Thermodynamics V0thermofluids 1 School Ofmechanical Engineering University of Leeds

MECH 1215 Thermofluids 1 1
MECH1215: Thermofluids 1
School of Mechanical Engineering
University of Leeds
Course Structure
MECH1215 is a 20 credit, level 1 module. It consists of two related subjects
thermodynamics and fluid mechanics. There are natural links between the two
subjects. The course is taught in two strands (thermo- and fluids). The course is
assessed using a mixture of final examination (60%) and course-work (40%). The
course work element is based on 4 practical sessions. Full details, including a
complete syllabus, can be found on the VLE.
Course Tutor and Module Leader
Dr Nik Kapur will present the thermo- part of the thermofluids course. He is also the
module leader. He can be contacted by email at n.kapur@leeds.ac.uk.
Prof Phil Gaskell will present the fluid- part of the course. He can be contacted by
email at p.h.gaskell@leeds.ac.uk.
Book List
There is no set text for this course, however it is often useful to have access to
support books since they offer a different view-point on a subject. Books that have
proved to be useful to students in the past include the following:
- G.J.Van Wylen, R.E.Sonntag and C.Borgnakke Fundamentals of
thermodynamics 5th ed. John Wiley.
- Y.A.Cengel and M.A.Boles Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach
McGraw Hill.
- P.B.Whalley Basic engineering thermodynamics Oxford Science
Publications.
- C.Borgnakke and R.E. Sonntag Thermodynamic and transport properties
Wiley.(includes computer disc).
- Mechanics of Fluids. 7th edition, B.S. Massey, Stanley Thornes Publishing,
1998.
- Fluid Mechanics. 3rd edition, Douglas, Gasiorek and Swafield, Longman,
1994.
- Fluid Mechanics. Foundation Engineering Series, Widden, McMillan Press,
1996.
- Thermofluids. Sherwin and Horsley, Chapman and Hall, 1996.
- Introduction to Fluid mechanics. 4th edition, Fox and McDonald, John Wiley
and Son (also for use in level 2)
These are available in good supply in the University library. If you choose to buy a
book spend some time looking at the examples above to find one that suits your
learning style.
Contents
1. Introduction to thermodynamics 3
2. State and Fluid
properties
Phase diagrams 8
P, , T
Ideal gas behaviour P, , T 10
Tabulated and graphical data
The P diagram for
steam 12
Steam tables 14
Tabulated data for
refrigerants 18
Internal energy
and Cv 19
Enthalpy and Cp 21
Relationship between Cp,
Cv, R 23
3. Path Behaviour 24
End state of
processes 26
Displacement
work 27
4. First law 28
Cyclic systems 29
Closed (non-flow) systems
Displacement work 34
Internal
energy 37
Open (flow)
systems 39
Enthalpy 40
5. Air standard Cycles 42
MECH 1215
1 INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS
1.1 What is Thermodynamics?
From the Greek words therme
and entropy.
The science of heat and work and those properties of a substance that that bear a
relation to heat and work
Thermofluids 1
INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS
hermodynamics?
therme (heat) and dynamis (force). It is the Science of energy
Or
3
(force). It is the Science of energy
For your chosen device (on the left) identify the following:
1. Importance to society ?
2. Impact on the environment ?
3. Key parameters within the system (why would you select one over another) ?
For the corresponding component (on the right) identify:
1. Heat inputs
2. Heat outputs
3. Mass inputs
4. Mass outputs
5. Input conditions
6. Output conditions
7. What conversions are taking place (between the inputs and the outputs)
1.1 The Importance of Thermodynamics and Designing Systems
The understanding of thermodynamics is an important tool in the design of
equipment. Understanding thermodynamics allows design decisions to be made, and
to understand the interplay between factors such as the operating temperatures,
pressures and efficiency..
Table 1.1 shows some of the engineering considerations for a variety of
thermodynamic systems. The two right-hand columns show the specific power and
the efficiency. The specific power is the amount on power produced per kg of plant
equipment. The efficiency is a measure of useful output / energy input. The lowest
value of specific power output is for the steam turbine, this also has the greatest
efficiency. To put it another way, a lot of engineering hardware and services (e.g.
cooling water) can give a thermodynamic process that is relatively efficient. The
other extreme is the jet engine. Here the design criterion will be very different the
engine needs to be lightweight and powerful, so having a high specific power. This is
at the expense of the overall efficiency. Were the engine to be more efficient, the
additional weight would be prohibitive and the plane would not leave the ground.
Thermodynamics therefore allows us to balance conflicting criteria within the overall
design cycle. For example with a car engine, allowing a higher compression of the
gases before ignition may give a greater efficiency, but the elevated pressures and
temperatures will require additional material to withstand the pressure, enhanced
cooling or perhaps even exotic alloys to deal with the high temperature. The weight
and size will also affect the design. The thermodynamic framework will allow these
conditions to be evaluated before building the engine.
From an environmental perspective, and as fuel becomes a more expensive
commodity then design criterion (and thus decisions) will change. For example it
may make more sense to invest more on the capital equipment (the initial plant may
cost more) and have a greater fuel efficiency (the running cost will be less). So the
economic cost of the designs will also form part of the design decisions. Some of this
will be speculative and projections of future fuel prices (and availability) will need to
be built into any engineering design.
Figure 1.1 shows an example of the array of choices available for the design of a
thermodynamic system; here this shows the relationship between a primary energy
source and electrical power generation. Along each of these routes will be a vast
array of design choices and thermodynamic considerations. Thermodynamics helps
establish a framework on which these choices can rationally be made.
Table 1.1: Order of Magnitude Performance Characteristics of a number of Power
Generation Devices. The specific power is a measure of the amount of energy output
per kilogram of plant.
Please refer to web page http://www.bpamoco.com/worldenergy for a statistical
review of world energy.
Device Energy Source Unit
Capacity
Specific
Power
(kW/kg)
Efficiency
%
Heat Engines
Steam Turbine Power Plant
Combined Cycle Plant (CCGT)
Regenerative Gas Turbine
Jet Engine
Diesel Engine
Automobile Engine
Model Aircraft Engine
Fission Nuclear Plant
heat
natural gas
fuel oil
kerosene
fuel oil
petrol
petrol
-
660 MW/Turbine
500 MW
10 MW
10 MW
200 kW
200 kW
75 W
660 MW/reactor
0.05
-
0.45
3.50
0.55
0.83
1.10
-
40
50
23
20
35
25
15
10
Direct Energy Conversion Devices
Fuel Cell
Solar Cell
Radiation Cell
Thermoelectric
Thermionic
Magnetohydrodynamic (M.H.D.)
H2 - O2
CH4
sunlight
Sr - Y
heat
heat
heat
15 kW
2 MW
250 W
10
-8
W
5 kW
300 W
20 MW
-
-
0.1
-
0.45
2.0
-
90
55-60
14
14
10
13
60
Alternative Power Generators
Tidal Power Plant
Windmills
Hydraulic Turbine
Waterwheel
Geothermal
Focused Solar Energy Plant
-
-
reservoir
river/millpond
-
240 MW
100-500 kW
550 MW/turbine
- 150 kW
100 - 500 MW
40 kW
-
-
-
-
-
-
18
(average)
40
90
20 -60
30
Figure 1.1: Relationship between primary energy source and electrical generation.
MECH 1215
2. STATE AND FLUIDPROPERTIES
State properties are the properties that define a substance at a particular instant in
time. In thermodynamics, properties
and T) are commonly encountered
design, for example in defining the materials or the
design. There are additional properties, internal energy, enthalpy a
and S) that also help define the thermodynamic state.
2.1 The Phase Diagram
The phase diagrams, shown in figure 2.1, describe the behavior of a material under a
range of conditions. Here the phase diagram is shown with temperature on t
and pressure on the y-axis
put inside a closed cylinder which, at one end, has a movable piston. At a particular
temperature (regulated by its surroundings) the pressure within the cylinder
controlled by moving the piston in or out (figure 2.2).
Figure 2.1 (left) a typical phase diagram
conditions (oxygen in this case); (right)
Figure 2.2 A possible experiment
Thermofluids 1
STATE AND FLUIDPROPERTIES
properties such as pressure, volume and temperature (P, V
T) are commonly encountered. These quantities feed into the engineering
defining the materials or the mechanical properties
design. There are additional properties, internal energy, enthalpy a
define the thermodynamic state.
diagrams, shown in figure 2.1, describe the behavior of a material under a
range of conditions. Here the phase diagram is shown with temperature on t
. To construct such a diagram the material in question is
temperature (regulated by its surroundings) the pressure within the cylinder
by moving the piston in or out (figure 2.2).
typical phase diagram for a material that is a gas under
(oxygen in this case); (right) a phase diagram for water
A possible experiment to relate pressure, temperature, specific volume
and phase information.
8
volume and temperature (P, V
. These quantities feed into the engineering
mechanical properties of the
design. There are additional properties, internal energy, enthalpy and entropy (U, H
diagrams, shown in figure 2.1, describe the behavior of a material under a
range of conditions. Here the phase diagram is shown with temperature on the x-axis
. To construct such a diagram the material in question is
temperature (regulated by its surroundings) the pressure within the cylinder can be
for a material that is a gas under room
a phase diagram for water.
to relate pressure, temperature, specific volume
The phase diagrams in figure 2.1 show the behaviour of the material as these
conditions are varied. Three states exist solid, liquid and gas (plasma is often
regarded as a fourth state but dont worry about this just now). The left hand figure
(for oxygen) will be used for the following discussion. Point A represents the solid
phase. Here the molecules are close together, with relatively strong intermolecular
(that is forces between the molecules) bonds that form the structure. The molecules
vibrate about a fixed point. As the temperature increases the molecular spacing
remains relatively constant, but now the kinetic energy of the molecules is such that
the intermolecular forces no longer dominate, and molecules can switch places with
their neighbours. This is the liquid state, point B. In this experiment, the
temperature is further increased until the kinetic energy dominates and there is
relatively little intermolecular attraction between the molecules. This is the gas state,
point C, with the molecules filling the container they are within. The spacing between
the molecules will be at least 10 times the radius of the molecule. As the temperature
is further increased (noting that the piston will need to be moved out to maintain the
pressure at a constant value) the spacing between the molecules will continue to
increase.
There are two additional points marked on the diagram.
1. The triple point, where (in the closed piston arrangement of this experiment)
solid, liquid and gas co-exist. One use of water at the triple point is for the
calibration of thermometers, since this is a unique state point.
2. The critical point. Above the critical temperature, it is impossible to compress
the gas and turn it into liquid. The kinetic energy of the molecules is so high
that it dominates and the intermolecular forces are relatively weak. Even at
high pressures the intermolecular forces never become significant enough to
form a liquid phase. An alternate way to interpret this in that when the
pressure is greater than the critical pressure it is impossible to cool the gas
and turn it into a liquid.
There is a subtle difference between water and many other materials commonly
encountered in thermodynamic processes (e.g. oxygen, nitrogen constituents of
air) since hydrogen bonding is an additional force that plays a role in the solid-liquid
interaction, see the line between the solid and liquid region in figure 2.1. Note that
the gradient of the line between the solid and liquid phase has been exaggerated in
reality it is much closer to vertical than this.
Figure 2.3 shows the typical engineering space in which most thermodynamic
processes operate. The boundaries that define this are entirely practical and include:
- The design of equipment to withstand pressure.
- Materials (mostly metals) to withstand the temperatures.
- Operating fluids within the thermodynamic system (e.g. steam within power
stations).
An observation is that within many thermodynamic processes, operating conditions
are close to the critical point of water, but far above the critical temperature of
oxygen (taken as representative of air). This forms an important point in the
MECH 1215
discussion of when a material can be treated as an ideal gas and when it must be
treated as non-ideal.
Figure 2.3 the engineering workspace in relation to the three phase and critical
2.2 Ideal Gases pressure, volume and temperature
Ideal gases are gases that follow a certain
first observed experimentally, for example by Boyle
the theory also has origins in molecular theory. It is the results of this hard work that
is of interest here.
Equation 2.1 shows the ideal gas law, that relates three state properties, pressure (P),
volume (V) and temperature
A consistent set of units and value of R are given by:
P=Pressure
V=Volume
n=Number moles gas
R=Gas constant
T=Temperature
In engineering, it is often more convenient to work with the mass of
working fluid within a gas.
equations, where m is the molecular mass.
1
The volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure when the temperature is kept constant.
i.e. (V 1/P) when T is constant.
2
The volume of a gas increased by 1/273 part of its volume at 0
providing the pressure remains constant.
Thermofluids 1
the engineering workspace in relation to the three phase and critical
point of air and water.
pressure, volume and temperature
that follow a certain pattern of behavior. Ideal gas behavior was
first observed experimentally, for example by Boyle (1660)
1
or Charles (
also has origins in molecular theory. It is the results of this hard work that
volume (V) and temperature (T).
A consistent set of units and value of R are given by:
kPa
L
8.314472 kPaLK
1
mol
1
K
In engineering, it is often more convenient to work with the mass of
The working below shows the relationship between these
is the molecular mass.
The volume of a gas increased by 1/273 part of its volume at 0C for each 1C rise of temperature,
pressure remains constant.
Common
thermodynamic
system workspace
T R n PV =
10
the engineering workspace in relation to the three phase and critical
of behavior. Ideal gas behavior was
or Charles (~1780)
2
, but
also has origins in molecular theory. It is the results of this hard work that
(2.1)
In engineering, it is often more convenient to work with the mass of a particular
ionship between these
C rise of temperature,
(2.2)
P=Pressure kPa
v=Specific volume m
3
/kg
R=Gas constant (8.314 / molecular mass) kJK
1
kg
1
T=Temperature K
M=Molecular mass g/mol
Air: 0.287 kJK
1
kg
1
Water: 0.462 kJK
1
kg
1
Note: v is the specific volume, that is the volume, V, taken by 1 kg of gas and is equal
to 1/density. Specific values are generally given the lower case symbol do not
confuse the two! A useful tip is, to convert density to specific volume, as it helps you
make a judgement if this has a sensible value.
2.3 Assumptions Behind an Ideal Gas
There are three main conditions that need to exist for a gas to be treated as ideal:
- Randomly-moving, elastic collisions.
- Non-interacting (ie no forces between the particles).
- Point particles.
So when, for the real gases, will these conditions be obeyed (ie the ideal gas law can
be used) and when will these conditions be violated (ie some other means will need
to be used to establish the relationship between P,V and T) ?
- Under conditions of high pressure the molecules will be forced to be close
together, and the assumption that the molecules are point particles (that is
they take no volume) will be violated.
- Under conditions close to the liquid-gas transition the forces between the
particles are significant.
On figure 2.3, when using air as the working fluid in a thermodynamic cycle it is a
relatively good assumption to treat it as an ideal gas as the working temperature will
be significantly greater than the critical temperature and for most processes the
pressure will be less than the critical pressure.
For water, however, most practical thermodynamic processes take place close to the
point where the liquid-gas transition takes place. Under these conditions
experimental measurements must be used to give the relationships between the state
properties.
RT P = v
T
m
R
n M
V
P
T R n PV
=
=
.
2.4 SteamTables, SteamCharts and Mollier Diagrams
The properties of steam are represented in many ways including tabular, graphical of
via computer software
3
.
2.4.1 Steamchart P- v diagram
To develop understanding around the behavior of steam (as an example of a material
close to the gas-liquid transition) the focus will be on a diagram describing the
behavior of steam in terms of pressure and specific volume. Experiments would be
carried out in a similar apparatus to that shown in figure 2.2, where (for example)
the temperature is set by regulating the external environment, and the pressure set
by moving the piston. The specific volume would be given by the cylinder volume
divided by the mass of the gas contained within. This data would then be plotted
appropriately (P on the abscissa, v on the ordinate).
Figure 2.4 shows the behaviour of the water plotted in this way. The solid lines are
temperature isotherms at any point on a given isotherm, the temperature is
constant. The dotted line represents two things on the left side of the cricical point
it is where liquid is just at its boiling point, on the right of the critical point it
represents the point where the water has just boiled and turned to vapour. At any
point in this diagram it is possible to read off the pressure, the specific volume from
the axes, and the temperature from the isotherms. Additional information can be
derived when in the liquid/vapour region, described later.
Figure 2.4 P-v diagram for water
Figure 2.5 is used to describe the behaviour of the water at points 1-4 shown in figure
2.4. In figure 2.5, the arrows to the right show, for each stage of the process the
change in temperature and specific volume.
3
E.g. http://www.spiraxsarco.com/resources/steam-tables.asp
Temperature of
isotherms increasing
L+V
V
G
L
tp
T T <
C
T
C
T T >
C
T T <
P
v
1 g
v
1
v 1 f
v
1
triple line
sat.
vapour
sat.
liquid
Critical Point
2 3 4 A
S
O
L
I
D
MECH 1215
- Figure 2.5(a) shows the change in
is added and the liquid water expands. Since no phase change takes place this
is called sensible heat
- Point 2 represents the saturated liquid line. This is where the liquid is
its boiling point (for a given pressure)
cylinder will be used in freeing the molecules from this liquid state to form a
vapour phase termed
Note at any point if heat addition were to stop (and assuming the cylin
perfectly insulated) the liquid and vapour phase would remain
- Ultimately though, as more and more heat is added, a point would be reached
(point 3) where the liquid phase no longer exists
vapour. Just at this point, t
- Now as further heat is added, more kinetic energy is imparted to the
molecules and the gas starts to expand (point 4). The behaviour close to the
saturated vapour line wont follow the ideal gas law
molecular interactions (and the molecules are relatively close, so the
assumption of zero molecular volume is not valid).
Note the difference between heat and temperature. During the addition of sensible
heat (point 1-2 and point 3
the addition of latent heat a phase change takes place, and the energy is used to
overcome the intermolecular bonds
vapour phase. The tempera
the vapour phase.
Figure 2.5 State of water. The numbers beneath each of the diagrams correspond to
Water can also exist in a solid form (ice).
2.4. This is a simplification, in reality there will be solid
boundaries.
Thermofluids 1
(a) shows the change in the water in moving from 1 t
sensible heat addition.
Point 2 represents the saturated liquid line. This is where the liquid is
(for a given pressure). Any additional heat added to
termed latent heat addition. This is shown in figure 2.5
Note at any point if heat addition were to stop (and assuming the cylin
perfectly insulated) the liquid and vapour phase would remain
Ultimately though, as more and more heat is added, a point would be reached
(point 3) where the liquid phase no longer exists all the water would be
this point, the vapour is described as saturated vapour.
Now as further heat is added, more kinetic energy is imparted to the
saturated vapour line wont follow the ideal gas laws as there will be still some
assumption of zero molecular volume is not valid).
oint 3-4) the energy addition causes a temperature rise. During
overcome the intermolecular bonds within the liquid, and liberate molecules into the
vapour phase. The temperature will not rise until all the liquid has been converted to
The numbers beneath each of the diagrams correspond to
those in figure 2.3
Water can also exist in a solid form (ice). This is shown on the left hand edge of figure
. This is a simplification, in reality there will be solid-liquid and solid
13
moving from 1 to 2. Here heat
Point 2 represents the saturated liquid line. This is where the liquid is just at
additional heat added to the
This is shown in figure 2.5(b).
Note at any point if heat addition were to stop (and assuming the cylinder is
perfectly insulated) the liquid and vapour phase would remain in equilibrium.
Ultimately though, as more and more heat is added, a point would be reached
all the water would be
he vapour is described as saturated vapour.
Now as further heat is added, more kinetic energy is imparted to the
s as there will be still some
tion causes a temperature rise. During
the liquid, and liberate molecules into the
ture will not rise until all the liquid has been converted to
The numbers beneath each of the diagrams correspond to
hand edge of figure
liquid and solid-gas phase
2.4.2 SteamTables
In the Tables, shown schematically in figure 2.6 and found in full in appendix A,
data for water/steam are set out in a format corresponding to the P-v diagram in
figure 2.4. In the main table the data are given in increments of pressure (MPa) with
the corresponding value of saturation temperature (boiling temperature at that
pressure) given in brackets. The temperature symbol t is used to indicate units of
0
C
(instead of the usual symbol T used for absolute temperature, K).
The other symbols within this table are:
v Specific volume m
3
/kg
u Specific internal energy kJ/(kg K)
h Specific enthalpy kJ/(kg K)
s Specific entropy kJ/(kg K)
The symbols (f) and (g) represent saturated liquid and saturated gas, respectivel.
To interpret the data, first specify the pressure (column 3). To the right of each value
of pressure (e.g. atmospheric, 1.0133 bar or 0.10133 MPa with ts=100C ); are given
the values of specific volume (and other properties) for a range of temperatures
shown across the top of the table. When on the left of the stepped double line the
water is in its liquid state. At the saturation temperature (given by ts in the pressure
column) the water will either be in a liquid state or a gas state (or some mix of the
two). The double line hence corresponds to the two saturation lines on the P-v
diagram. The data at this point is given as properties of saturated liquid (column 1)
or properties of saturated gas (column 2). To the right of the stepped line represents
water in its gas form.
MECH 1215
Figure 2.6. Relationship between P
Saturated
Conditions P
(MN/m
2
)
f g t
s
(C)
v 0.00104 1.673 0.10133
u 421 2508
h 419.1 2675.8 100
s 1.307 7.355
For cases where the temperature of saturated liquid /
vapour is given, Table (B) can be used to find the
pressure at saturation. This table merely contains the
same data as the Pressure column in the main table,
but equally spaced in temperature rather th
The data for 100C exists in both columns, compare the
data from table A (above) with that from table B (right).
Thermofluids 1
. Relationship between P-v diagram and steam tables.
50 (C) 100 200 300
v 0.00101
2
1.673
2507
2676
7.355
2.145
2659
2876
7.828
2.604
2811
3075
8.209
u 209.3
h 209.4
s 0.7037
t
s
(C) Saturated Conditions
P
(MN/m
2
)
100 v
u
0.1013 h
s
For cases where the temperature of saturated liquid /
vapour is given, Table (B) can be used to find the
pressure at saturation. This table merely contains the
column in the main table,
but equally spaced in temperature rather than pressure.
The data for 100C exists in both columns, compare the
data from table A (above) with that from table B (right).
A
15
diagram and steam tables.
400 500 600
3.062 3.519 3.975
2968 3131 3302
3278 3488 3705
8.537 8.828 9.091
Saturated Conditions
f g
v 0.001044 1.673
u 418.9 2506
h 419 2676
s 1.307 7.355
(i) Subcooled Liquid
This is water below its saturation temperature. Within this region, the specific
volume of the liquid varies little with either temperature and pressure (i.e. water is
almost incompressible). Hence in the liquid region of the P-v diagram, isotherms are
(in reality) almost vertical and very close together; in working diagrams these
differences are usually exaggerated for clarity.
(ii) Superheated/Supercritical Vapour
To the right of the stepped double lines (saturation lines) are given values of
specific volume for steam at temperatures above the saturated (boiling) temperature
at that pressure - note that the values are very much larger than those for the liquid!
At temperatures below the critical temperature (374.15
o
C) the vapour is usually
termed superheated, at temperatures above the critical temperature the gas is
termed supercritical.
(iii) Saturated Steam
The values of specific volume for saturated liquid (vf) and saturated vapour (vg) [as
well as other properties] corresponding to conditions at the exact saturation
temperature (often falling between two values in the main table) are given in the
tabulation to the left at each pressure.
The same data are set out, transposed in (smaller) steps of temperature, in the
supplementary table (B). Pressure and temperature are not independent variables at
the saturated condition, requiring an additional property value to define the
thermodynamic state.
In the subcooled region, since property values vary little with temperature, values of
saturated liquid at a given temperature can generally be used with reasonable
accuracy regardless of the pressure.
(iv) Two Phase (Liquid-Vapour) Steam
Consider the state indicated by Point (A) in Fig. 2.4 / 2.5. This apparently indicates
some condition intermediate between liquid and vapour phases. This is of course not
so, the point is representative of a mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapour.
This mixture may exist in the form of a mist of liquid droplets in vapour or separated
as shown in Fig. 2.7.
Figure 2.7. Wet steam: The two cases are
equivalent, since the liquid droplets in (a)
could be gathered together as one mass of
liquid as shown in (b).
vapour
droplet
(a) (b)
A way of characterising how much material exists as a liquid (or droplets) and how
much material is as vapour (ie gas) is through the term quality fraction. A quality
fraction of 1 means that all of the water is (saturated) gas, a quality fraction of 0
means that all of the water is (saturated) liquid. Another term that is sometimes used
is dryness fraction. This is exactly the same as quality fraction. For example, if you
were running a turbine, the rotational speed of the turbines can be very high, the
presence of droplets can cause erosion so quality steam means that with a quality
fraction of 1 ie without droplets.
(2.3)
Quality factor is defined as the ratio of the mass of the vapour to the overall mass of
water in the system. For saturated liquid x=0, whilst for saturated vapour x=1. In
the 2 phase region , where P and T are not independent, x effectively replaces one of
these quantities in defining the thermodynamic state.
The total volume (V) is equal to the volume of the vapour (Vg) plus the volume of the
liquid (Vf), where these volumes are each given by their masses multiplied by their
(specific) volumes per unit mass:
(2.4)
Combining Eqs. 2.3 and 2.4. the specific volume of the mixture is given by:
, 1
f
g
g
g
v
m
m
v
m
m
v
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
(2.5)
4
Note any specific property value of a two phase mixture (e.g. specific entropy,
specific internal energy, specific enthalpy) is calculated in a similar way:
(2.6)
4
Other convenient forms of Eq. 2.5 can be generated by setting vgf = vg vf, thus
f gf
v v x v + =
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
m
m
x
g
( )
g f f g
m m m m m m = + = or ,
f f g g
v m v m mv + =
f g
V V V + =
( )
f g
v x v x v + = 1
( )
f g
x x ) property specific ( 1 ) property specific ( property Specific + =
(v) Interpolation
For thermodynamic states falling between tabulated values it is usual to interpolate,
by assuming property values vary linearly between given values. This is not always
quite correct, variation can be non-linear in some regions and the steps in property
values in the illustrative tabulations provided are rather large. However, linear
interpolation will be adequate for this course. Commercially available tables adopt
finer meshes, but often present information in more compacted forms which can
confuse those not used to them. In current textbooks, the data are often available
through software.
2.4.3 Other Fluids
There are a number of materials that have a phase change in typical engineering
workspace (figure 2.3). Refrigerants (for example HCFC, ammonia) are a common
example, but equally processes such as gas liquefaction will require understanding of
the state relationships. Tables and charts are available for these materials.
In general, however, most fluids have behaviour similar to water/steam, albeit at
rather different absolute temperature and pressure - i.e. having different critical
points. data in tabular, graphical and computer disk formats are available for most
common fluids. At a given reduced pressure (P/Pcrit) and reduced temperature
(T/Tcrit) values of reduced specific volume (v/vcrit) are very similar for most fluids.
This can be useful for determining property values for fluids where property data are
unavailable - as long as the critical values are known for that fluid.
The term reduced in this context simply means the actual value divided by the
critical value.
MECH 1215
2.5 Internal Energy & Constant Volume Specific Heat
Internal energy is the energy associated with the
molecules) and the potential energy (e.g. intermolecular forces) of the fluid
molecules. For a rigid sealed container of fluid, the first law of thermodynamics
shows that the internal energy can be changed by adding heat or by doing work on
the fluid. Figure 2.8 shows the typical results of experiments to correlate the internal
energy with the temperature.
experiment shown in figure 2.2. Fixing the piston at a given position will give a
constant specific volume. The first law would
to the rise in internal energy
a range of masses of a gas contained within
family of curves (each for a different specific volume
point is termed the specific heat at constant volume
From the experimental measurements, at a given temperature the gradient (dU/dT)
is observed to be relatively constant and independent of the specific volume (
Figure 2.8 Internal energy as a function of temperature
At high specific volumes (low densities) t
gases and superheated vapours, tend t
only. (This is sometimes known as J
demonstrated this behaviour experimentally). Under these conditions, Eq. 2.
be written as.
and thus the change in internal energy between State (1) and some datum State (0) is
given by:
Thermofluids 1
& Constant Volume Specific Heat
Internal energy is the energy associated with the kinetic energy (e.g. vibrations of the
sealed container of fluid, the first law of thermodynamics
that the internal energy can be changed by adding heat or by doing work on
shows the typical results of experiments to correlate the internal
energy with the temperature. One way to collect this data would be to use the
wn in figure 2.2. Fixing the piston at a given position will give a
constant specific volume. The first law would then states the heat added will be equal
to the rise in internal energy (section 4). The curves show the observed behaviour for
contained within a given volume these are e
each for a different specific volume). The gradient of these lines at a
point is termed the specific heat at constant volume, Cv.
is observed to be relatively constant and independent of the specific volume (
Internal energy as a function of temperature
At high specific volumes (low densities) the constant volume lines on a
gases and superheated vapours, tend to be co-incident - i.e. a function of temperature
only. (This is sometimes known as Joules Law, after James Prescott Joule, who first
demonstrated this behaviour experimentally). Under these conditions, Eq. 2.
dT c du
dT
du
c
v v
= = or
v
v
dT
du
c
|
.
|
\
|
=
( )
}
=
1
0
0 1
dT c u u
v
19
kinetic energy (e.g. vibrations of the
sealed container of fluid, the first law of thermodynamics
that the internal energy can be changed by adding heat or by doing work on
shows the typical results of experiments to correlate the internal
One way to collect this data would be to use the
wn in figure 2.2. Fixing the piston at a given position will give a
heat added will be equal
The curves show the observed behaviour for
these are expressed as a
The gradient of these lines at a
(2.7)
is observed to be relatively constant and independent of the specific volume (v).
Internal energy as a function of temperature
he constant volume lines on a diagram, for
function of temperature
oules Law, after James Prescott Joule, who first
demonstrated this behaviour experimentally). Under these conditions, Eq. 2.7 can
MECH 1215
To solve equation 2.7, Cv needs to be written as a function of temperature, T, such
that the right-hand side can be integrated. I
temperature is written as a polynominal, with values for many gases available in
tables.
c
At conditions of high specific volume
approximates to a straight line, i.e.
Figure 2.9: A gas which has a constant volume specific heat in addition to obeying
the more generally applicable ideal gas rule (Pv = RT) is termed a perfect gas.
For a perfect gas Cv is constant,
range, Cv is taken to be constant.
Since in thermodynamics, it is the change in internal energy that is
giving rise to the following equation for
conditions that Cv is taken to be constant.
Tabulated data for the specific
the same form as for specific volume, i.e. saturated liquid and vapour states,
superheated and compressed liquid states. The
region is given by a relation similar to those met previously:
5
It is possible to define datums ie a value at which the internal energy is zero. For perfect gases u=0 when
T=0K, for real gases this is taken as u=0 at T=25C.
Thermofluids 1
needs to be written as a function of temperature, T, such
hand side can be integrated. In practice the dependence of
etc T a T a a c
v
+ + + =
2
2 1 0
t conditions of high specific volume (low density) the plot of
approximates to a straight line, i.e. Cv is constant as shown in Fig 2.9
: A gas which has a constant volume specific heat in addition to obeying
applicable ideal gas rule (Pv = RT) is termed a perfect gas.
is constant, and for many real gases over a limited temperature
is taken to be constant.
Since in thermodynamics, it is the change in internal energy that is
rise to the following equation for perfect gases or when the real gas is under
taken to be constant.
Tabulated data for the specific internal energy are available for pure substances in
superheated and compressed liquid states. The internal energy in the two phase
region is given by a relation similar to those met previously:
( )
f g
u x xu u + = 1
ie a value at which the internal energy is zero. For perfect gases u=0 when
T=0K, for real gases this is taken as u=0 at T=25C.
( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
T T c u u
v
=
20
(2.7)
the dependence of Cv on
the plot of u T often
9.
: A gas which has a constant volume specific heat in addition to obeying
applicable ideal gas rule (Pv = RT) is termed a perfect gas.
and for many real gases over a limited temperature
Since in thermodynamics, it is the change in internal energy that is important
5
,
or when the real gas is under
(2.8)
are available for pure substances in
in the two phase
ie a value at which the internal energy is zero. For perfect gases u=0 when
MECH 1215
2.6 Enthalpy and Constant Pressure Specific Heat
Since , Pv u h + = it is possible to calculate (and hence similarly tabulate)
enthalpy values from tabulated experimental
Alternatively, enthalpy values can be determined by applying the First Law to steady
flow heating experiments. T
Figure 2.10 Enthalpy as a function of temperature
The curves show the observed behaviour of the enthalpy for a range of pressures.
gradient of these lines at a point is termed the specific heat at constant
Similar to internal energy,
between h and T ie there is no pressure dependence.
the Joule - Thompson Law after the workers who demonstrated the relationship
experimentally. The suffix p from the rig
dropped.
given by:
To solve equation 2.10, Cp
that the right-hand side can be integrated. I
Thermofluids 1
and Constant Pressure Specific Heat
it is possible to calculate (and hence similarly tabulate)
enthalpy values from tabulated experimental u T v P and , , data at any state.
Typical behaviour is shown in figure 2.10.
Enthalpy as a function of temperature for a range of pressures.
The curves show the observed behaviour of the enthalpy for a range of pressures.
gradient of these lines at a point is termed the specific heat at constant
Similar to internal energy, for gases at low pressures there is a unique dependence
ie there is no pressure dependence. This is sometimes known as
Thompson Law after the workers who demonstrated the relationship
The suffix p from the right hand side of equation 2.9 can be
dT c dh
dT
dh
c
p p
= = or
hand side can be integrated. In practice the dependence of
p
p
dT
dh
c |
.
|
\
|
=
( )
}
=
1
0
0 1
dT c h h
p
21
it is possible to calculate (and hence similarly tabulate)
data at any state.
ypical behaviour is shown in figure 2.10.
for a range of pressures.
The curves show the observed behaviour of the enthalpy for a range of pressures. The
gradient of these lines at a point is termed the specific heat at constant pressure, Cp.
(2.9)
for gases at low pressures there is a unique dependence
This is sometimes known as
Thompson Law after the workers who demonstrated the relationship
ht hand side of equation 2.9 can be
(2.10)
the dependence of Cp on
MECH 1215
tables.
c
p
At conditions of high specific volume
approximates to a straight line, i.e.
Figure 2.11 Enthalpy as a function of temperature for a prefect gas.
Since in thermodynamics, it is the change in
to the following equation for
that Cp is taken to be constant.
Tabulated data for the specific
same form as for specific volume, i.e. saturated liquid and vapour states, superheated
and compressed liquid states. The
relation similar to those met previously:
6
Again, it is possible to define datums
T=0K, for real gases this is taken as h=0 at T=25C.
Thermofluids 1
etc T a T a a + + + =
2
2 1 0
At conditions of high specific volume (low density) the plot of
approximates to a straight line, i.e. Cv is constant as shown in Fig 2.11
Enthalpy as a function of temperature for a prefect gas.
Since in thermodynamics, it is the change in enthalpy that is important
to the following equation for perfect gases or when the real gas is under conditions
taken to be constant.
Tabulated data for the specific enthalpy are available for pure substances in the
and compressed liquid states. The enthalpy in the two phase region is given by a
relation similar to those met previously:
t is possible to define datums ie a value at which the enthalpy is zero. For perfect gases h=0 when
T=0K, for real gases this is taken as h=0 at T=25C.
( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
T T c h h
p
=
( )
f g
h x xh h + = 1
22
the plot of h T often
11.
Enthalpy as a function of temperature for a prefect gas.
that is important
6
, giving rise
or when the real gas is under conditions
(2.11)
are available for pure substances in the
enthalpy in the two phase region is given by a
enthalpy is zero. For perfect gases h=0 when
2.7 Relationship Between Cp , Cv and R for an Ideal Gas
The relationship between
v p
c c and follows from the definition of enthalpy:
pv u h + = (2.12)
( ), Pv d du dh + = where for an ideal gas RT Pv =
i.e. RdT du dh + =
or (2.13)
The ratio of specific heats ( ) is defined by the relation,
v
p
c
c
= (2.14)
or substituting Eq. 2.14 into 2.13 gives
(2.15)
Since is a function only of properties, it must also be a property. For a perfect gas
its value is constant, e.g. for air . 4 . 1 = For real gases, as for , and
v p
c c is not
constant and varies (slightly) with temperature:
Gas Air N2 O2 H2 CO CO2 Ar
C
0
12 @ 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.67
C
0
900 @
1.32 1.32 1.3 1.36 1.32 1.17 1.67
Note that is approximately the same for all diatomic gases.
R c c R c c e i R
dT
du
dT
dh
v p v p
= + = + = or , . . ,
( ) ( ) 1
,
1
=

R
c
R
c
p v
MECH 1215
3 PROCESS PATH
Although property values are independent of the path taken,
two states defines the work done and the heat transfer
process.
- Section 3.1: Where only one property is known at one end state of a process,
information regarding the path would enable the determination of
properties for that state. For example, if
at state 2 (note not enough i
of the path from state 1 will allow a second (and then subsequent) state
variables to be established.
- Section 3.2: As shown in section
given by
}
=
1
12
w
substituted into this equation
stage further context will be given later).
For gases and superheated vapours it has been
thermodynamic processes may often be represented by a relationship of the form,
where n is called the index of expansion (or compression). Processes of this nature
are called polytropic processes. The relation may be applied to both reversible and
irreversible processes.
Note for the case where n=
following mathematical derivations hold, with
Thermofluids 1
Although property values are independent of the path taken, the route taken between
two states defines the work done and the heat transfer in a given
here only one property is known at one end state of a process,
information regarding the path would enable the determination of
for that state. For example, if P,v,T are known at state 1 but only
at state 2 (note not enough information to determine P or T) then knowledge
variables to be established.
As shown in section 4.2.1 the reversible displacement
2
1
Pdv . To solve this, the P needs to be related to
substituted into this equation (you can treat this as a mathematical problem at this
further context will be given later).
Fig. 3.1 Process Path
For gases and superheated vapours it has been found experimentally
is called the index of expansion (or compression). Processes of this nature
processes. The relation may be applied to both reversible and
Note for the case where n=, for processes taking place at constant entropy, the
following mathematical derivations hold, with replacing n.
P v
n
= constant
24
route taken between
given thermodynamic
here only one property is known at one end state of a process,
information regarding the path would enable the determination of the other
,T are known at state 1 but only v
nformation to determine P or T) then knowledge
the reversible displacement work is
To solve this, the P needs to be related to v and
(you can treat this as a mathematical problem at this
experimentally that
3.1
is called the index of expansion (or compression). Processes of this nature
processes. The relation may be applied to both reversible and
, for processes taking place at constant entropy, the
MECH 1215
The value n defines the shape of the curve between the start and end point. Figure
3.2 shows the behaviour for different values of n, all starting at point 1. When n=1
the temperature is constant (isothermal case), since
Figure 3.2. Various end points of a polytropic compression process as a function of
Thermofluids 1
he shape of the curve between the start and end point. Figure
the temperature is constant (isothermal case), since P v = constant = RT.
points of a polytropic compression process as a function of
the value of n.
25
he shape of the curve between the start and end point. Figure
= constant = RT.
points of a polytropic compression process as a function of
1
3.1 End State of Processes
Since two states on a polytropic process (Fig. 3.1) are related by Eq. 3.1,
n n
v P v P
2 2 1 1
= ,
or:
n
2
1
1
2
P
P
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
v
v
3.2
thus if State 1 is defined and the final pressure (or specific volume) known, then Eq.
3.2 enables one to define the final state by determining a second property.
For an ideal gas (Pv = RT), it is similarly possible to relate end
state temperatures to pressures or volumes, since
: / , /
2 2 2 1 1 1
hence P RT v and P RT v = =
n
2
2
2
n
1
1
1
P
RT
P
P
RT
P
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
or
1 n
2
1
n
1 n
1
2
1
2
P
P
T
T

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
v
v
3.3
Note you should be able to derive equation 3.2 and 3.3 from first principles.
3.2 Displacement Work in a Reversible Polytropic Process
If a polytropic process occurs reversibly (frictionless - a better definition will come
later) one may combine the displacement work done (ow=Pdv) and the polytropic
expression (Pv
n
- constant) to evaluate any displacement work:
}
= = =
2
1
n
12
(say) k constant P where , Pd w v v
}
=
2
1
n
12
d
k w
v
v
2
1
n) (1
1
k
n) (1
(
=

v
| |
n) (1
1
n) (1
2
k k.
n) (1
1

= v v
where , P P
n
2 2
n
1 1
v v = = k hence
| |
n 1
1
n
1 1
1
2
n
2 2 12
. P . P
n) (1
1
w
n

=

v v v v
( )
( ) n 1
P P
1 1 2 2
=
v v
3.3
This work (the integral of Pdv for the process) is represented by the area under the
process path line from State 1 to State 2, Fig. 3.1.
Note you should be able to derive equation 3.3 this from first principles.
For an ideal gas, the reversible work done expression given by
Eq. 3.3 can be re-arranged in terms of end state temperatures,
since (from the equation of state for an ideal gas) Pv = RT, hence:
( )
1 2 12
T T
n) (1
R
w
=
3.4
For an ideal gas isothermal process n = 1 and so both the
numerator and the denominator in Eq. 3.4 become zero!. This
difficulty may be avoided by returning to first principles,
where Pv = RT = constant (for an isothermal process)
) /v (v 1n RT
v
dv
RT w
1 2
2
1
12
= =
}
3.5
Note that the relationships have used the relationship Pv = RT -
hence they apply to ideal gases
3.3 Summary
Things you should know and be able to do at the end of this section:
1. The path of many real fluid and ideal gas thermodynamic processes can
be described by Pv
n
= const.
2. The polytropic expression can often be used to determine a
thermodynamic end state.
3. How to combine the polytropic and (reversible) displacement work
done expression for a closed system (ow=Pdv).
4. How to combine the expressions Pv
n
= const. and Pv = RT, for ideal
gases.
5. That constant pressure (n = o) and constant volume (n = ) processes
are special cases of the polytropic process and that, for ideal gases only,
the isothermal process (n = 1) is a further special case.
}
=
2
1
12
Pdv w
MECH 1215
4 FIRST LAWOF THERMODYNAMICS
The First Law of Thermodynamics is a statement of the principle of energy
conservation applied to thermodynamic systems. The First Law takes a number of
forms, according to the type of system
First Law is that applied to cyclic systems. It effectively states that heat and work are
different manifestations of the same thing
concept today (implicit in our defin
debate in the 19
th
century, when the foundations of the science of thermodynamics
were laid down.
Energy can be transformed fromone formto another, but cannot be
The change in internal energy of a systemis equal to the amount of
heat supplied to the systemminus the amount of work performed by the
systemon its surroundings
An important note on sign convention
Within thermodynamics it is important to define a sign convent
(and other properties). The sign convention used
- Heat into a system is
- Heat out of a system is
- Work into a system is
- Work out of a system is
-
This can be summarised on
number) brought to you by the founding fathers of thermodynamics
Lawes):
Another example is a refrigerator
Heat into the engine in (from the
burning fuel) will be positive in
sign, heat lost (e.g. via the funnel)
will be negative in sign. Work out of
the engine will be positive.
Thermofluids 1
FIRST LAWOF THERMODYNAMICS
forms, according to the type of system under consideration. The simplest form of the
different manifestations of the same thing energy. This is a readily accepted
concept today (implicit in our definitions!) but was the subject of fierce, acrimonious
created nor destroyed
internal energy of a systemis equal to the amount of
systemon its surroundings
An important note on sign convention:
Within thermodynamics it is important to define a sign convention for heat and work
(and other properties). The sign convention used on this course is one where
to a system is positive
of a system is negative
to a system is negative
of a system is positive
on these slightly cheesy diagram (not even worthy of a figure
brought to you by the founding fathers of thermodynamics
refrigerator
Heat into the engine in (from the
burning fuel) will be positive in
the funnel)
will be negative in sign. Work out of
heat is coming out of the fridge, so
will be negative in sign (e.g.
Electrical energy drives the
compressor, so the work of the
compressor is being done on the
system, so will be negative in sign
(e.g. -5J).
28
under consideration. The simplest form of the
energy. This is a readily accepted
itions!) but was the subject of fierce, acrimonious
internal energy of a systemis equal to the amount of
ion for heat and work
is one where
(not even worthy of a figure
brought to you by the founding fathers of thermodynamics (no, not Dr
heat is coming out of the fridge, so
will be negative in sign (e.g. -10J).
Electrical energy drives the
compressor, so the work of the
compressor is being done on the
, so will be negative in sign
4.1 Cyclic Systems
Consider a Steam Turbine Generator Plant as shown in Fig. 4.1.
Fig. 4.1 Steam Turbine
Applying the energy conservation principle (gain = in out) to the complete system,
boundary (a), noting that as the system is cyclic there can be no energy build up
within the system.
then, energy in = energy out, i.e. :
0 1
c ex t c p fuel
E E W E W E + + = + + (4.1)
The energy sources in are the fuel, the work in the pump and the coolant in.
The energy sources out are the output work, the exhaust gases and the coolant out.
Both mass and energy cross boundary (a) the outer dotted line. The next sections
will look at how this can be simplified to just consider heat and work.
4.1.1 Heat Engines
As thermodynamics is principally concerned with the relationships between heat and
work the term fuel energy (Efuel) in Eq. (4.1) is inconvenient. It is therefore usual to
redraw the system boundary, (b) in Fig. 1.1, with the plant as a heat engine as shown
in Fig. 4.2.
Fig. 4.2 Heat Engine
Heat Engine A heat engine is any continuously operating (cyclic) thermodynamic
system across the boundaries of which flow only heat and work. It is assumed that
the chemical energy in the fuel is converted into heat in the boiler, which can be
regarded as a hot reservoir, at temperature TH.
Reservoir A system at a fixed and uniform temperature.
Similarly, the condenser may be regarded as a low temperature reservoir at TL, to
which the engine rejects heat. It is convenient to consider that the turbine supplies
the necessary pump work, such that the engine has a single net work output Wn;
where Wn = (Wt Wp).
The First Law for such a device is then, simply:
L H n
Q Q W = (4.2)
The more general form that includes unsteady cycles, such as spark ignition and
diesel engines is nothing more than mathematically stating the heat and work round
each part of the cyclic process add up to zero:
( ) O W Q =
}
o o (4.3)
Note that it is impossible to obtain work from a heat engine without supplying energy
to it ie perpetual motion is not possible. Such a device, which inventors devise
from time to time, is known as a perpetual motion machine of the first kind as it
defies the First Law. Remember, we obey the Laws of Thermodynamics within the
School of Mechanical Engineering.
The thermal efficiency - (q) can be defined as this gives information about the use
of energy in a process, and in general can be considering:
" "
" "
for pay we what
want we what
= q (4.4)
For the example shown in figure 4.2, the useful part of the cycle is the net work
output, the cost is the heat input giving:
H
n
Q
W
input heat
output work net
= = q (4.5)
or, from Eqs. (4.2) & (4.5),
H
L
H
L H
th
Q
Q
Q
Q Q
=
= 1 q (4.6)
Note that in Eqs. (4.1) through (4.6) the usual heat transfer sign convention has been
ignored in that QL (e.g. we might say the heat rejected is 10 kW not -10 kW).
4.1.2 Reversed Heat Engines (refrigerators/heat pumps)
Thermodynamics is not just concerned with power generation devices
transforming heat into work but also with machines that accomplish the reverse
e.g. refrigerators in which work is transformed into heat as shown in Fig. 4.3.
The detailed operation of refrigerators and heat pumps are discussed later in your
studies. For the present analysis, it is sufficient to recognise that each operates by
expanding and compressing a working fluid such that heat can be absorbed from one
environment (e.g. inside the refrigerator) and rejected elsewhere (e.g. into your
kitchen behind the fridge). For the compression process, a compressor (=work) is
required.
The First Law applies equally to such devices:
Figure 4.3 Reversed heat engine (note convention or representing a reversed heat
engine by , rather than E.
Again Wn = QH - QL
For a refrigerator the thermal efficiency, or performance criterion, is called the
Coefficient of Performance, CR:
) ( " "
" "
L H
L
n
L
R
Q Q
Q
W
Q
for pay we what
want we what
C
= = = (4.7)
Such reversed engines may also be used for heating, taking heat from the atmosphere
(or other suitable reservoir) and pumping it into (for example) a room. In this mode
the device is called a heat pump and the corresponding Coefficient of Performance,
CHP, is given by:
) ( " "
" "
L H
H
n
H
HP
Q Q
Q
W
Q
for pay we what
want we what
C
= = = (4.8)
Note that CHP CR = 1
MECH 1215
4.1.3 Combined heat engines / heat pumps
Consider a heat engine running between limits of T
engine is coupled to a heat pump, used to warm a building,
temperature Tc and the temperature of the room T
in figure 4.4. Note how care has been taken to label the heatflows so it is possible to
distinguish which heat flow is which.
Figure 4.4: A combined
The overall efficiency of the system
energy flow, to the input of energy. In this case (since the room is being heated) the
useful energy flow is QH2 whilst the energy input t
there is energy entering the heat pump (Q
it is drawn from the surroundings. This gives the definition:
For this case, the efficiency of the combined system can be expressed as the efficiency
of the heat engine multiplied by the coefficient of performance of the heat pump. You
should work from first principles in deriving such agreements.
= q
Q
H
=
1
q
For heat engine
Thermofluids 1
Combined heat engines / heat pumps
Consider a heat engine running between limits of THE and TC. The work out of this
engine is coupled to a heat pump, used to warm a building, running between a low
and the temperature of the room Troom. This is shown schematically
distinguish which heat flow is which.
Figure 4.4: A combined heat engine / heat pump cycle.
The overall efficiency of the system will be given by considering the ratio of useful
whilst the energy input to the engine is Q
there is energy entering the heat pump (QL1) but there is no cost associated with this
it is drawn from the surroundings. This gives the definition:
should work from first principles in deriving such agreements.
Rearrange and equate with
overall definition of efficiency
Equate in terms W
1 H
Q
W
=
W =
W
Q
C
H
HP
2
=
HP
H
C
Q
W
2
=
overall HP
H
H
C
Q
Q
q q = =
1
2
HP
H
H
C
Q
Q
2
1
= q
1
2
H
H
overall
Q
Q
= q
For heat engine For heat pump
33
. The work out of this
running between a low
. This is shown schematically
heat engine / heat pump cycle.
will be given by considering the ratio of useful
o the engine is QH1. Note also that
) but there is no cost associated with this
Summary
What you should know from this part of the course:
1. How to draw a system boundary for a heat engine.
2. That net work output from the system equals net heat transfer to the
systems, i.e.
}
= = O W Q Q Q W
L H
) ( , o o
3. The various performance parameters for heat engines (normal or reversed)
- what we want/what we pay for, i.e.
n
H
HP
n
L
R
H
n
W
Q
C
W
Q
C
Q
W
= = = , , q
4. Be able to combine the above expressions and apply them to single heat
engines or combinations of them.
MECH 1215
4.2 FIRST LAWOF THERMODYNA
So far, the energy conservation principle (First Law) has been applied only to cyclic
systems. Because such systems are cyclic, all states within the system return to their
initial condition at the end of the cycle. Hence, one can, in energy terms, igno
happens internally in such systems and note only the energy transfers occurring
across the system boundaries. However thermodynamics is also concerned with
non-cyclic systems (e.g. filling gas bottles, humidifying, rockets etc.), and with the
analysis of components of cycles (e.g. condensers, turbines etc.). Of non
systems the closed system, in which no
will be considered first.
4.2.1 Closed (Non-Flow) Systems
(a) Displacement Work
Work transfers to and from closed systems are often in the form of
work - an energy transfer occurring at a system boundary by virtue of a movement of
part of that boundary under the action of a force. Consider, for example, the
expansion of some mass (m
sectional area, A, as shown in Fig. 4.4
Figure 4.4: work done in moving a piston
Thermofluids 1
FIRST LAWOF THERMODYNAMICS: non-cyclic systems
initial condition at the end of the cycle. Hence, one can, in energy terms, igno
cyclic systems (e.g. filling gas bottles, humidifying, rockets etc.), and with the
alysis of components of cycles (e.g. condensers, turbines etc.). Of non
, in which no matter (mass) crosses the system boundary,
Flow) Systems
Displacement Work
Work transfers to and from closed systems are often in the form of
an energy transfer occurring at a system boundary by virtue of a movement of
m) of fluid contained in a cylinder by a piston of cross
al area, A, as shown in Fig. 4.4.
Figure 4.4: work done in moving a piston over a small distance
35
cyclic systems
initial condition at the end of the cycle. Hence, one can, in energy terms, ignore what
cyclic systems (e.g. filling gas bottles, humidifying, rockets etc.), and with the
alysis of components of cycles (e.g. condensers, turbines etc.). Of non-cyclic
mass) crosses the system boundary,
Work transfers to and from closed systems are often in the form of displacement
an energy transfer occurring at a system boundary by virtue of a movement of
) of fluid contained in a cylinder by a piston of cross-
distance
Consider moving the piston from a position of to a position + where the
pressure difference between the inside and outside of the piston is at that instant in
time.
The distance will be given by (final position initial position) =
The force will be given by : (the distance is so small that the pressure
remains constant)
Since work = force distance then:
x A P W o o = .
Note that we write since this represents the small amount of work over the
distance .
Now for a bit of simple manipulation. the (cross sectional area distance) is equal to
the volume that the piston moves. And the volume is equal to the (specific volume
mass of gas), so it is possible to write the work expression as:
v P m V P W o o o . = =
Now the total work done is given by the sum of the work for each of the little moves
of a distance , so adding these up gives the total work.
area) whole the over summation indicates ( W

= v P m o
Accuracy is increased if smaller and smaller strips are considered:
) the over n integratio indicates ( d P W
0 v lim W
movement whole v m
v P m
} }
=
= o o
So that gives us our final expression for the work required to move the piston from
point 1 to point 2 (remembering w is specific work (ie per kg) whilst W is actual work
for a given mass of fluid)
}
=
2
1
Pdv w (4.9)
To evaluate the expression shown in equation 4.9 (ie calculate the amount of work
required to carry out the compression), the pressure P should be written in terms of
the specific volume. This relationship will depend on how the compression is carried
out (e.g. isothermal constant temperature ; adiabatic no heat loss; isentropic
contstant entropy). See section 3.2 and 3.3 for examples of how this can be used for
different compression ratios.
Note: The expression
}
= Pdv w only holds for displacement work and only if the
process is reversible. A process may be considered reversible if it occurs slowly and
without friction - a more comprehensive definition will be developed later.
Compare for example the two expansion processes (a) and (b) shown in Fig. 4.5.
(a) Resisted frictionless expansion
(reversible). The system does perform
work.:
Pdv w
a }
=
2
1
12
(b) Unresisted expansion system
(irreversible). The system does not do
work when the diaphragm is ruptured;
}
= =
2
1
12
Pdv O w
b
Note the convention of representing an
irreversible process by a broken line on
the state diagram - this is because the
system does not pass through a series of
determinable equilibrium states
Fig. 4.5 Resisted and Unresisted Expansion
The expression
}
=
2
1
12
Pdv w obeys the thermodynamic sign convention, i.e.
12
w is
positive for work done by the system , and is negative for work done on the system
by its surroundings.
(b) Internal Energy
Consider unit mass of gas contained in a rigid (constant volume) vessel as shown in
Fig 4.6(a).
Figure 4.6: a (left) fixed mass of gas within a rigid box; b (right) change in pressure
and temperature as heat is added.
As a result of heat transfer, energy is given to the system. Since the system mass and
volume (and so specific volume) are fixed, no displacement work is done.
( ). 0
}
= Pdv
What happens? Where does the energy go? Intuitively, one knows that temperature
and pressure increase as shown in Fig. 4.6(b). The gas molecules fly around faster
(recall molecular theory of gases). Thus, the energy imparted by the heat transfer
remains internal to the system. The specific internal energy (u), which is the whole
stock of energy per unit mass held within the fluid by its molecular forces, has
increased in response to the applied heat transfer.
Since there is no work output, ) 0 ( = dv , the First Law (gain = in - out) applied to
the above system reduces to:
Gain in energy = Energy transferred to system, i.e.
12 1 2
q u u = (note special case of no volume change)
or for a more general system, as shown in Fig. 4.7, where work transfer
simultaneously removes work from the system:
Gain in system energy = Energy transfer to system - Energy transfer from system.
12 12 1 2
w q u u = 4.10
Figure 4.7: Simultaneous heat and work transfer to a system. The gain in internal
energy will be the difference between the heat in and the work out.
alternatively, re-arranging equation 4.10 in differential form gives:
w q du o o = (4.11)
Note again the sign convention that heat transfers to the system are positive (hence
heat transfers from the system are negative) and work transfers from the system are
positive (and work transfers to the system are negative).
Note: Internal energy is a property, heat and work are only energy transfers
occurring at a system boundary.
Summary
What you should know from this part of the course:
1. That a closed system is one where no matter (mass) crosses the
system boundary.
2. That the reversible specific displacement work associated with the
movement of a closed system boundary is given by
Pdv w= o
3. That the energy per unit mass contained by the molecules making up
the fluid in the system is its specific internal energy (u) and that u,
unlike specific heat and work transfers, is a property (having a unique
value at a given thermodynamic state) of the system.
4. How to generate and apply an energy conservation (gain = in - out)
equation (First Law) for a closed system in specific, total or
differential from.
4.3 Open (Flow) Systems Steady State
In open systems energy can enter or leave in association with mass transfers across
the system boundary, in addition to the heat and work transfers considered to date.
To apply the First Law to such a system, it is necessary to know the energy associated
with the state (e.g. temperature, pressure) of a mass crossing the boundary.
Many important open thermodynamic systems (e.g. compressors, turbines, nozzles)
can be considered to be of steady flow (i.e. invariant with time). Obviously, for such
systems to be steady there can be no build-up (or decline) of mass or energy within
the system, and the influx and efflux of mass must be the same. Figure 4.8 shows a
schematic of such a system.
The Isothermal Case
For the isothermal case, the internal energy of the fluid entering the system will be
equal to that leaving the system.
Fluid entering or leaving the system will carry with it energy in one of three forms:
pressure; kinetic and potential. In addition, heat may be added into the system (Q12
or work may be taken out of the system W12).
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + +
o
2
0
0
12 i
2
i
i
12
z g /2 c
P
m W z g /2 c
P
m Q

4.12
This is an extension to Bernoullis equation, which you will see a proof of in the fluids
part of this module. The addition of heat in (left hand side) and work out (right hand
side) complete this for an isothermal case.
The non-Isothermal Case
In many thermodynamic processes, the system is more complex, in that the inlet and
outlet temperatures will be different. This implies that the internal energy of the fluid
differs (in effect this is another place for energy to be stored within the fluid).
Equation 4.12 is then written in its more general form:
( ) ( )
o
2
0 0 12 i
2
i i 12
z g /2 c h m W z g /2 c h m Q + + + = + + +
4.13
MECH 1215
Where the enthalpy, h, of the fluid is defined as
Remember, the specific volume
pressure (displacement work) or the internal energy is captured by the enthalpy.
Since internal energy, pressure and specific volume are all properties, then the
enthalpy of the flow is also.
1.3.1 Enthalpy
Consider the mass flow (m) into the thermodynamic system shown below:
The system (that in the dotted line) will have some pressure, so to push material into
this, the pressure outside the system must be
that that has been pushed into the system (at pressure,
surroundings impart energy to the mass, this energy being the (flow) work done in
pushing the mass into the system; where the flow work done
remembering the pressure at the inlet will be constant since this is a steady state
system:
work flow
Thus the total energy associated with the mass entering the system (apart from any
kinetic or potential energy) will be the sum of internal energy and flow work,
Pv). Both these forms of energy are always associated with the flow of any mass into
a system. Equally, since u, P
point) then the sum (u + Pv
the sum (u + Pv) is also a property of the fluid and it is convenient to give this
(property) a separate name (
each time, i.e.
Similarly, the energy associated with any mass leaving a system will be its enthalpy
plus, of course, any kinetic and potential energy. Remember, the energy associated
(by virtue of its state, e.g. pressure and temperature) with any mass flow into or
of a thermodynamic system is its
Thermofluids 1
, of the fluid is defined as
Pv u h + =
Remember, the specific volume v=1/. The stored energy within the fluid as either
the flow is also.
) into the thermodynamic system shown below:
this, the pressure outside the system must be greater. Imagine the shaded mass being
pushed into the system (at pressure, P) by the
pushing the mass into the system; where the flow work done
}
= mPv = mv P. PV = PdV = work
kinetic or potential energy) will be the sum of internal energy and flow work,
. Both these forms of energy are always associated with the flow of any mass into
u, P and v are all properties (with fixed values at any state
u + Pv) will always have a fixed value at any state point. Thus
) is also a property of the fluid and it is convenient to give this
(property) a separate name (enthalpy) and symbol (h) rather than to add up
Pv u h + =
Similarly, the energy associated with any mass leaving a system will be its enthalpy
, e.g. pressure and temperature) with any mass flow into or
of a thermodynamic system is its enthalpy (not its internal energy).
41
4.14
. The stored energy within the fluid as either
) into the thermodynamic system shown below:
. Imagine the shaded mass being
piston. Thus the
is given by (and
(4.15)
kinetic or potential energy) will be the sum of internal energy and flow work, m (u +
. Both these forms of energy are always associated with the flow of any mass into
(with fixed values at any state
) will always have a fixed value at any state point. Thus
) is also a property of the fluid and it is convenient to give this sum
) rather than to add up u and Pv
Similarly, the energy associated with any mass leaving a system will be its enthalpy -
, e.g. pressure and temperature) with any mass flow into or out
Summary
What you should know from this part of the course
1. That, in an open system, energy can be transmitted across the system boundary
by mass transfers; in addition to heat and work transfers.
2. The energy associated with the thermodynamic state (i.e. as described by two
properties, such as temperature and pressure) of a mass entering or leaving an
open system is its enthalpy.
3. Enthalpy ( ) h is the sum of internal energy ( ) u and flow work ( ) Pv , i.e. (h=u+Pv),
and that enthalpy is a property (having a fixed value at any thermodynamic
state).
4. How to construct the First Law (energy conservation equation) for a steady
(invariant with time) open system; whatever the number of mass, heat and work
transfers.
5 AIR STANDARDCYCLES: THERMODYNAMICS INPRACTICE
One of the ultimate goals of thermodynamics is to relate the parameters that define
an engine to the conditions within in. Thermodynamics are often complicated take
a combustion engine - within it the mix of chemistry (combustion), heat transfer, gas
(and liquid) flows, geometry all affect the behaviour of the engine. However, in the
design process it is often helpful to simplify the physics to build a working model to
at least get an approximation of the engine behaviour. One such tool within
thermodynamics is the air standard cycle.
The Otto Cycle an example Air Standard Cycle
Figure 5.1(left) shows a (real) petrol engine cycle. This engine cycle has been broken
down into 4 main parts. So the challenge is to design a simple model of this to allow
the performance to be better understood. The following simplifications apply:
1. The working fluid is a mixed mass air (i.e. it neglects the fuel or combustion
products). This is assumed to be a perfect gas (i.e. having constant values of
( )
P v P v
c c c c , , and RT Pv = ).
2. Rather than the combustion taking place internally, let the combustion take
place outside the engine, and add the equivalent heat into the cycle.
3. Instead of exhausting hot gases at the end of the cycle remove heat to return it
back to its initial process.
4. All processes are internally reversible (no fluid friction and the second law
applies - Pdv w Tds q = = o o , for internal processes).
Figure 5.1(right) shows the idealised cycle on a P-u diagram and how this relates to
the main points of the engine cycle.
MECH 1215
Figure 5.1: (left) the processes within an engine and (right) the representation within
Note that different engine cycles will have different P
choosing the appropriate path that represents the cycle. For example within a petrol
cycle (or Otto cycle), the compression stroke 1
represented by adiabatic compression and expansion. The h
heat rejection (4-1) take place at a constant volume. This best matches the actual
internal processes that take
- by measuring how the
change with time
- Consideration of the physical processes
fuel combusts (e.g. whether it burns very quickly or slowly)
You will see examples of other cycles
worked question will illustrate how the understanding you have developed so far can
be used to analyse such processes.
Thermofluids 1
(left) the processes within an engine and (right) the representation within
an air standard cycle.
Note that different engine cycles will have different P-u diagrams, the skill is in
cycle (or Otto cycle), the compression stroke 1-2 and the power stroke 3
adiabatic compression and expansion. The heat addition (2
1) take place at a constant volume. This best matches the actual
internal processes that take place within the engine itself determined, for example
how the pressure and the position of the piston (ie
Consideration of the physical processes e.g. the characteristics of how the
fuel combusts (e.g. whether it burns very quickly or slowly)
You will see examples of other cycles further on in your studies, but the
be used to analyse such processes.
44
(left) the processes within an engine and (right) the representation within
diagrams, the skill is in
2 and the power stroke 3-4 are often
eat addition (2-3) and
1) take place at a constant volume. This best matches the actual
place within the engine itself determined, for example
the piston (ie the volume)
e.g. the characteristics of how the
, but the following
A Worked Example
At the beginning of compression, P1=100kPa and T1=300K.
The heat addition per unit mass of air is 1350 kJ/kg
The compression ratio given to you in the lecture (alternatively use a
compression ratio of 9)
(a) Draw:
a. The Pv diagram and TS diagram
(b) Determine:
a. The net work, in kJ per kg of air
b. The thermal efficiency of the cycle
c. The maximum pressure, in kPa
d. The maximum temperature in the cycle, in K
Since this is a first model of the process, assume that the compression and expansion
processes are isentropic (ie take place reversibly and adiabatically). This immediately
means that the relationship const P =
v can be used in calculations. The values for

have already been measured and tabulated.
SEE YOUR OWN NOTES FOR THE WORKING!
(and the example on the VLE)

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