Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
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CHAPTER: 1
INDIAN SOCIETY AND THE DENIAL OF CHANGE
1.1 INTRODUCTION.
The society living on the subcontinent that the British called India experienced many foreign influences before the European one. Surprisingly it managed to either absorb and add or reject them and thus denied any major structural transformation coming from the outside for hundreds of years. It was clearly structured on the basis of Hinduism, creating a strong hierarchy between high and low status and emphasizing social groups rather than the individual. Yet the British rule over India evoked a large number of changes and shaped the country that we today know as India.1 During the British colonial presence two worlds met. An excellent-working political and military system was forced onto a decentralized formation of independent kingdoms and so European-British enlightened values clashed with a thousand-year old social order and deeply rooted beliefs. This work will first give an overview of the historical development of British colonialism in India and then examine its implications for the Indian society. The focus is put on direct influences on society like education, religion and social structure, leaving out indirect ones such as politics and economy. The Indian subcontinent witnessed significant social changes during the 18-19th centuries. The onset of British rule, increasing urge for social and religious reform, rise of a middle class, rapid growth of newspapers in both English and Indian languages, changes in physical infrastructure and semi-political unification of the country were partly responsible for these changes. The end of the Mughal rule was
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followed by the strengthening of many regional kingdoms during the 18th century. The gradual expansion of British rule in this vacuum signified an entirely unfamiliar system of governance with long term repercussions.
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CHAPTER: 2
SOCIAL CHANGES IN MODERN INDIA 2.1 THE ORIENTALS
The first generation of British administrators in India like Warren Hastings, William Jones and Jonathan Duncan popularised the view that India had a glorious past which had subsequently degenerated. These scholars and administrators were called Orientalists. They were keen to learn and propagate Indian languages and tradition. This, they thought, would ensure a better understanding of India which would eventually strengthen their rule over this country. To stretch this argument further, we can say that the Orientalists depicted Indias past in a way that was in consonance with the needs of the colonial administration. Important institutions that came to be identified with their efforts were the Calcutta Madrassa founded by Warren Hastings (1781), the Asiatic Society of Bengal founded by William Jones (1784) and the Sanskrit College at Benaras founded by Jonathan Duncan (1794).2 William Jones learnt Indian classical languages and found important linguistic connection between Sanskrit and classical western languages like Greek and Latin. For around fifty years, the Asiatic Society was an important centre of learning and a rare institution to undertake translations of notable Sanskrit texts. An important journal published by it was the Asiatick Researches. Warren Hastings held the view that Hindus possess laws which continued unchanged for centuries. Therefore, the British should master these laws and the Sanskrit language in which these texts were written if they wished to establish their governance in the country. To provide a precise idea of the customs and manners of Hindus, N. B. Halhed published A Code of Gentoo Laws in 1776.3 There was a strong urge to make local British administrators familiar with Indian culture and tradition. Fort William College founded by Wellesley in 1801 to train the young British recruits to the civil service in India was
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ibid Saloni Mathur, India by Design: Colonial History and Cultural Display, University of California Press, 2007 3
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meant to serve primarily this purpose. This college became an important centre for producing knowledge on and about India. It had many departments devoted exclusively to research on Indian languages and literature.
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CHAPTER: 3
3.1 SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORMS
A distinct feature of the 19th century India was the urge for social and religious reforms which cut across castes and communities. India had a long tradition of religious reforms and social dissent. During the ancient period, an urge for reform can be seen in Upanishadic texts, Buddhism, Jainism, Vajrayan, Tantricism etc. During the medieval age, the popularity of the Bhakti and the Sufi saints is well known. Attempts to explore Indias past by the first generation of British rulers helped to sharpen educated classes consciousness of their own existence. Early reformers were groping to find suitable answers. But the agenda for the modernization was not set by the western influence because the logic for reform was sought to be located within Indias past.
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Sabha which was renamed Brahmo Samaj later on. Soon he started touching upon many burning social issues of the time including the widely-prevalent practice of becoming sati. He rallied support to the efforts of William Bentinck (Governor General) for abolition of this custom and wrote extensively for the cause. In 1829, the custom of sati was formally abolished. He also condemned polygamy and many other forms of subjugation of women. Roy was also an advocate of modern education. He opened an English school as well as a Vedanta college (1825). He was a firm believer in the concept of one God. He was opposed to idolatry and found Upanishads as the basis of true Hinduism. He wished to purify Hinduism by removing all kinds of evils that had crept into it over centuries. He was not opposed to English education and spread of western knowledge. After Roys death in 1833, the Brahmo Samaj started getting disorganized. It was given a definite shape and popularized beyond the city of Calcutta under the leadership of Debendranath Tagore who joined in 1842. A year later, he wrote Brahmo Covenant. This Covenant was a statement of the creed of the Samaj and made a list of the duties and obligations of its members. Keshab Chandra Sen (183884) who joined the Samaj in 1858 was a very eloquent and persuasive leader. He took the activities of the Samaj beyond Bengal and into UP, Punjab, Madras and Bombay. He radicalized the Samaj by attacking caste system, underlining womens rights, promoting widow remarriage and raising the issue of caste status of Brahmo preachers which was earlier reserved for Brahmans. He laid stress on universalism in religion. His radicalism brought him into opposition with Debendranath. In 1866, the Samaj was formally divided into Adi Brahmo Samaj (headed by Debendranath) and the Brahmo Samaj of India (headed by Keshab Chandra).
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the real cause underlying all their problems. With the help of an Englishman named Bethun, he set up many schools devoted especially to girl child. He forcefully attacked child marriage and polygamy. He was a strong advocate of widow remarriage. It was due to his active mobilization of support that the Widows Remarriage Act was passed in 1856 legalizing all widow remarriages. He arranged many such remarriages. He set a personal example when his son Narayan also married a widow.
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Pandurang. They formed Manav Dharma Sabha in 1844 and Paramhansa Mandali in 1849. The Mandali carried its activities secretly. Its members took a pledge that they would abandon all caste distinctions. The Mandali declined after 1860 as its membership and activities lost secrecy. Keshab Chandra Sens twin visits to Bombay in 1864 and 1867 had a deep impact on social reform in this part. A direct consequence of his visits was the founding of the Prarthana Samaj in 1867 by Atmaram Pandurang. Mahadev Govind Ranade, who ran the Deccan Education Society, was the real force working behind this organization. Several members of the Prarthana Samaj had earlier been active in the Paramhansa Mandali. This Samaj denounced idolatry, priestly domination, caste rigidities and preferred monotheism. Apart from Hindu sects, it also drew upon Christianity and Buddhism. It sought truth in all religions. Drawing inspiration from the Maratha Bhakti saints of the medieval period, Ranade sought to establish the concept of one compassionate God.
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and its activities was the founding of the Dayanand Anglo Vedic Trust and Management Society in Lahore in 1886. In the same year, this society opened a school with Lala Hansraj as its principal. However, some leaders of the Samaj were opposed to Anglo Vedic education. They were Munshi Ram (Swami Shraddhanand), Gurudatt, Lekh Ram and others. They argued that the Arya Samajs educational initiative must focus on Sanskrit, Aryan ideology and Vedic scriptures and should have little space for English learning. This militant wing thought that Dayanands words were sacrosanct and his message in Satyarth Prakash could not be questioned. While the moderate wing led by Lala Hansraj and Lajpat Rai pointed out that Dayanand was a reformer and not a rishi or sadhu. Conflicts also arose over the control of the DAV Management Society. These differences finally led to a formal division of the Arya Samaj in 1893 when Munshiram broke away along with his supporters to initiate a gurukul-based education. Therefore, after 1893 the two wings of the Arya Samaj were-DAV group and Gurukul group. Munshi Ram and Lekh Ram devoted themselves to popularizing of the teachings of the Vedas and began an Arya Kanya Pathsala at Jalandhar to safeguard education from missionary influence. In 1902, Munshi Ram founded a Gurukul at Kangri in Haridwar. This institute became the centre of the gurukul education wing of the Arya Samaj in India. It was here that Munshi Ram adopted sanyas and became Swam Shraddhanand. The two wings of the Arya Samaj, i.e. DAV wing and the Gurukul wing had differences on the question of education but were united on important political an social issues of the time. The Arya Samaj as a whole opposed conversion of Hindus to Islam and Christianity and therefore advocated re-conversion of recent converts to Hinduism. This process was called shuddhi. They also advocated greater usage of Hindi in Devanagari script. In the 1890s, the Arya Samaj also raised the issue of cow slaughter and formed gaurakshini sabhas (or the cow protection societies) for protection of cows. The Arya Samaj led a prolonged movement against untouchability and advocated dilution of caste distinctions.
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The new leadership was provided by Sayyid Ahmad Khan (181798) who rightly thought that modern education was the most important path for improvement in the condition of Indian Muslims. He called for the study of European science and technology. In 1866, he formed the British Indian Association. He stayed in England for more than a year during 1869-70. On his return, he asked his Muslim brethren to adopt some positive features of the English society like its discipline, order, efficiency and high levels of education. He pointed out that there was no fundamental contradiction between Quran and Natura Science and the new circumstances demanded dissemination of English language within an Islamic context. He founded the Mohammedan Anglo Oriental College at Aligarh in 1875 which went on to become the most important seminary for modern higher education among Muslims. At the elementary level, student followed the standard government curriculum in a carefully constructed Islamic environment. In 1878, the college classes were also started and non-Muslims were also enrolled. In 1886, Sayyid Ahmad Khan founded the Mohammadan Anglo Oriental Educational Conference. The Muslim graduates of Aligarh who numbered 220 during 18821902, provided lot of excitement to the Muslim intellectual world and in due course of time provided an able and modern leadership to the community.
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reform movements, by raising issues which were in conflict with interests of other communities or were revivalist in nature, also worked towards polarization along communal lines.4
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CHAPTER:4
4.1 RISE OF WESTERN EDUCATION IN INDIA
British rulers were keen to spread their ideology and culture in India. This could strengthen their roots in this country. Besides, it would also create a class of Indians who might act as reliable agents of the British Empire. English education was the most important medium of achieving these objectives. Several attempts were made throughout 19-20th centuries to popularize English education and make structural changes accordingly. Initially, the Orientalist administrators and scholars like Warren Hastings, Cornwallis, William Jones, Jonathan Duncan and others attached more importance to Indian classical education but gradually their ideas lost ground. It was thought that British Empire had to fulfill a civilizing mission in India and therefore western sciences and culture needed to be popularized.
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help western sciences and literature reach the masses. This would enable British rulers to spread western morality to Indian masses at a much less public expenditure. This theory also saw education as a means to enable Indians to occupy subordinate positions and function as clerks etc. in the Companys bureaucracy.5
Ibid. 15
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It proposed to set up universities at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras on the model of London University which would hold examinations and confer degrees. The universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were established in 1857. Apart from the formal education, the Dispatch underlined the importance of vocational education and emphasized the need to set up technical schools and colleges. It also recommended setting up of training institutes for prospective teachers. It also supported education for women. Many modern girls schools were set u p subsequently and also received governments grants-in-aid.
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regulations were again imposed in 1857 due to the Revolt. Most against the decision of the District Magistrate. This Act was repealed in 1882 by Lord Ripon who was a very popular Viceroy among Indians for his liberal views and measures. serious restriction on the growth of Indian language newspapers was Lord Lyttons Vernacular Press Act of 1878.6 A highly biased and racial measure, this Act attempted to stifle any opposition to the government voiced in the local languages of the country. Similar restrictions were not imposed on the English language newspapers. It was an important example of Lyttons conservative and arrogant attitude. It indirectly empowered the government to control all seditious writings by Indian intelligentsia. There was no appeal against the decision of the District Magistrate. This Act was repealed in 1882 by Lord Ripon who was a very popular Viceroy among Indians for his liberal views and measures.7
6 7
Narang and Ashok, Indian Society and Culture, 2006. Saloni Mathur, India by Design: Colonial History and Cultural Display, University of California Press, 2007. 18
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CHAPTER: 5
RISE OF POPULAR CULTURE 5.1 CULTURAL CHANGE
The extent to which western lifestyle has penetrated into the cultural stream of India or the degree to which our youth have undergone normative transformation, can be analyzed only in the perspective of overall cultural and social changes that have taken place in our society during the past 50 years. The processes of empowerment of women can also be located within these societal and cultural aspects of change. Yet, we could not objectively evaluate these processes without grounding our analysis on the foundation of the ideology of social change in India since independence. No doubt, some intellectuals have expressed doubt as to whether India could evolve a coherent ideology of change, it is doubtful if any society can undergo changes and remain integrated if it is devoid of a meaningful ideology. The issues of ideology assume significance when we attempt to understand the manner in which the western lifestyle has become pervasive in our society and particularly among the youth, or if at all the road to empowerment of women in India has now been paved smooth and strong. The two concepts which have often been counterposed in the debate on the ideology of social change are westernization and modernization. This debate runs through the entire gamut of the various movements for cultural renaissance of India since the beginning of the British rule. It permeates the values of our national leadership during the freedom movement. The contributions of Gandhi and Nehru reflect this process accepting that these two represented two different ideologies of modernisation. One may yet notice a fair measure of ambivalence towards westernization in the thinking of both, as both felt strongly that modernization of our society does not imply our mindless imitation of the West or total rejection of our tradion. Of course, that part of tradition which has become obselete or which militates against the spirit of humanism to be dropped, and all that is
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noble in it must be integrated in the modernization paradigm of society. Their notion of tradition was not merely textual. It encompassed, on the contrary, the entire range of the living tradition of the Indian people (peasants, tribals, minorities, etc.) as nurtured through centuries and reflected in its art forms, aesthetic traditions, folk culture, tribal culture and other artistic expressions, etc. Nehru was particularly sensitive to protecting and preserving these traditions and in adaptively integrating them in our institutions and values as we proceed towards cultural and social modernisation. Gandhi's emphasis on decentralization and comunitarian self-rule had also implicitly recognized the pre- eminence of the local indigenous traditions.
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As to the extent to which the youth in particular and people in general are tending to accept the western lifestyle or the norms of modernity, thsese aspects of cultural change become relevant. We have to be careful in distinguishing between the appearance of change or its surface manifestation and the deeper levels of change through accommodation or integration of cultural traits with the pre-existing cultural patterns. We have also to correlate it with the structure of identities of persons concerned who are members of different cultural and sub-cultural groups. In the pre-industrial India, dominated by the feudal mode of production, there was differentiation in the cultural styles and forms between the folk and the elite cultures. The peasants and workers belonged to the folk cultural tradition which was primarily oral, community-(caste-tribe) based and was carried through from generation to generation adapting itself and always accommodating new currents with spontaneity and creativity. Folk culture was, of course, in constant interaction with the elite cultural tradition which was textual, formal and systematic. There existed between the two a process of reciprocity in the adoption and adaptation of styles, themes and forms. The peasant and feudal economy, being relatively stable in respect of technology and social institutions, and folk-elite cultures continued not only to integrate new culture and styles of life within the established traditions but also protect it from erosion so long as the traditional economic and social structures persisted.
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materialistic and this-worldly. Most Indians are supposed to be non-materialistic or engrossed in spiritual pursuits of one kind or the other. The institution of caste and the traditional social systems such as family and community are thought to be products entirely of moral legitimations totally unrelated to their principles of power and control over the material resources. Despite wider recognition of cultural pluralism in India or even the presence of a materialist tradition in the Hindu philosophy, the image of India being an ascetic and other-worldly nation has stuck as a stereotype in our analysis of westernization. Our assessment of the challenges that westernization or the expansion of the western style of life poses to India is often unrealistic due to this stereotyped categorization. Partly this evaluation is a result of depending heavily on the textual sources of the Indian tradition for an insight into its culture and style of life. Now, the regional studies and surveys of the villages and cities give us reliable insights into our people's culture traits, customs and lifestyle. Their findings contradict the stereotype about Indians' asceticism. A survey of the 4,634 communities, representing all the communities living in India, completed by the Anthropological Survey of India, has concluded:
"Alcopolic beverages are consumed by men in the communities studied as follows: occasionally in 2,469 and regularly in 1,106. Women occasionally consume alcohol in 1,037 communities. Smoking is very common. Chewing of tobacco and the use of snuff are also widespread. Chewing of betel is used by people in large number of communities. We are, therefore, largely a drinking, smoking and meat-eating people."8
This brought into its terrain the process of cultural encounter. The
Saloni Mathur, India by Design: Colonial History and Cultural Display, University of California Press, 2007 22
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national movement that culminate over several other movements towards cultural renaissance evolved a cultural strategy to resolve the dilemma of westernization and this strategy was to modernize India without total westernization----this goal became the cultural policy of free India The state directly sponsored several cultural institutions practices and policies to articulate and strengthen the best element of the Indian cultural tradition. Nevertheless, the contact with the West did usher in many western cultural traits an practices over a period of time. Due to peculiar nature of the India social structure based on caste and sub-castes, its vas regional cultural diversities and cultural differences between the rural and the urban centres, the initial process of westernization of the lifestyle was confined to a small section of urban elite. I existed as a sub-culture. This remained so up to the period of independence This sub-culture extended to include lifestyle a well as western literature, philosophy and art. Its impact could be seen in the nineteenth century literary contributions in Indi not only in Bengali but also in Marathi, Tamil and Telugu languages. The vigorous debates on the rationalist-positivist philosophy of the West informed many literary and social science writings of this time. The exposure was thus not only t the western lifestyle but also to its philosophy and worldview. The sub-culture of the western lifestyle slowly began to expan in India due to new emerging processes of social change These were: expansion of new technologies of transport and communication such as the railways, roadways and post an telegraph services; establishment of several western institution such as a rational administration, judiciary, legal system, educational institutions, and the like. The beginning of census operations and land settlements, together with many research and survey operations, generated information and exposed Indian to new methods of administration and new outlooks.9
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CONCLUSION
Westenisation is a much simpler and newer concept than Sankritisation. Sanskritisation, put forth by M.N.Srinivas, is the process of cultural and social mobility during these periods of relative closure of the Hindu social system. According to Srinivas, Westernisation is the product of changes brought about in Indian society and culture as result of over 150 years of British rule. The term subsuming means changes occurring at different levels technology, institutions, ideology and values. British rule produced radical and lasting changes in Indian society and culture. The new technology and the revolution in communication which it brought about, enabled the British to integrate the country as never before in its history . The establishment of Pax - Britannica put an end once and for all the local wars which were endemic in pre-British India and which were a most important source of social mobility for individuals as well as groups. During the 19"' century the British slowly laid the foundations of a modern state by surveying land, settling the revenue, creating modern bureaucracy, army and police instituting law courts, codifying the law so on. Through the printing and availability of books and journals, along with schools, modern knowledge and ideas could reach to a large number of Indians. Christian missionaries from Europe, through their efforts also encouraged education to the Indian people. In the first half of the 19th century, the British with the support of enlightened Indian opinion, abolished such institutions as "suttee" (1829), female infanticide, human sacrifice and slavery (1835). The establishment of scientific, technological and educational institutions, rise of nationalism, new political culture and leadership in the country are all by-products of Westernization. British rulers were keen to spread their ideology and culture in India. This could strengthen their roots in this country. Besides, it would also create a class of Indians who might act as reliable agents of
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the British Empire. English education was the most important medium of achieving these objectives. Several attempts were made throughout 19-20th centuries to popularize English education and make structural changes accordingly. Initially, the Orientalist administrators and scholars like Warren Hastings, Cornwallis, William Jones, Jonathan Duncan and others attached more importance to Indian classical education but gradually their ideas lost ground. It was thought that British Empire had to fulfill a civilizing mission in India and therefore western sciences and culture needed to be popularized. The role of education is vital for all round growth of political, social, economic, and cultural aspects in a society. Education is considered to be one of the real factors to take the society and all its other aspects from one stage to another stage. The role of education, particularly the English education popularised by British needs to be assessed in the present light to have a greater understanding of its impact on the society and the change it brought about in the whole system of colonial India. The introduction and impact of western education and ideas stimulated growth of awareness in the society. The Indian society inclined towards a social change through this new ideas and education and the subsequent rise of a new urban based middle class came into being. Those new classes were the pioneers of spreading and propagating western ideas and arousing social and political awakening. So the various socio-religious reform movements which took place in India during this period of British rule were the expression of the rising national consciousness and spread of liberal ideas of the West among the Indian people. Britain actually brought a multitude of positive things to India when it imposed its rule upon the native Indians. The best things that the British accomplished in India were social reforms, including a better environment for women. Women were treated quite poorly in native India before the British. The custom of "suttee" was prohibited, thankfully, with the invasion of the British. Also, the killing of female infants was monitored and measures were taken to stop it.
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The British introduced a multilevel educational system to India, including basic schooling for females in the lower grades. Higher health standards and better water systems were also results of Britain's reign. They were, in terms of general physical health, the most positive things that the British brought. In general, India became more "civilized", but socially, India lost its identity by being conquered, as did any nation that became a European colony. When Britain originally assumed control of India, some Britons assimilated into the Asiatic culture, or even intermarried. After a while, Victorian notions of morality dictated that the native Indians were savages and heathens and no amount of social conditioning could change that. Therefore, they stopped social reforms. Britons believed that Indian customs proved that they were correct in believing that the natives were heathenistic savages. By being polytheistic, the Hindi and Muslim religions were denounced later by missionaries.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
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http://www.ggdc.net/maddison/articles/moghul_3.pdf, visited on 4 February, 2012. British Colonialism In India And Its Influence On Indian Society, http://sanne.squarespace.com/storage/British%20Colonialism%20in%20India%20and%20its%20 Influence%20on%20Indian%20Society.pdf, visited on 5 February, 2012. SOCIAL CHANGES IN MODERN INDIA, http://download.nos.org/srsec315new/final%20History%20Book_2_L_18.pdf, visited on 5 February, 2012. BANDYOPADHYAY, Sekhar (1990): Caste, Politics and the Raj. Bengal 1872-1937, Department of History, University of Calcutta. Calcutta, New Delhi: K P Bagchi & Company. BAYLY, C.A. (1988): The New Cambridge History of India, Part II.1. Indian society and the making of the British Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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