application provides terminal-type access to PCs. UDP User Datagram Protocol is a bare-bones rapid transmission protocol that uses IP packets to deliver data with no reliability features like connections and ACKs. The forte of UDP is speed, not reliability. It is used in NFS.

SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is the middle-man that uses UDP to move data around from one internetwork host to another. Applications run on both hosts that make use of SMTP.

ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol offers flow control and errordetection to the unreliable delivery method of IP. It provides a facility for

160

routers and gateways on the net to communicate with a source if there is a problem. It also provides a mechanism for determining if a destination can not be reached.

RIP Routing Information Protocol provides information for routing devices about pathways and number of hops to achieve them. RIP was popularized by its use in a Berkeley UNIX application called "Routed". RIP is ideal for smaller networks, but considered impractical for larger internetworks.

ARP & RARP Address Resolution Protocol & Reverse Address Resolution Protocol are special protocols to allow TCP/IP to interact in environments such as Ethernet. ARP maps TCP/IP addresses to Ethernet Data Link layer addresses. RARP maps the Ethernet Data Link layer address to the TCP/IP address.

That's an overview of some of the better known additional protocols. Because NFS has affected the TCP/IP world so much, it would serve us to discuss it a little more fully. To understand the import of NFS, we have to go back to the original goal of DARPA. The idea behind the ARPANET and the Internet was to provide communication between machines of incredible diversity. NFS has moved the TCP/IP much closer to achieving that goal. By providing a standard interface, NFS allows machines to use each other's filing systems transparently as if the machines were local and of the same species. This feat is accomplished using Remote Procedure Calls (RPC) and eXternal Data Representation (XDR). RPC provides a mechanism by which programmers can distribute an application over multiple resources. Effectively what happens is that a programmer divides an application up into a client and server section. These two will communicate normally except that RPC provides the communication link. He or she then integrates RPC code into both sections and the job is done. RPC handles the gathering of data and transmission of it from one section to the other. As RPC handles the transparent application execution, XDR provides transparent data flow from one hardware platform to another. Since different hardware platforms may require different representation of data, XDR acts as
161

the common denominator. One machine encodes data and hands it off to XDR which in turn formats it correctly for the recipient machine. XDR is highly automated and greatly enhances and speeds the work of programmers who must move data between diverse platforms. NFS is only one contribution to a protocol suite that has found usage in nearly every sector of networking. It's continued acceptance and evolution will ensure that it stays around as am internetworking standard for a while.

8.3

SNA (Systems Network Architecture)

SNA was and is being continually developed by IBM. Around since the early 70s, this broad collection of networking modules served as a reference for creation of the OSI model by the ISO in the late 70s. It, too, follows a layered structure fairly analogous to the OSI model. Through the years, SNA has seen numerous additions and enhancements which have made it widely accepted and implemented today. Plus, being developed by the world's largest mainframe manufacturer didn't hurt. SNA offers many features which were designed to be forward compatible with new offerings from IBM. That is, they were open enough to support future enhancements, yet still backwards compatible. Fortunately, that left a large number of IBM customers with the ability to upgrade painlessly. One of SNAs strong features is its ability to allow resource sharing. As mentioned in Chapter 1 of this book, networking allows us to make better, more efficient use of our resources. By using common communication methods between all SNA-supporting devices, the overhead of supporting diverse platforms is eliminated. Like Sun's NFS protocols, SNA provides transparent linkage between SNA resources. SNA features Remote Operation and Advanced Program-to-Program Communication (APPC). Remote Operations provides remote management capabilities allowing machines to be controlled from a remote site and saving money spent on personnel. APPC allows applications to move information among themselves dynamically thus enabling distributed processing. In effect, two machines can share the same application. The load of running the program is shared between the two. The open construction of SNA allows for a modularity that eases expandability. The purpose of the OSI model was to classify the networking functions on each layer. SNA essentially does the same thing with communications. Future
162

enhancements can be made on a certain SNA layer without affecting the other layers, and development of applications can take place without new communication methods having to be written. Highly reliable and dependable data delivery is the motivation behind SNA's construction. The architecture allows for the collection and reporting of network error statistics. In addition, operators may re-route data around a problem area until the situation is resolved. Flow control is provided in several ways. Priority levels allow users to specify the urgency of data. For instance, keyboard input would be high priority material, while a background-processed batch job would only require low priority. Data flow is managed between devices and nodes to prevent data overruns and congestion. Backup data pathways and hosts can be configured to provide fault-tolerance. Two SNA networks can communicate with one another even if there happens to be a public switched network in between. Appropriate interfaces exist to allow this. In addition, transparency to the user is such that execution of an application between hosts and communications between hosts and terminals may take place without the user knowing where the physical resources are. Security is provided in two main ways within the SNA structure. Logins are required for users along with passwords. Plus the data traveling from one node to another can be encrypted. Encryption is extremely important to highly secure establishments such as government agencies or defense contractors. The encryption method used is designed to be nearly indecipherable. SNA began as a hierarchical architecture. Components were classified as host processors, communications controllers and peripheral nodes. The hierarchy structure later gave way to a peer-to-peer structure that allowed all classes of machines interact with one another. Host processors usually controlled all aspects of the SNA network. These hosts could function independently or be tied together to form what appeared to be one large processor entity. Communication controllers served the needs of the lower layer elements of SNA. The controllers are in charge of creating and controlling links, routing and general SNA network management. These devices additionally could control data flow by accepting data at different rates from various sources and supplying it over high-speed links to the host processor. The peripheral nodes could include IBM workstations (terminals) or other devices such as scanners and modems. These nodes would have reliable data

163

delivery guaranteed by SNA. They might also include cluster controllers and distributed processors. In the hierarchy, host processors were the ones typically initiating and controlling any communication between communication and peripheral nodes. Today, however, advanced systems like Advanced Peer-to-Peer Networking (APPN) allows any device to initiate its own dialogue. This new structure is tremendously flexible. Roughly analogous to OSI's Data Link and network layer are the Data Link control and path control layers of the SNA structure. These two layers comprise what is known as the "path control network". The path control layer is responsible for routing, address translation, and segmenting, while the Data Link control layer allows Data Link frame construction and transit along with error detection and correction. These functions are controlled by IBM's Advanced Communications Function/Network Control Program (NCP). NCP is run on communication controllers. Above the path control network, we have Network Addressable Units which function on the transmission control, data flow control, and presentation services, comparable to the OSI transport, session and presentation levels, respectively. The transmission control layer keeps data flowing at the appropriate speed to support the processor being used and generally controls data traffic on the network. The data flow control layer establishes data synchronization and exchanges. It also in charge of placing data into units. The presentation services format data for various media and oversee resource sharing. The software that controls the network addressable unit function is called VTAM which is short for Advanced Communications Function/Virtual Telecommunications Access Method. VTAM runs on the host nodes to manage the SNA network. It is interesting to note that VTAM is designed to run on several mainframe and mini operating systems. Network addressable units each have a unique address. There are three different kinds:

1. Physical Units (PUs) are devices that are a combination of hardware and

software. A PU manages the resources of a physical device like a printer, workstation, processor, etc. It can negotiate transmission rates between hosts and controllers as well as trace network problems and report them.

164

2. System Services Control Points (SSCP) function on host processors and

are responsible for starting, controlling and turning off SNA resources. These entities are responsible for a group of SNA resources and can share these resources with those under the control of another SSCP.

3. Logical Units (LUs) actually provide the user access to a SNA network.

Implemented in hardware, software or both, logical units allow users to establish a connection to other LUs via relationships called "sessions".

System Services Control Points are capable of establishing sessions between other SSCPs, PUs or LUs. If a SSCP establishes a session with another SSCP, then processing loads may be shared between the two. One of the SSCPs in such a situation could also function as a backup for the other SSCP. In the event there was a problem within one domain, the backup SSCP can take over processing loads until the problem is resolved. An SSCP session established to a PU will allow control of all SNA devices within the PUs area of responsibility. An SSCP to LU connection will allow the SSCP to set up and control LU sessions that allow users on to the network. Remember that LUs control user access to the network. The SNA network doesn't interact with a user, but rather the Logical Unit the user is making use of. LUs communicate to one another via sessions. The session is initiated when one LU requests a session with another. The SSCP must create the session between the two LUs. Sessions take place between a primary LU and a secondary LU referred to as PLU and SLU, respectively. The PLU is responsible for error recovery in the event of a transmission failure. Logical Units are categorized according to their features and abilities. Here is a summary:

SNA Logical Units (LUs)

165

LU Type 0 Supports program to device communication. Exact usage is determined by applications. LU Type 1 Supports program to device communication where one entity controls the other. Examples would include batch systems and printer control. LU Type 2 Similar to LU Type 1 but supports different types of devices like CRTs (i.e. 3279 and 3178). LU Type 3 Supports program to device communication for 3270 Data Stream Printers. LU Type 4 Can either support program to device or program to program data. Printers using SCS (SNA Character String) are grouped here. LU Type 6.0 Program to program communications. Host operating systems communicate with each other at this level. LU Type 6.1 Very similar to LU Type 6.0

LU Type 6.2 Supports program to program communications. Used in peer-to-peer functions such as Advanced Peer-to-Peer Network (APPN). LU Type 7 Supports program to device communications for 5250 terminals with AS/400 and others. APPN is the newer incarnation of SNA released in the mid 80s. It supports a peer-to-peer relationship. Sessions may be initiated between LUs without the supervision of an SSCP. In addition, APPN allows a LU to create multiple sessions at once which was not the case with older SNA limitations. APPN has enhanced security features such as password options for data transfers. It also spreads the tasks associated error recovery to both the PLU and the SLU. In addition, LU 6.2 used by APPN optimizes data transferred eliminating keyboard, CRT, formatting and control information not needed. SNA networks may now be managed through an IBM package called NetView. NetView is supported by several vendors and offers broad problem tracking and solving capabilities. NetView constantly monitors all network resources and can take action if performance falls below optimal limits. It may disable defective

166

resources and re-route data around problem spots. It also tracks the complete process of solving problems and performing hardware or software changes from start to finish. SNA is a modern state-of-the-art networking system under continual development with IBM. Its functionality has remained high despite its long history. Continued vendor support for SNA and SNA-related products will ensure SNA's existence for a long time.

8.4

GOSIP (Government OSI Profile) and OSI

GOSIP is a specification set up by the US government requiring the government to use a special set of protocols developed around the OSI model presented by the ISO. The adoption of GOSIP gave supporters of these protocols the hope that the protocols might see widespread acceptance in the near future. However, recent reconsiderations on the part of the government may derail such acceptance. The Physical and Data Link layers of the OSI make use of several diverse protocols in use today while the upper layers have been specially developed to follow the OSI model very closely. The ultimate goal is a universal and international set of protocols which are open to the point of allowing anything to communicate with anything. Some experts argue that the amount of overhead in basing protocols directly on the model is unacceptable. There are three different versions of GOSIP implementation. The first allows the usage of the X.400 Message handling Services and the File Transfer, Access & Management (FTAM) at the application layer. Connection-oriented services are provided through the use of the X.25 Packet Layer Protocol. Connectionless services are provided through CLNP (Connectionless Network Protocol). The Data Link and Physical layer specification already exist and offering support for Ethernet, token ring, ARCnet, FDDI, etc. Version 2 will feature the addition of ODA (Office Documentation Architecture) above the application layer. The idea behind ODA is the separation of sections of each document (headings, body, title, etc.) into separate objects which can be manipulated. Therefore they could be placed in any format. Version 3 will feature support for the X.500 Global Directory Services. This feature will allow users from anywhere on the global network to consult a hierarchical directory in order to locate other users or resources. NetWare 4.X's
167

NetWare Directory Services is based on X.500. In the future, you'll be able to consult the equivalent of the yellow pages to find anything or anyone you want due to this specification, within reason of course. Some access will have to be restricted for security reasons.

An "ES" in OSI terminology is short for End System. It is defined as the absolute endpoint of a data transmission or reception. ESs connect to an Intermediate System (IS). ISs may route data from one ES to another on the same network, or ISs may route the data to another IS for routing to another network where the intended receiver is. The IS itself must make the routing decisions if data must travel to another network. As mentioned earlier, the Data Link and Physical layers of the OSI protocols were already in existence. OSI specifies the IEEE Logical Link Control (802.2) on the Data Link layer. Physical specifications like RS-232 and X.21 are supported along with popular LAN protocols like token ring and Ethernet. The OSI transport layer is implemented in five protocols called TP0, TP1, TP2, TP3, and TP4.

OSI Transport Protocols

TP0 Simple protocol with no error recovery features, only fragmentation occurs. Fragments are reassembled on receiving end. TP1 Supports fragmenting and error detection by way of sequence numbers. TP1 can re-establish a connection and requests lost packets. TP2 Allows data to be traveling to several application functions at once over the same connection. The data is multiplexed and demultiplexed appropriately. TP3 Features the error recovery capabilities of TP1 with the multiplexing abilities of TP2.

168

TP4 Is highly reliable and full-featured supporting connection-oriented services, flow control, error recovery, connection multiplexing, and fragmentation. OSI's session layer can support multiple dialogues. Each one is grouped into message entities known as activities. Activities can be tracked through the session layer protocols to provide error recovery. "Checkpoints" exist within the activities such that if a failure to receive a message occurred the activity could be rolled back to a checkpoint and the two communication entities could be resynchronized. NetWare employs that same technique for their Transaction Tracking System. Checkpoints in OSI are hierarchical in nature. Major and minor checkpoints may exist and be utilized according to severity of the communication interruption. A separate protocol exists on OSI's presentation layer that is involved in expressing the data types and structures being transmitted. It is called Abstract Syntax Notation One (or ASN.1). This specification describes whether data ID a real number, integer, character, etc. On the application layer several services are available, each with a unique function such as allowing remote procedure calls or providing reliable data transfer. These services are called Application Service Elements (ASEs). There are three important ones with diverse functionality.

OSI Application Layer ASEs

ROSE Remote Operations Service Element - very similar to remote procedure calls. Allows transparent access to various application processes for external resources. ACSE Association Control Service Element - allows one application function to communicate with another. The functions each have a name and that's how they are identified by each other. RTSE Reliable Transfer Service Element - interfaces with the session layer checkpoints providing accessibility on the application layer. Notifies if successful delivery of data has occurred.
169

There are several key applications that provide the functionality of the OSI protocols. FTAM (File Transfer, Access & Management) provides transparent file sharing across diverse hardware platforms. This is accomplished by using what is called the "virtual filestore". In essence, a universal file system is used as a common denominator between the two different machines. File structures of each are associated with file structures of the universal virtual filestore. Then data can easily be translated from one platform to the other. A Virtual Terminal (VT) application is employed to allow host sessions with devices running terminal emulation software. This feature is similar to TELNET in the TCP/IP suite. A VT maintains a data structure in common with VT application on a remote machine. Data passes back and forth between the VTs either synchronously using a token-like mechanism or asynchronously where each transmission drives a reply. The management agent of the OSI protocols is the Common Management Information Protocol (CMIP). The reporting element in CMIP is known as a "manager". The manager collects information about network resources from "agents" which run on individual network resources. The manager then creates statistics based on the data and displays it. The manager also functions as an interface to a management information database called "MIB". Obviously, the OSI protocols are many and varied. There are friends and foes alike of this protocol suite in the marketplace. Although the government may be reconsidering its mandate for OSI compliant networks, OSI protocols will continue to influence future networking directions.

8.5

Other Protocols

There are several other protocols used in a widespread fashion. We'll discuss a couple of those in this section beginning with Apple's proprietary software protocol called AppleTalk.

8.5.1. AppleTalk AppleTalk found birth in 1983 as a proprietary offering designed to network Macintoshes. As a protocol, it has grown up though the years to offer support for the UNIX environment as well as connectivity to DOS and IBM or DEC
170

mainframes. The "feel" of AppleTalk is oriented toward workgroups. Every Macintosh has a built-in LocalTalk (physical) port and comes with the AppleTalk protocols. AppleTalk has traditionally been supported by numerous third-party vendors. Some of these have complained about the restrictions that the AppleTalk had such as only allowing 254 network nodes. Now such restrictions have been removed in the latest incarnation of AppleTalk called AppleTalk II. AppleTalk II has added better compatibility with external systems. It still functions on top of the LocalTalk Physical and Data Link specifications available on each Macintosh. In addition, AppleTalk runs on top of Ethernet (called EtherTalk) and token ring (called TokenTalk). In order to offer functionality to different Data Link layer addresses, the machine running AppleTalk must be able to determine the link layer address of an intended recipient. Though the link layer address may not be available, the higher layer protocol address will be. Basically this is accomplished via the AppleTalk Address Resolution Protocol. Each node maintains a special table called an Address Mapping Table (AMT). It is used to hold associations between higher layer protocol addresses and link layer addresses. If a node wants to communicate with another, it first checks its own AMT to see of there is a match. If not it "arps" the network by sending out a packet containing the higher layer protocol address. When it is received by the intended node, that node sends back its link layer address to the original node. The initial inquiry is made via a Request packet. The response with link layer information follows. Application Presentation Session Transport Network Physical and Data Link AppleShare File Server, Print Server & PC AFP ASP, PAP ADSP, ATP DDP, RTMP, ZIP, NBP LocalTalk, EtherTalk, TokenTalk, AARP

AppleTalk Protocols & The OSI model One other type of packet is known as a probe packet. It is used when a node first enters the network. It chooses its own hardware ID number then sends a packet
171

to itself. If it receives a response, then it knows there is another device on the net with the same address, so the new node creates another address and repeats the process. This continues until no response is received from another device. Thus the node can assume that it has chosen a unique code. On the network level AppleTalk implements the Data Delivery Protocol (DDP). DDP is responsible for making sure data gets to the upper layer processes (sockets) on each node. If you will recall, a datagram infers connectionless service, so there's an element of reliability missing. Sockets are designated by number in AppleTalk. Those numbered 1-127 are reserved for AppleTalk low level processes. Those numbered from 128 to 254 are allocated dynamically. Since the DDP contains addressing information, a distinction must be made between LocalTalk networks, where node IDs are unique (nonextended), and extended networks where a network and node ID together are unique. An example of an extended network would be an Ethernet LAN. DDP can support either. The addressing is accomplished via a 16 bit network address followed by an 8 bit node ID. The network number is zero if the receiving node is on the same network as the sender. A value of FF signifies a broadcast to every node on the network. A special version of the DDP supports internetworks. In order to manage the flow of data around an internetwork, extra information is required that is implemented in the extended DDP. This includes network sources and destinations along with a hop count field and checksum for error detection. On the transport layer, AppleTalk uses four different protocols. Novell, in its materials, considers only the first of these on the transport layer. The other three are grouped by Novell onto the network layer. The first is the AppleTalk Transaction Protocol. The basic structure of this protocol is to provide reliable delivery service of packets from one socket to another. This is accomplished via a Transaction Request (TReq), a Transaction Response (TResp) and a Transaction Release (TRel). The release simply tells ATP that the transaction has been completed. Built in features allow ATP to specify that a transaction only be allowed to occur once or occur at least once. The Name Binding Protocol (NBP) is used to associate a name describing a specific upper layer process with a network address. Naming is used because it is more convenient for users. As a part of this naming process, entity names are defined, each having unique attributes. These are sometimes referred to as Network Visible Entities (NVEs). NBP provides services that include name lookup, name confirmation, name registration and name deletion. AppleTalk

172

devices are grouped into logical groupings called zones. Looking up names in a zone would be a function of NBP. Another transport layer protocol is AppleTalk Echo Protocol. It basically only serves the function of echoing back data that has been sent to a node. This is done to determine if a node is located on an internetwork or to determine the amount of time required to send to and receive from a particular node. The Routing Table Maintenance Protocol is used to maintain information about internetwork connections and addresses. Routers connect local networks as well as WANs. It functions to service multiple protocols with the aid of RTMP, NBP and the Zone Information Protocol. An entry exists for each network in the router. This entry consists of a Data Link port number, the destination network number, the node ID of the next router, the number of hops to reach the destination network, and a cross-reference to the Zone Information Table, which holds information about a zone's contents. RTMP uses a data, request and response packet. The data packet is used in maintaining up-to-date routing tables. The request and response are used by other nodes to query the router as to pathways. The Zone Information Protocol (ZIP) is considered to be a higher layer protocol by some, though Novell groups it onto the network layer. ZIP primarily has two functions which include allowing routers to update their routing tables and to assist NBP in determining which networks belong to what zones. The AppleTalk Session Protocol is responsible for allowing workstations and servers to set up communication. It allows the opening, closing, session request handling, and also session management of the communication. The ASP frame is contained within the data field of a ATP packet. The ASP protocol includes a request for a session, a close session command, and socket IDs for the workstation and the server. AppleTalk's Printer Access Protocol (PAP) is designed to allow access to printers for printer-dependent applications. PAP works hand-in-hand with NBP and ATP. When an application wants to send data to a printer, a PAPOpen command is used to gain access to the printing device. During the data transmission phase, PAPReads and PAPWrites are executed terminating in a PAPClose. One PAP connection is initiated for each print job. Novell considers this protocol to function on the session layer as it involves a dialogue between application and printer. The AppleTalk Data Stream Protocol is a very reliable connection-oriented, acknowledged protocol similar in function to TCP. It uses sliding-window
173

technology and allows two-way simultaneous transfers of data between sockets. Novell considers this protocol to be on the transport layer. AppleTalk's presentation layer protocol is the AppleTalk Filing Protocol (AFP). It is very similar in function to Sun's NFS. In a nutshell, AFP intercepts requests for files from local applications. If the file access will be on the local machine, it routes it accordingly. If bound for a network file server, AFP will drop the request through lower layers and route it through the network. Lower layer protocols are accessed via the AppleTalk Filing Interface (AFI). AFP also provides security like login n names, passwords and directory access control (including search, write and read access). On the application layer, AppleShare File Server, AppleShare PC and AppleShare Print Server are often found running. AppleShare File Server allows access to files on remote file servers. AppleShare Print Server allows access to shared network printers. AppleShare PC allows compatibility between DOS and Macintosh users by allowing the DOS user to access AppleTalk's filing system and shared printers. AppleTalk is an expansive suite of protocols that has migrated from a workgroup functionality to compatibility with global networks. Apple will continue to benefit by providing continual expandability to these protocols and their machines.

8.5.2 DNA (Digital Network Architecture) Digital Equipment Corporation's DNA is similar to IBM's SNA in that it is proprietary and pre-dates the OSI model. It has continued to expand over the years providing more and more support for network activities and components.

The DNA (now called Phase V DNA) system is extremely OSI compliant. Its various protocols can be neatly broken down according to OSI model layers. Here is a summary: Physical Layer Supports IEEE 802.3, EIA RS-232C, RS-449 and FDDI. Data Link Layer Supports 802.3,FDDI, token bus (802.2), X.25, HDLC, LAPB and DEC's own Digital Data Communication Message Protocol (DDCMP). Network Layer
174

Connectionless or connection-oriented communication allowed. Supports CLNP, CLNS, CONS and X.25 PLP. Transport Layer Also allows connectionless or connection-oriented communication. Supports ISO's TP0, TP2 and TP4 protocols. Also supports DEC's Network Services Protocol (NSP). Session Layer Supports use of DEC's propriety Session Control or OSI's protocols. Presentation Layer Supports use of DEC's propriety applications or OSI's protocols. Application Layer Supports DEC's Data Access Protocol, CMIP, NVTS, ROSE, MOTIS, VT, FTAM, and MHS. Also supports various gateways. There are a few new protocols that come into play with this network type. They are proprietary to DEC and are utilized on various layers.

DEC's oldest and original protocol is Digital Data Communications Message Protocol (DDCMP). This multipurpose protocol supports both commands and data in a synchronous or asynchronous communication. It may be used in direct communication between nodes or with primaries and secondaries, where the primary polls the secondaries. The messages are created from bytes which in turn are constructed by bits grouped by stop bits or sync bits. DDCMP protocols require acknowledgments for messages. However, several packets may be acknowledged at once. DEC also provides X.25 compatibility through its X.25 services which include Level 2, Level 3, Server Access and Gateway Access modules. The Gateway Access module interfaces with an application and communicates with the Server module running on an X.25 network gateway device. The server application communicates with the network via the X.25 Level 3 module which functions on the transport layer. Next, messages are handed down to a X.25 Level 2 module which allows a session between the X.25 gateway and the X.25 modem device (DCE). NSP (Network Services Protocol) is DEC's own transport layer protocol. It can provide connection-oriented, controlled-flow services providing high reliability. NSP can also provide fragmentation and defragmentation services. Data flow is controlled a couple of different means involving the sender or receiver. NSP assists in congested networks by informing senders to back off.

175

DNA's Session Control services provide connections between entities on the network. In addition, address resolution is provided along with address selection. Address resolution involves finding the match for DNA processes in other protocols, then associating them. Once this is accomplished then the processes can be easily selected. DNA also provides a naming service used to allow hierarchical arrangement of network entities and to access control to them. The naming services make use of a database in which all network entities are stored as objects with properties. The database is divided up into what are known as directories which are often duplicated and spread across several DNA machines. The DNA naming system is very similar to the NetWare Directory Services (NDS) now available with NetWare 4.X. On the application level DNA offers file transfer services along with terminal emulation, management functions and several gateway services. File transfer is handled by DEC's Data Access Protocol (DAP). It offers basic file manipulation and transfer services. Terminal Emulation is offered through NVTS (Network Virtual Terminal Service). This system is composed of a module that converts requests from the client into a network format which in turn gets converted to the host format at the host. When the host communicates with the client, the process is reversed. Management is carried out through DEC's Enterprise Management Architecture. This system uses OSI's Common Management Information Protocol (CMIP) to communicate between a "director" that displays management-related information and agents, which collect data from network entities. Alarms may be configured for any serious situations detected by the management system. Another component of management is the Maintenance Operations Protocol (MOP) used to assist in maintaining a DNA system. DNA's connectivity to other systems is accomplished through various gateways. DNA systems may communicate with SNA systems via the SNA gateway. This gateway supports full data transfers between DEC systems and IBM systems, user application access to SNA sessions, 3270 terminal emulation for DEC users, and SNA Remote Job Entry (allowing batch processing on an IBM host). DNA also has a DOS component which allows DOS users to use a DEC host as a file server. In addition, DEC offers extensive support for a myriad of OSI applications. Lastly, electronic mail is handled by DEC's Mail-11 system. It can interface with numerous other systems including X.400.
176

DNA is likely to be around a while due to its large installed base and everincreasing expandability and compatibility. DEC should be saluted for taking a leadership role in trying to implement the OSI services to such degree. It's obvious that the company's leadership believes that OSI is the future of networking, a belief shared by many in this industry.

8.6

Chapter 8 Study Tips

1. Know the primary features of NetWare. 2. Know the construction and function of the IPX frame. 3. Know the construction and function of the SPX frame. 4. Know what services NetWare provides on the application layer. 5. Know the function of NetWare's shell files. 6. Know the history behind TCP/IP. 7. Know the construction and function of the IP frame. 8. Know the construction and function of the TCP frame. 9. Be able to briefly list and explain other key TCP/IP-related protocols. 10. Know the contributions and functions of Sun's NFS. 11. Know the history behind SNA. 12. Know SNA's primary features. 13. Know the SNA terminology including "SSCP", "PU", "LU" and others. 14. Know the SNA LU types. 15. Understand the motivating force behind GOSIP. 16. Know the OSI protocol components. 17. Specifically know the OSI transport layer protocols and what services they provide.

177

18. Know the application layer ASEs. 19. Know who developed AppleTalk and how it differs from other network offerings. 20. Briefly list some of the AppleTalk protocols and mention what layer they fall on according to the OSI model. 21. Know who developed DNA (and I don't mean God). 22. Know what services DNA provides on each layer of the OSI model. 23. Know that DNA closely supports the OSI protocols.

178

Chapter 9 Future Trends in Networking

It is always difficult to predict the future. We don't really know what advances will revolutionize our industry within the next few years. However, we can at least identify some broad trends and directions that have been taken. These are likely to be followed in the coming years.

9.1

Total Transparency

One of the perceived problems of dealing with modern networks is the fact that users sometimes have to be concerned with which network they are dealing with and whether or not they have the right tools to access that network. Currently, if you as a NetWare user decide that you want to communicate with someone who is on a network using the LAN Manager NOS, you would not be able to just hook up networks and trade data. You would have to find a way to translate from one language to the other. You may decide to use a common language to both systems like TCP/IP.

Figure 9-1: The future will hold transparent access to numerous network resources.

179

If you decide to use a particular printer, some networks may require you to know the location and type of printer as well as what spooler system is handling it and the name of a spooler file or directory (i.e. NetWare queues). You would also have to know in many instances which machine out there among the many you are connected to, contains the application or data you require.

In an ideal networking environment, users should not have to worry about such things. Think about it. The goal of any computer system is to increase productivity. How can you increase someone's productivity if you burden them with overhead like deciding how to get to network resources.

Our industry is concerned about this and has made steps toward achieving a greater degree of transparency for the user. The Consultative Committee on International Telegraphy and Telephony (CCITT) has adapted global messaging and directory services which, when implemented by various networks, will allow users to effortlessly trade mail and access resources more seamlessly. For instance, you may, in the near future, be able to look up the "address" of another person in most any company, and then send a message to them. By the same token, you may be able to send an important document to someone by selecting their printer from a directory and just sending the document there. In addition, you probably will use applications in the future without any knowledge of where the application is located. It might be running on a machine near you, one across the country, or on more than one machine at a time. This transparent ease of access is the goal of modern networking.

The technologies supporting transparent networks are called "distributed computing" and "distributed management".

180

9.2

Distributed Computing and Management

Figure 9-2: Applications may run more efficiently when their processes are run on several processors simultaneously. This is distributed computing. Right now programmers generally write applications for specific systems. DOS programmers write DOS programs and UNIX programmers write UNIX programs. Only within the last few years have any honest attempts been made to completely provide real access from one of these OSs to another. Though the barriers may have been political, the future problems are going to be marketdriven. The marketplace is demanding universal access. Distributed computing is the next logical step beyond OS compatibility. The ability of one OS to use the services of another is made possible through Remote Procedural Calls (RPC). RPC provides a universal way of translating a request from one OS to another. Both Novell's NetWare and Sun's NFS use RPC technology. The next goal is to allow the services of various OSs to be used at once by a single application. Not only is this feasible, it is likely. Since RPC allows multiple language translation, we could be running an application that routes some requests through a machine running UNIX while routing other requests to a machine running DOS. The net result is the application runs faster because it does not have to wait for resources of one OS or one machine to be available. Truly the processing becomes distributed. The final goal of distributed computing is to allow it to take place without the user having to worry about it. All the user should have to worry about is
181

executing Program X. The systems in the background would take the role of finding the application, retrieving it to local memory, and servicing its requests with whatever available resources there are out there. Novell has announced its intention to release a universal set of programming interfaces that will allow clients to be created to run on most all modern network operating systems including the Windows NT product from competitor Microsoft. The transparency of applications for everyday users is not the only direction for the future. What about managing systems that are so integrated? The management requires a universal way to collect, process and display management data. It also has to include a universal way to manipulate network resources so that data flowing into problem areas can be re-routed. That is the goal of protocols such as Common Management Information Protocol (CMIP) and Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP). Vendors provide management software and hardware that use these languages. IBM is currently supporting a concept called DME or Distributed Management Environment. The goal of these programs is to extend control over any device in a network from mainframes to PCs. Most modern management interfaces are graphical in nature, displaying at a glance the status of network resources and traffic. Most work under the premise that there is some management agent residing on a network device, gathering data that it sends to a central management facility. This central facility has built in alarms that alert management personnel about problems or if some element of the network has slipped outside of acceptable limits. Depending on the complexity of the system, it may attempt to correct or circumvent the problem automatically based on certain guidelines provided to it, or the system may require direct operator intervention to correct problems.

9.3

Increased Access

We would probably be surprised if we realized how often we interact with some network today. We talk on telephone networks. We do banking on bank networks. We watch TV on broadcast or cable networks. The list of interactions in a day could grow with emerging technology. Outside of the realm of straight computer data usage, we have the rise of interactive television expected to reach us on a decent scale soon. Several companies have been pioneering this technology which involves the transmission of video and audio data to a user that has an interface allowing him or her to select items by sending an electronic signal back through the cable

182

system to a particular location. The home shopping channels may never be the same. Data for computers will find new users by becoming less limited by the medium that must carry data. Wireless technology is in full swing now. Infrared and radio vendors are battling it out in the marketplace, and there is no clear winner as yet. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages. There is quite a polarization going on in this area with many vendors carrying one or the other of these systems as opposed to offering both. Recent FCC rulings have allowed bandwidth to be available for PCDs (Personal Communication Devices). This is going to open the realm of portable handheld computers (such as Apple's Newton) with such powerful features as faxing capabilities and electronic mail access. In a wireless world, we can finish a report while outside of San Francisco, download or fax it to colleagues in Dallas, where it is edited and eventually routed to our publisher in New York. Portability will be key and access will be about everywhere. There is another factor in the evolution of rapid data transfer. The telecommunications infrastructure must be capable of supporting voice and data transit. ISDN is a positive step in this direction, removing many of the old voice line/data line distinctions.

9.4

A Changing Business

Continued growth in networks will create some changes in the way computer companies and companies with computers operate. The incredible growth in computer networks has created new niche markets and increased demands in more traditional areas. The clear trends in networking are the integration of all of a company's computer resources into an "enterprise network" and the connection of larger network entities on a global scale called "global networking". Enterprise networks have created a whole new business involved in assisting management in implementing their system integration. These consultants are brought in to oversee these projects and assist in managing the resultant hybrid network when the task is complete. Going outside of one's own company to bring in independent help is called "outsourcing". Today, outsourcing makes a lot of sense. If, for instance, you decide to do a little upgrading on your network, it may make a lot more since to bring someone in for a short period of time to accomplish the task, and provide training to your people, than hiring and
183

training full-time personnel. After the project, you would still have a person around that you may not find another use for.

Figure 9-3: The future may hold global access for many organizations. Global networks are often the result of vendor consortiums or government involvement. The Internet, for instance, sprang from the Department of Defense. Global networks bring opportunities of joint research projects between companies. They also help to standardize processes, applications and protocols for future global networks. As these benefits have become more evident, it is no doubt that global networks will continue to expand in the future. The result may one day be a universal network with access to individual networks all over the globe. When this is accomplished, communication with someone in India will be as easy as communication with someone in Milwaukee or next door. The success of enterprise or global networks will depend on the structures that allow access to entities within them as well as without. The directory structure of X.500 specifications will aid in this access. Novell, Inc. has gambled quite a bit on the future expansion of local networks into enterprise and global entities. The NetWare 4.X product is a radical departure from the server-based and server-centric environment of the past. It is a corporate recognition of the need to quit thinking of networks as a pathway to that file server over there, as opposed to an extension of my local machine to numerous resources where location is unimportant. Although the idea is not new (Banyan has been marketing such a system for years), Novell as the PC-network market leader has thrown its weight behind a concept of enterprise and global network resource

184

distribution and management. Only time will tell if they have moved at the right time or not.

9.5

Chapter 9 Study Tips

1. Know the trends pointing toward the future of networking. Transparency Distributed Computing Distributed Management Increased User Access Enterprise and Global Networks 2. Know how Novell has invested in the future direction of networking.

185