Internal Friction of Materials Anton Puskar

i
INTERNAL FRICTION OF MATERIALS

ii
iii
INTERNAL FRICTION OF MATERIALS
Anton Pukr
Transport and Communications Technical University
Zilina, Slovak Republic
CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL SCIENCE PUBLISHING
^
iv
Published by
Cambridge International Science Publishing
7 Meadow Walk, Great Abington, Cambridge CB1 6AZ, UK
http://www.demon.co.uk/cambsci/homepage.htm
First published May 2001
Anton Pukr
Cambridge International Science Publishing
Conditions of sale
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or trans-
mitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including pho-
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permission in writing from the publisher.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 1 898326 509
Production Irina Stupak
Printed by PWP Acrolith Printing Ltd, Hertford, England
v
PREFACE
The complete absence of books characterising the internal friction
of materials, its external and internal aspects and the application of
measurements in various scientific and technical areas, especially in
physical metallurgy and threshold states of materials, has been the
impetus for the author to write this book. Without understanding
the principle and mechanisms of anelasticity and the effect of
various factors on internal friction, together with the application of
methods of reproducible internal friction measurements, it is not
possible to solve the problems of the application of these
measurements as direct or indirect methods for the evaluation of the
structural stability of alloys, problems of cyclic microplasticity and
deeper understanding of processes associated with the response of
materials to single or repeated loading.
In addition to the original systematisation of the possibilities
of using internal friction measurements in various sciences, the
book presents the latest theories and results together with practical
approaches to the measurement and evaluation of the resultant
relationships
Anton Pukr
vi
vii
CONTENTS
1 AIMS OF INTERNAL FRICTION MEASUREMENTS....... 1
2 NATURE AND MECHANISMS OF ANELASTICITY......... 5
2.1 ELASTICITY CHARACTERISTICS........................................... 5
2.1.1 Effect on elasticity characteristics .................................................. 13
2.1.2 Elasticity characteristics of structural materials ............................. 27
2.1.3 Elasticity characteristics of composite materials ............................ 37
2.2 MANIFESTATION OF ANELASTICITY ................................. 43
2.2.1 Delay of deformation in relation to stress ....................................... 44
2.2.2 Internal friction ............................................................................... 50
2.2.3 Mechanisms of energy scattering in the material ............................ 53
2.3 DEFECT OF THE YOUNG MODULUS ................................... 62
3 FACTORS AFFECTING ANELASTICITY OF
MATERIALS ............................................................................... 79
3.1. INTERNAL FRICTION BACKGROUND................................. 80
3.1.1 The substructural and structural state of material .......................... 81
3.1.2 Vacancy mechanism........................................................................ 82
3.1.3 Diffusion-viscous mechanism......................................................... 84
3.1.4 Dislocation mechanisms ................................................................. 85
3.1.5 The relaxation mechanism.............................................................. 87
3.2. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON INTERNAL FRICTION.. 87
3.2.1 Mechanisms associated with point defects ..................................... 94
3.2.2 Dislocation relaxation mechanisms ................................................ 97
3.3 EFFECT OF STRAIN AMPLITUDE ....................................... 104
3.3.1 The GranatoLcke spring model ................................................ 105
3.3.2 Thermal activation........................................................................ 107
3.3.3 Internal friction with slight dependence on strain amplitude......... 109
3.3.4 Plastic internal friction ................................................................. 114
3.4 EFFECT OF LOADING FREQUENCY .................................. 114
3.5 EFFECT OF LOADING TIME ................................................. 121
3.6 EFFECT OF MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS........... 128
4 MEASUREMENTS OF INTERNAL FRICTION AND THE
DEFECT OF THE YOUNG MODULUS ............................. 133
4.1 APPARATUS AND EQUIPMENT ........................................... 133
viii
4.2 EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS AND EVALUATION.....
...................................................................................................... 143
4.2.1 Infrasound methods ...................................................................... 144
4.2.2 Sonic and ultrasound methods ...................................................... 151
4.2.3 Hypersonic methods ..................................................................... 167
4.3 PROCESSING THE RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS AND
INACCURACY........................................................................... 169
4.3.1 Inaccuracy caused by the design of equipment ............................. 169
4.3.2 Inaccuracies of the measurement method ..................................... 172
4.3.3 Errors in processing the measurement results ............................... 174
5 STRUCTURAL INSTABILITY OF ALLOYS .................... 181
5.1 DIFFUSION MOBILITY OF ATOMS ..................................... 181
5.1.1 Interstitial solid solutions .............................................................. 183
5.1.2 Substitutional and solid solutions ................................................. 195
5.2 RELAXATION OF DISLOCATIONS ...................................... 197
5.2.1 Low-temperature peaks ................................................................ 197
5.2.2 Snoek and Kster relaxation ......................................................... 198
5.2.3 Phenomena associated with martensitic transformation in steel ... 204
5.2.4 Migration of solute atoms in the region with dislocations ............ 205
5.3 RELAXATION AT GRAIN BOUNDARIES............................ 213
5.3.1 Pure metals ................................................................................... 215
5.3.2 Solid solutions .............................................................................. 216
5.3.3 Relaxation models ........................................................................ 217
5.4 ANALYTICAL PROCESSING OF THE RESULTS OF
MEASUREMENTS .................................................................... 219
5.4.1 Solubility boundaries .................................................................... 219
5.4.2 Activation energy and diffusion coefficient .................................. 221
5.4.3 Breakdown of the solid solution ................................................... 223
5.4.4 Intercrystalline adsorption ............................................................ 224
5.4.5 Transition of the material from ductile to brittle state .................. 227
5.4.6 Relaxation movement of microcracks ........................................... 230
6 CYCLIC MICROPLASTICITY ............................................ 234
6.1 CRITICAL STRAIN AMPLITUDES AND INTENSITY OF
CHANGES OF CHARACTERISTICS..................................... 237
6.1.1 Physical nature of the critical strain amplitude............................. 239
6.1.2 Methods of evaluating critical amplitudes .................................... 245
6.2 CYCLIC MICROPLASTIC RESPONSE OF MATERIALS .. 248
6.2.1 Dislocation density and the activation volume of microplasticity. 248
ix
6.2.2 Condensation temperature of the atmospheres of solute elements 257
6.2.3 Deformation history ............................................................................... 262
6.2.4 Cyclic strain curve ........................................................................ 267
6.2.5 Temperature and cyclic microplasticity ........................................ 276
6.2.6 Magnetic field and microplasticity parameters ............................. 282
6.2.7 Saturation of cyclic microplasticity .............................................. 290
6.3 FATIGUE DAMAGE CUMULATION ..................................... 297
6.3.1 Hypothesis on relationship of Q
1
and
a
N
f
dependences ... 297
6.3.2 Deformation and energy criterion of fatigue life ........................... 300
6.3.3 Effect of loading frequency on fatigue limit ................................. 311
References ................................................................................................... 315
Index ...................................................................................................... 325
x
xi
A - coefficient of anisotropy
A
p
- approximate coefficient of anisotropy
a - lattice spacing
B - proportionality coefficient
BHR - Blair, Hutchins and Rogers model
b - Burgers vector
b - fatigue life coefficient
c - fatigue life exponent
c
ikmn
- elasticity constant
c
m
- average concentration
c
0
- initial concentration
c
p
- heat capacity at constant pressure
D - diffusion coefficient
D
, D
||
- diffusion coefficient normal and parallel to the dis-
location
d
z
- grain size
E - modulus of elasticity (Young modulus) in tension or
compression
E
D
- dynamic modulus of elasticity (Young modulus)
E
N
- non-relaxed modulus of elasticity
E
R
- relaxed modulus of elasticity
E
S
- modulus of elasticity
E
ef
- effective modulus of elasticity
E/E - defect of modulus of elasticity (Young modulus)
e - temperature coefficient of the change of the modulus
of elasticity
F - coefficient of the shape of the hysteresis loop
F

, F
||
- force acting normal and parallel in relation to the
dislocation
FR - Finkelstein-Rozin relaxation
G - shear modulus of elasticity
G - difference of moduli of elasticity
H - activation enthalpy
h - Plancks constant
I - magnetization current
i - interstitial atom
K - bulk modulus of elasticity
K
S
- mean capaci t y of absorpt i on of energy i n t he
microvolume
k - Boltzmanns constant
k
I
- coefficient of magnetomechanical bond
L
ef
- effective length of the dislocation segment
L
n
- length of the pinned dislocation segment
SYMBOLS
xii
L
p
- spacing of pinning points
M - ratio of the extent of internal friction and the defect
of the modulus of elasticity
N
f
- number of cycles to fracture
n - coefficient of cyclic strain hardening
n
o
- density of geometrical inflections
P - pressure
Q
c
- activation energy for creep
Q
1
- internal friction
Q
1
S
- height of Snoeks peak
Q
1
SK
- height of Snoek and Kster peak
Q
1
m
- internal friction slightly depending on
Q
1
o
- internal friction independent of , the so-called
background
Q
1
p
- internal friction strongly dependent on , so-called
plastic friction
Q
1
t
- internal friction strongly dependent on loading time
R - degree of dynamic relaxation
R
e
- yield stress
R
m
- ultimate tensile strength
SK - Snoek and Kster relaxation
S - entropy difference
s - substitutional atom
s
mnik
- elasticity constant
ss - designation of a pair of substitutional atoms
T - oscillation period
TF - thermal fluctuation relaxation
T
h
- homologous temperature
T
p
- ductile to brittle transition temperature
T
t
- melting point
t - time
V - volume
V
+
- activation volume
v - vacancy
v
d
- dislocation velocity
v
l
- velocity of the longitudinal wave
v
t
- velocity of the transverse wave
W - total energy supplied to the system
W
t
- energy consumed by material up to fracture
W
k
- half energy of the formation of a double kink
W - energy scattered in the material during a cycle
Z
1
, Z
2
- total power of the exciter and power required to
overcome resistance in the exciter
- coefficient of intensity of damping
- widening of the peak of internal friction
- thermal conductivity coefficient
xiii
kr1
- first critical strain amplitude
kr2
- second critical strain amplitude
- logarithmic decrement of damping
ac
- total strain amplitude
ap
- plastic strain amplitude
c
- total strain
d
- additional strain
e
- elastic strain
i
- fatigue ductility coefficient
mn
- strain tensor
kr1
- first critical strain amplitude
kr2
- second critical strain amplitude
kr3
- third critical strain amplitude
p
- plastic strain
t
- strain at crack formation
d
- rate of change of additional strain
D
- Debye temperature
E
- Einstein temperature
- coefficient of proportionality
1
,
2
- parameters of the ellipsoid of deformation
- Poisson number
- Debye frequency
- specific density
a
- density of active dislocation sources
d
- dislocation density
n
- density of stationary dislocations
p
- density of mobile dislocations
- normal stress
a
- stress amplitude
C
- fatigue limit
f
- fatigue strength coefficient
ik
- stress tensor
K
- physical yield limit
- shear stress
r
- relaxation time
- relaxation time at constant strain

- phase shift
o
- angle of deflection of the pendulum
- relative amount of scattered energy
- circular frequency
- half width of the resonance peak at half its
height
xiv
1
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
1
AIMS OF INTERNAL FRICTION
MEASUREMENTS
The elasticity characteristics belong in the group of the important
parameters of solids because they are often used in the analytical
solution of the problems of deformation and failure. The elasticity
values are used in all engineering calculations and the design of
components, sections and whole structures. In the development and
application of specific materials and high-strength components pro-
duced from them, it is necessary to consider the required rigidity
and also the probability that a certain amount of energy will build
up in the system during service. Actual solids are characterised by
the scattering of mechanical energy in them, i.e. internal friction.
This representation of the anelasticity of materials and their tran-
sition from elastic to anelastic, microplastic or even plastic response
to external loading are the consequences of the effects of external
loading and the activity of various mechanisms and sources of scat-
tering of mechanical energy in the material which may be charac-
t eri sed by rel axat i on, di sl ocat i onal , mechani cal and magnet o-
mechanical hysteresis. These mechanisms result in changes of the
structure-sensitive properties of materials and also the structure-
sensitive component of the Young modulus which is still regarded
erroneously in a number of publications as a material constant. The
external factors, such as mechanical loading, temperature, the effect
of the magnetic field, different frequency of the changes of loading,
etc., lead to changes of the nature and mechanisms of the processes
of scattering of mechanical energy in materials. The relationships
between the changes of internal friction and the defect of the Young
modulus with changes taking place in the material on the atomic
level, on the level of a group of grains, in the volume of the loaded
solid or in a group of solids, have already been confirmed and veri-
fied.
2
Internal Friction of Materials
The author of the book has developed an original system, Fig.
1.1, which, using the currently available data, shows the possibili-
ties of the application of internal friction measurements in differ-
ent sciences, from the atomic size up to entire structural complexes.
The effect of the external factors on the occurrence of threshold
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.1.1 .1.1 .1.1 .1.1 .1.1
Internal
friction
Solid state
physics
Damage
Threshold
state
of materials
Vibroacoustics
of system
solid solutions
diffusion
thermal activ. param.
phase transformations
point defects
dislocation structure
grain boundaries
strain
thermal
cyclic loading
radiation
hydrogen
damping capacity
Young's modulus
micromechanical
characteristics
relaxation
additional loading
creep
cracking resistance
quality of system
noise in system
amplitude-frequency
spectrum of system
structural damping
aerodynamic damping
flaw inspection
vibrothermography
vibrotechnologies
3
states of materials and components [1] is associated with continu-
ous changes of the response of the material to their effect. This is
reflected in changes of internal friction [2]. After compiling and
verifying a physical model explaining the nature of changes of in-
ternal friction with the changes of the external factor it is possible
to conclude that the internal friction measurements can be used as
an indirect method of the monitoring of processes taking place in
solids. The evaluation and quantification of the dynamics of changes
in solid solutions, during diffusion and phase transformations, are
often associated with the determination of the parameters of ther-
mal activation, with the data on the point, line and area defects of
the crystal lattice taken into account.
The changes of temperature, static and cyclic deformation, and
also radiation or the presence of hydrogen in the material are re-
flected in the degradation of the characteristics of the material as
a result of damage cumulation. Accurate measurements of internal
friction enable indirect quantification of this phenomenon.
When evaluating the threshold state of materials and structures,
it is also essential to quantify the damping capacity, the defect of
the Young modulus, microplastic characteristics, relaxation and
additional elasticity phenomena, etc. these processes are also accom-
panied by changes of internal friction so that the internal friction
measurements can be used for examining the process and critical
characteristics of specific materials.
Vibroacoustic examination of a structure or machine under dif-
ferent service conditions, by evaluation of the acoustic quality, noise
and amplitudefrequency spectrum makes it possible to propose
measures for ensuring high reliability and safety of operation of the
system, especially under resonance conditions. Design or aerody-
namic damping of components, sections of the entire structure may
be utilised here.
The efficient selection of materials with the required damping ca-
pacity improves the functional behaviour and reliability of opera-
tion of the machine and decreases the ecological damage from vi-
brations and noise of machines. In technical practice, flaw inspec-
tion methods are used on a wide scale, but the possibilities of these
methods have not as yet been exhausted. Vibrothermography is not
yet used widely as a method for identification of the areas of pref-
erential absorption and scattering of energy in a real solid. However,
it represents a significant tool in the solution of problems of stress-
strain heterogenities and concentrators in the solids, with one of the
internal friction mechanisms playing the dominant role. Vibro-tech-
Aims of Internal Friction Measurements
4
nologies are gradually introduced into various production and trans-
port applications where the level of internal friction in certain com-
ponents may be very low whereas in others it may be high, depend-
ing on the system utilising vibrotechnology.
Taking the actual scale of this subject, in this book, special at-
tention is given only to some selected problems, associated mainly
with physical metallurgy and threshold states.
5
2
NATURE AND MECHANISMS OF
ANELASTICITY
The solution of a set of problems associated with the nature, meas-
urements, evaluation and application of information on the internal
friction and the defect of the Young modulus of materials is based
on a brief and functional characterisation of the elasticity param-
eters of structural monoliths and composite materials, and also on
the evaluation of the effect of different internal and external factors
on their magnitude. A special position is occupied by the effect of
factors causing nonlinearity between stress and strain, i.e. anelastic
behaviour of the materials. This includes the explanation of the phe-
nomenon of deformation lagging behind stress, irreversible scattering
of energy in materials and mechanisms by which the energy of vi-
brations is irreversibly scattered in the materials. These processes
are also reflected in the level of the Young modulus and the occur-
rence of defects of the Young modulus, and this may influence the
accuracy of calculations of permitted stresses in components or
whole structures.
2.1 ELASTICITY CHARACTERISTICS
Under the effect of a generally oriented force the solid can change
its dimensions and shape. If the relative strain in a specific direc-
tion is denoted by the strain sensor mn and the force per unit cross-
section, causing this strain, is denoted as the stress sensor ik, then
s e
ik ikmn mn
c = , (2.1)
e s
mn mnik ik
s = , (2.2)
where c
ikmn
and s
nmik
are the elasticity constants. Strain tensor
mn
6
and stress tensor
ik
are the tensors of the second order. They can
be described by nine pairs of strain components or nine pairs of
stress components, and the unit volume is selected sufficiently small
to ensure that the strain of stress unit is the same everywhere.
Three pairs of components act in the direction of the x axis, i.e.
xx
in the direction normal to the wall of the cube; these pairs are
oriented normal to the x axis. They include the normal stress which
is positive for tension and negative for compression. The second
pair of the components in the direction of the x axis acts on the
walls oriented normal to the y axis. This pair is denoted
xy
and
yx
.
The third pair of the components in the direction of the x axis acts
on the walls normal to the z axis. This pair is denoted
xz
and
zx
.
The second and third pair act in the given planes and tend to shift
them mutually. They are denoted as tangential or shear stress. Since
the elementary volume of the material does not rotate, the compo-
nents must be in equilibrium, i.e.
xz
=
zx
, and they are denoted
xz
,
and also
xy
=
yz
, denoted
xy
. Consequently, this gives a symmet-
ric tensor of the second order with six components
s
s t t
t s t
t t s
ik
xx xy xz
xy yy yz
xz yz zz
= .
(2.3)
Every symmetric tensor of the second order has three main axes.
Since the axes of the coordinates are regarded as synonymous with
the axes of the tensor, only the main stress
1
is obtained.
For an anisotropic medium, equation (2.1) can be expanded into
a system of linear equations, i.e. for stresses
xx
,
yy
,
zz
,
yz
,
xy
,
strains
xx
,
yy
,
zz
,
yx
,
zx
and
xy
, using the elasticity constants c
ikmn
,
as given for the first of six rows in the form
s e e e g g g
xx xx yy zz yz zx xy
c c c c c c = + + + + +
11 12 13 14 15 16
, (2.4)
where is shear.
Similarly, equation (2.2) can be expanded utilising the elasticity
constants s
mnik
, as given for the first of the six rows
e s s s t t t
xx xx yy zz yz zx xy
c s s s s s = + + + + +
11 12 13 14 15 16
. (2.5)
7
Generally, the elasticity constant c
ikmn
(and also s
mnik
) has the
form of a tensor with 39 components, where the first of the 6 rows
is c
11
, c
12
, c
13
, c
14
, c
15
, c
16
(or s
11
, s
12
, s
13
, s
14
, s
15
, s
16
).
Proportionality is found between the elasticity constants c
12
= c
21
or s
11
= s
21
and, generally, c
= c
, or s
= s
. As a result of this
symmetry, the crystallographic system with the lowest symmetry
(triclinic) has only 21 independent components, and the number of
independent components in the orthorhombic system decreases to 9,
in the tetragonal and diagonal systems it decreases to 6, and in the
hexagonal system to 5.
For cubic crystals there are three elasticity constants, c
11
, c
12
and
c
44
. The elasticity constants c
ikmn
and s
nmik
are linked by the defined
relationships [3].
The physically determined elasticity constants for technical ap-
plications are complicated. For crystallographic systems with the
symmetry higher than orthorhombic, the normal tensile stress in the
direction of the x axis (
xx
) results in relative elongation
xx
and two
reduction in areas
yy
and
zz
:
e
s
e m e e m e
xx
xx
yy xx zz xx
E
= =- = -
1
12 13
, , .
(2.6)
If we consider the normal stress in the direction of the y and z axes,
we obtain three moduli in tension (Young modulus) and six Poisson
numbers, of which only three are mutually independent, because
E E E E E E
1
12
2
12
2
23
3
32
3
31
1
13
m m m m m m
= = = , , .
(2.7)
Shear stress
yz
in the yz plane causes shearing
yz
. Consequently,
yz
= G
1
yz
. Similarly, in the xz plane, where
xz
= G
2
xz
and in the
xy plane, where
xy
= G
3
xy
.
The orthorhombic crystal in the system of the technical elastic-
ity moduli has only nine independent elasticity characteristics, i.e.
three tensile (Young) moduli E, three shear (Coulomb) moduli g, and
three Poisson numbers . For the cubic crystal, these are three char-
acteristics (E, G, ), and for an isotropic solid it is E, G, because
G
E
=
+ 2 1 m a f
.
(2.8)
8
Equation (2.8) is also important because polycrystalline metals and
alloys without a sharp texture behave as isotropic materials.
The bulk Young modulus K is defined as isotropic pressure P
divided by the relative volume change caused by this pressure
K
P
V
V
E
=
-
=
-
D
3 1 2m a f
.
(2.9)
The values of the elasticity moduli (E, G), the bulk Young modu-
l us (K) and Poi sson number () for a number of met al s are
presented in Table 2. 1. For rock and glass = 0. 25, G = 0. 4E,
K = 2/3E, for metals = 0.33, G = 3/8E, K = E, and for elastomers
= 0.5, G = 1/3E, and the K/E ratio is high.
The Young modulus is closely linked with the velocity of propa-
gation of sound in a metallic material. In the case of a longitudi-
nal elastic wave, the velocity of propagation is
n
r
l
E
=
(2.10)
and in propagation of a transverse elastic wave, the velocity of
propagation is
n
r
t
G
= ,
(2.11)
where is the specific density of the metallic material [4].
This phenomenon is utilised in accurate measurements of E and
G, because measurements are taken without exchange of heat with
the environment which enables also the determination of adiabatic
elasticity moduli which differ from the elasticity moduli obtained
under isothermal conditions (for example, in the tensile test). Table
2.1 gives values of v
1
and v
t
for several metals.
The values of the elasticity constant make it possible to deter-
mine accurately the anisotropic factor of the elastic properties of
metallic materials from the equation
9
T TT TTa aa aab bb bble 2.1 le 2.1 le 2.1 le 2.1 le 2.1 Elasticity moduli and other characteristics of several metals at 20C
f o e p y T
l a t e m
E
) a P G (
G
) a P G (

K
) a P G (
V
l
s m (
1
)
V
t
s m (
1
)
*
l A
a C
i N
u C
d P
g A
r I
t P
u A
b P
8 . 0 7
6 . 9 1
2 . 1 3 2
3 . 5 4 1
7 . 2 4 1
1 . 1 8
0 . 8 2 5
9 . 9 6 1
1 . 8 8
3 . 7 3
3 . 6 2
4 . 7
1 . 9 8
8 . 4 5
8 . 1 5
6 . 9 2
0 . 4 1 2
0 . 1 6
1 . 1 3
6 . 3 1
4 3 . 0
1 3 . 0
1 3 . 0
5 3 . 0
9 3 . 0
8 3 . 0
6 2 . 0
4 4 . 0
2 4 . 0
4 4 . 0
5 . 7 7
2 . 7 1
0 . 0 9 1
6 . 9 3 1
1 . 2 9 1
6 . 3 0 1
0 . 0 7 3
7 . 2 7 2
4 . 5 7 1
8 . 8 4
5 5 3 6
4 9 8 5
6 2 7 4
4 9 5 4
6 8 6 3
1 6 3 3
8 5 1 2
6 2 1 3
9 1 2 3
8 9 2 2
7 8 9 1
7 7 6 1
9 3 2 1
0 6 8
* *
i L
a N
K
V
r C
e F
b R
b N
o M
a T
5 . 0 1
2 . 7
6 . 4
2 . 1 3 1
7 . 9 7 2
2 . 3 2 2
3 . 1
0 . 7 0 1
0 . 0 3 3
0 . 0 9 1
7 . 3 9 3
0 . 4
7 . 2
7 . 1
3 . 8 4
0 . 2 0 1
9 . 6 8
7 4 . 0
2 . 9 3
7 . 9 1 1
1 . 1 7
0 . 3 5 1
6 3 . 0
2 3 . 0
5 3 . 0
6 3 . 0
8 2 . 0
9 3 . 0
0 3 . 0
5 3 . 0
9 2 . 0
8 . 1 1
3 . 8
0 . 4
3 . 4 5 1
5 . 6 9 1
1 . 3 7 1
0 . 9 5 1
5 . 2 8 2
3 . 4 9 1
1 . 8 0 3
9 0 7 5
8 7 0 3
0 0 0 6
4 6 0 6
4 0 1 5
9 4 6 6
7 4 4 4
9 1 3 5
1 2 8 2
4 3 4 1
0 8 7 2
5 2 3 3
9 8 0 2
2 1 5 3
9 3 0 2
3 4 8 2
* * *
g M
i T
o C
d C
8 . 4 4
4 . 4 1 1
9 . 0 2 2
5 . 5 6
6 . 7 1
3 . 3 4
5 . 4 8
6 . 4 2
8 2 . 0
6 3 . 0
2 3 . 0
0 3 . 0
5 . 4 3
2 . 7 0 1
3 . 0 9 1
2 . 2 6
5 9 8 5
3 6 2 6
7 2 8 5
0 3 1 3
6 7 2 3
2 2 9 2
9 4 0 3
3 6 6 1
* * * *
n I
n S
9 . 3 1
1 . 0 6
8 . 4
6 . 3 2
6 4 . 0
3 3 . 0
6 . 1 4
6 . 0 6
9 5 4 2
0 0 3 3
9 0 7
9 4 6 1
Comment: * - cubic face centred; ** - cubic body centred; *** - hexagonal closed-
packed; **** tetragonal
A
c
c c
=
-
2
44
11 12
,
(2.12)
where for an isotropic case A = 1. For some metals, the dependence
of the mechanical properties on the loading direction is shown in
Fig. 2.1.
10
The approximate coefficient of anisotropy of the elastic proper-
ties can be determined as the ratio of the maximum and minimum
values of the elasticity moduli. Table 2.2 gives the accurate (A) and
also approximate (A
p
) anisotropy coefficients of the elastic proper-
ties of some metals.
If E
max
(= E
111
) and E
min
(= E
100
) are available, it is possible to
determine E in the direction characterised by the angles , , to
the axes of the cube using the Weerts equation in the form
1
3
1 1
100 111
2 2 2 2 2 2
E E E
= -
F
H
G
I
K
J
+ + cos cos cos cos cos cos . a b b g g a
c h
(2.13)
The equation can also be used for polycrystalline materials with a
texture, if the latter is expressed by two or more ideal orientations.
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.1. .2.1. .2.1. .2.1. .2.1. Directions of true stress at fracture of aluminium single crystal (a), elongation
of aluminium single crystal (b), Young modulus of aluminium single crystal (c),
Young modulus of iron single crystal (d), shear modulus of elasticity of iron single
crystal (e) and Young modulus of magnesium single crystal in tension (f).
T TT TTa aa aab bb bble 2.2 le 2.2 le 2.2 le 2.2 le 2.2 Approximate (A
p
) and accurate (A) anisotropy coefficients of elastic properties
f o e p y T
l a t e m
E
x a m
n i
n o i t c e r i d
> 1 1 1 <
) a P G (
E
n i m
n i
n o i t c e r i d
> 0 0 1 <
) a P G (
A
p
G
x a m
n i
n o i t c e r i d
> 0 0 1 <
) a P G (
G
n i m
n i
n o i t c e r i d
> 1 1 1 <
) a P G (
A
p
A
p
l A
u C
e F
W
7 . 7
4 . 9 1
0 . 9 2
0 . 0 4
4 . 6
8 . 6
5 . 3 1
0 . 0 4
5 7 1 . 1
0 7 8 . 2
0 5 1 . 2
0 0 0 . 1
9 . 2
7 . 7
8 . 1 1
5 . 5 1
5 . 2
1 . 3
1 . 6
5 . 5 1
3 1 . 1
0 5 . 2
3 9 . 1
0 0 . 1
2 . 1
3 . 3
4 . 2
0 . 1
11
The elasticity moduli are associated with the characteristics de-
termined by the force influence of interaction of the atoms in the
crystal lattice linked with the thermal expansion coefficient, Debye
temperature, sublimation temperature, melting point, etc. These con-
siderations show that the elasticity moduli can be determined ap-
proximately, with an acceptable correlation factor, using the meas-
ured values of these characteristics.
The relationship between the Young modulus E (or G) and the
melting point of metal T
m
has the form
T k A E
t
=
1
,
(2.14)
where k
1
= 5K in determination of E, and k
1
= 8.5K in determina-
tion of G, where K is the bulk Young modulus, and A is the pro-
portionality coefficient.
The relationship between the Young modulus, the volume coeffi-
cient of thermal expansion and the relative molar heat capacity
at constant pressure c
p
is determined by the equation
K
c
V
p
a
=
g
b
0
,
(2.15)
where
0
is a constant and V
a
is the molar volume. At room tempera-
ture and elevated temperatures T, the approximate validity of the
following equation has been confirmed
E
c
V
T
T
p
a
t
ln ,
(2.16)
The Poisson number and constant
0
are linked by the equation
m
g h
g h
=
-
+
2
3
0
0
,
(2.17)
where = 1.5 for fcc metals, and = 0.945 for bcc metals.
Debye temperature
D
is linked with the Young modulus by the
equation
12
Q
D
E
A
F
H
G
I
K
J
168
2
1
2
1 6
r
/
,
(2.18)
where is specific density, and A
1
is atomic density.
The elasticity moduli can also be determined from accurately re-
corded results of tensile or torsion tests. However, the most accu-
rate data are obtained by measuring the velocity of propagation of
elastic waves v
1
or v
t
(equations 2.10 and 2.11).
The resonance methods are effective and accurate (error 0.5-
0.8%) in the determination of the elasticity moduli. However, it
should be noted that the natural frequency of the longitudinal vibra-
tions is an order of magnitude higher than the natural frequency of
the bending vibrations. Increase of the loading frequency increases
the intensity of relaxation processes. This is reflected in an increase
of temperature and the associated decrease of the Young modulus.
This results in a systematic error in the measurement of the elas-
ticity moduli by the resonance method. This shortcoming can be
eliminated using the pulsed methods of Young modulus measure-
ments. These methods are based on the measurement of the veloc-
ity of propagation of a pulsed elastic wave in metal, and the wave-
length is small in comparison with the dimensions of the solid.
The Poisson number can be determined from X-ray diffraction
measurements of the lattice parameters of the metallic material.
The accuracy of the pulsed methods of measurement of the Young
modulus is high (error is approximately 0. 1%). However, these
methods also have certain shortcomings. The most important prob-
lem is the fact that when measuring the velocity of propagation of
a pulsed wave it is necessary to measure the Poisson number at a
specific moment of time. Procedural problems do not enable meas-
urements of the Young modulus to be taken at higher temperatures.
The tabulated data on the elasticity moduli of metals and alloys
are limited because they represent the characteristics at room tem-
perature and do not describe the initial state of the material or its
thermal-deformation history. This shortcoming is partially eliminated
by a set of data [5] which contains the elasticity moduli for a large
number of metals and alloys at elevated temperatures.
The elasticity constants and also technical elasticity moduli are
influenced by a large number of external and internal factors.
13
2.1.1 Effect on elasticity characteristics
The effect of temperature on the elasticity characteristics is asso-
ciated with the thermal expansion of the material, i.e. with the tem-
perature dependence of the atomic spacing. Analysis of this prob-
lem has shown that the change of the elasticity moduli is not asso-
ciated with absolute temperature, but is linked with homologous
temperature T
h
= T/T
m
, where T is the temperature at which the
Young modulus is determined.
For the same homologous temperatures, the relative change of the
elasticity characteristics for many metals is the same (Fig. 2.2).
This relationship is linked with the identical homologous tempera-
ture dependence of the change of atomic spacings.
Increase of temperature results in a decrease of E, G and K. The
value of the Poisson number initially slowly decreases and then in-
creases with a further increase of temperature; because of the dif-
ferent thermal strain history of the material, the dependence is more
complicated.
Decrease of temperature, like increase of pressure, results in the
same change of the atomic spacing in the crystal lattice. This shows
that the change of the Young modulus will be similar. The change
of bulk Young modulus K at absolute temperature from 0 to T is de-
scribed by the equation
DK
K
g T
0
3
=
b
,
(2.19)
T
h
E
/
E
0
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.2. .2.2. .2.2. .2.2. .2.2. Dependence of relative values of the Young modulus of various metals on
homologous temperature, where E
0
is the Young modulus at 0 K.
14
where
g
K
K
=
1
0
d
de
(2.20)
is the change of the Young modulus during deformation of the lat-
tice by the value , K
0
is the bulk Young modulus at 0 K. Modu-
lus K is proportional to the curvature of the relief of the potential
energy of the crystal lattice in the area with the atom.
Depending on the distance of the atom from the equilibrium po-
sition, the curvature of the potential relief decreases as a result of
increase of . This shows that g < 0, and the value of the modu-
lus decreases with increasing temperature. Consequently
0
0 0
.
3
p
a
gc T
K
K V K
(2.21)
Equation (2.21) shows that the resultant value is strongly influ-
enced by the value of c
p
. As in the case of equation (2.21), it is
possible to write similar equations for the change of E or G. Like
the temperature dependence of the heat capacity at constant pres-
sure, the temperature dependence of the elasticity moduli can be
divided into three ranges: low-temperature range, where T <<
D
,
transition range, where
D
T 0.5T
t
, and high-temperature range,
where T > 0.5T
t
.
In the low-temperature range, the coefficient of the effect of tem-
perature on the change of the modulus e is proportional to t
0
g c
p
,
and also proportional to (T/
D
)
3
. In the entire temperature range the
dependence of the Young modulus on temperature has the shape K/
K
0
~ T
4
.
Two cases can occur in the transition temperature range. If the
Debye temperature for a specific metal or alloy is significantly
lower than 0.5T
t
, then c
p
3R, where R is the gas constant, and
e = const. This shows that the modulus of elasticity increases pro-
portionately with increasing temperature. When
D
is close to 0 or
higher than 0.5T
t
, the value of c
p
increases with increasing tempera-
ture and the dependence is domed in the upward direction. The in-
crease of temperature by one degree results in a decrease of the
Young modulus by 0.020.04%, with the approximation sufficient
for a wide range of the materials.
15
The selection of experimental dependences is very important; it
is necessary to ensure that they describe with sufficient accuracy the
changes of the elasticity moduli of the materials. For example, in
Ref. 6, the temperature dependences of the Young modulus for VSt3
steel in the form E = (21.68 6710
4
T)10
4
MPa, where T is in
C, were verified for the temperature range from 70 to +70C.
For metals with high melting points, for temperatures of up to
2000C, the authors of Ref. 7 published the empirical dependences:
for vanadi um i n t he form E = (12. 8 9. 6110
4
T)10
4
or G =
(4. 88 8. 48 10
4
T)10
4
, for niobium E = (10 + 9. 1810
4
T -
4.1110
7
T
2
)10
4
or G = (3.12 + 9.910
5
T )10
4
, and for tantalum
E = (16. 98. 2210
4
T1. 6610
7
T
2
)10
4
or G = (7. 741. 73
10
4
T)10
4
, always in MPa.
For tungsten, we can use the equations in the form E = E
0
[(T
t
-
T)1/T
t
]
0.4
, or G = G
0
[(T
t
T)1/T
t
]
0.263
, E = E
0
[(T
t
T)1/T
t
]
0.463
, G =
G
0
[(T
t
T)1/T
t
]
0.465
, where E
0
and G
0
are the moduli at 0 K.
On the basis of analysis of the elastic characteristics of 40 al-
loys based on Fe, Ni, Cu and Al in the temperature range below
500 K, it was shown [8] that, with the exception of Invar alloys,
the temperature dependence of the Young modulus is described quite
accurately by the following equation
0
,
1
E
T
E E
e
(2.22)
here
E
is the Einstein temperature, /
E
is the limiting value of
the tangent dE/dT to the E(T) dependence.
At elevated temperatures, above 0.5T
m
, the rate of decrease of the
Young modulus rapidly increases, and the temperature at which the
rapid decrease of the modulus starts is close to or identical with the
temperature of the start of increase of the high-temperature back-
ground of internal friction.
There are several hypotheses explaining the rapid decrease of the
Young modulus in the high-temperature range. This may be caused
by the nonlinear dependence of atomic forces on additional thermal
strain. Some hypotheses are based on the assumption according to
which this behaviour is the consequence of deformation due to dis-
location movement. The hypotheses are supported by the assumption
according to which the mobility of dislocations increases with in-
creasing temperature. This is reflected in an increase of the contri-
16
bution of dislocational anelasticity.
The elasticity moduli also decrease with increasing internal fric-
tion. Measurements of the temperature dependence of the elasticity
moduli in the temperature range (0.50.7) T
m
show that the activa-
tion energy of the change of the elasticity moduli is close to the ac-
tivation energy for self-diffusion [9] which is close to the activa-
tion energy of the relaxation process at the grain boundaries in poly-
crystalline materials. In the temperature range close to the melting
point (0.950.97) T
m
the Young modulus changes as a result of the
temperature maximum on the temperature dependence of internal
friction. Measurements of the Young modulus of Sn, Bi, Cd and Pb
up to the melting point showed that in the vicinity of the melting
point the Young modulus rapidly decreases, and a slight increase of
the Young modulus is recorded only in the case of Sn at tempera-
tures higher than 0.98T
m
[10]. This phenomenon was also reflected
in the arrest of the decrease of the Young modulus of specimens of
sintered iron with a tin filler in the vicinity of the melting point of
Sn.
Acceleration of decrease of the Young modulus with increasing
temperature is also caused by relaxation processes taking place in
the process of gradual increase of external stress.
In the forties, Frenkel showed that a metal starts to melt when
the Young modulus is 0. Theoretical calculation showed that the
Young modulus at the melting point is 0.70.75 of the modulus at
0 K. The experimental dependences and also Fig. 2.2 show that with
increase of temperature up to the melting point the Young modulus
decreases by 4060%. The difference between the theoretical calcu-
lations and the results of measurements confirms the effect of high-
temperature relaxation.
The form of the temperature dependence of the Young modulus
at high temperatures may have a significant effect on the activation
energy of creep [11]. In steady-state creep, the creep rate is deter-
mined by the equation
2
e
Q
n
RT
A e

&
(2.23)
where A
2
is the proportionality constant, is the acting stress, n is
the strain hardening coefficient, Q
c
is the activation energy for
creep, and R is the gas constant. If we take into account the tem-
perature dependence of the Young modulus, the equation has the
17
following form
( )
*
3
,
e
n
Q
RT
A e
E T
, ]

, ]
, ]
]
&
(2.24)
where A
3
is the proportionality constant and Q
c
is the modified ac-
tivation energy of creep which can be determined from the equation
( )
*
ln
ln
1 1
c
d E T
Q R nR
d
T T

j \ j \
, ( , (
( , ( ,
&
(2.25)
Consequently
2
*
.
c c c
nRT dE
Q Q Q
E dT

The change of the activation energy of creep may be quite consid-
erable. For example, in the case of Inconel alloy at a temperature
of 704C, Q
*
c
= 551.7 kJ mol , Q = 80.9 kJ mol, and at 1037C,
Q = 251. 4 kJmol
1
and Q
c
= 59.5 kJmol
1
. This example shows
that in calculations it is important to take into account the infor-
mation on the change of the Young modulus with increasing tem-
perature.
External pressure and internal stress also influence the level of
the Young modulus.
The increase of external pressure P results in increase of the
Young modulus. Up to a pressure of 5 GPa, we can use the follow-
ing dependence
( )
0
1
1 , E E P + (2.26)
where E
0
is the Young modulus at the atmospheric pressure, and the
value
1
varies from 10
1
to 10
2
GPa
1
. Specific values of
1
for
various materials are presented in Ref. 5.
The increase of the Young modulus with increasing hydrostatic
pressure is caused by a decrease of the atomic spacing in the crystal
18
lattice. This hypothesis has been verified theoretically and also by
measurements [12].
The dependence of the Young modulus on stress is general not
only for the hydrostatic pressure conditions. The dependence of the
Young modulus on the state of the structure of the hardened mate-
rial, observed in a large number of experiments, is usually inter-
preted from the viewpoint of the magnitude, nature and distribution
of internal stresses in the material [13]. Theoretical calculations of
the dependence of the Young modulus on the microstrain of the crys-
tal lattice a/a were carried out by Levin [14]. The calculated and
experimental results are presented in Fig. 2.3.
Increasing microstrain decreases the Young modulus but the scat-
ter of the measured Young modulus values increases. This is the
result of the scatter of distribution of the internal stresses in the ma-
terial. The results show that the Young moduli of the materials
which contain internal stresses are in fact random quantities for
which it is possible to obtain the corresponding dependence of dis-
persion S
2
on microstrain a/a. In the case of the experimentally
determined change of dispersion moduli S
2
it is necessary to take
into account the dispersion caused by the measuring procedure and
this value characterises the inaccuracy of determination of the elas-
ticity moduli of the metals and alloys.
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.3. .2.3. .2.3. .2.3. .2.3. Dependence of Young modulus on microstrain a/a for heat treated St3
steel.
19
The change of the Young modulus with increasing pressure and
temperature has the same basis, i.e. the change of the atomic spac-
ing, thus yielding the equation
3 ,
C V T
E E E
K
T T P

j \ j \ j \

, ( , ( , (

( , ( , ( ,
(2.27)
where C, V and T indicate that the values are determined at constant
concentration, volume, and temperature, and is the coefficient of
linear thermal expansion [15].
The quantity (E/T)
V
is included in the equation due to the de-
pendence of the elasticity moduli of ferromagnetic materials on the
degree of arrangement of magnetic domains. At temperatures lower
than T
c
(Curie temperature) and for non-ferromagnetic materials,
(E/T)
V
= 0. Consequently
( )
0
0
3 .
T
T T
T
T
E
E E K T dT
P
j \

, (
( ,
(2.28)
For pure iron and binary alloys of iron with cobalt, nickel, chro-
mium and molybdenum at T << T
c
equation (2.28) describes satis-
factorily the experimentally measured values.
The dependence of the Young modulus on the type and severity
of the stress state and, in particular, strain state is of principal im-
portance not only for predicting the changes of the elastic materi-
als in service but also for the development of suitable theoretical
models of the strength and plasticity behaviour of metals and alloys.
The level of the Young modulus is also influenced significantly
by the strain.
The addition of alloying elements to the main metal changes its
elastic characteristics as a result of changes of the interatomic
bonds in the alloys. This takes place in relation to the chemical
interactions between foreign atoms as a result of the change of the
concentration of free electrons (electron factor) or as a result of
the effect of lattice defects and, consequently, lattice parameters,
which is the result of different atomic radii of the added and main
metal (dimensional factor). In reality, these factors can affect the
Young modulus in the same or opposite direction. Experiments show
that the dependence of the change of the Young modulus on the con-
20
centration of the alloying element (c) is the result of these factors
acting in the same direction. This result can be expressed by the
equation in the form
ln
3 .
l
T T
E a
E E K c
P c

j \ j \

, ( , (

( , ( ,
(2.29)
where E
e
is the component of the change of the Young modulus as
a result of the change of the number of electrons, a is the lattice
spacing.
The characteristic E
e
has complicated form and depends on
many influences, such as the change of the energy of positive ions
in the electron gas, the change of the degree of overlapping of
electron paths of the adjacent atoms, the zonal structure of the
metal, etc.
The dependence of the Young modulus on the concentration of the
alloying elements is determined by the characteristics of the atoms
of the alloying element and the main metal. Examples for binary
systems with complete solubility of the metals in the solid state are
presented in Fig. 2.4.
For alloys of the metals which do not form intermetallic com-
pounds together, the elasticity moduli are an additive property to a
first approximation. For the majority of non-transitional and some
transitional elements in the range of the mass concentration from 10
to 20% and for CuPt, MoW, CuNi and other alloys, the results
obtained by Kster show that the concentration dependence of the
Young modulus in the entire concentration range is almost linear.
The contribution of the electron factor to the value of the Young
modulus increases with increasing difference of the valency of the
components of the alloying and the main metal (Fig. 2.4a).
In most cases, the elasticity moduli of intermediate phases are
higher than those of pure components. The experimental results ob-
tained for the CuSn and CuZn systems show, Fig. 2.5, that higher
elasticity moduli of the intermetallic phases influence the changes
of the elasticity moduli in a wide concentration range.
Compounds of metals and an intermetallic phase are character-
ised by high elasticity moduli. In the case of carbides, it should not
be assumed that the Young modulus of carbon is E = 0.09 10
5
MPa. It is more accurate to consider the value for diamond, i.e.
E = 1 10
5
MPa. For example, for titanium E = 1.1 10
5
MPa,
and for TiC E = 0. 46 10
5
MPa. For tungsten E = 3. 96 10
5
21
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.4. .2.4. .2.4. .2.4. .2.4. Effect of composition of alloys on their Young modulus.
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.5. .2.5. .2.5. .2.5. .2.5. Change of the Young modulus of CuZn and CuSn in relation to composition
indicating the formation of intermetallic phases.
MPa, and for WC E = 6.7 10
5
MPa. These approaches are of in-
formation nature.
In the systems with superlattices, the magnitude of the Young
modulus depends on the state of the structure, for example, the val-
wt.%
22
ues for the disordered state of an alloy are presented in Fig. 2.6.
After the formation of a superlattice, there are significant changes
in relation to the initial condition.
The dependence of the elasticity moduli on the composition of the
al l oyi ng for some t ransi t i onal el ement s i s compl i cat ed becaus
d-electrons take part in the formation of bonds in these metals. Cs,
Ti, Mg and Fe are characterised by unstable electron configurations,
refl ect ed i n al l ot ropi c t ransformat i ons. Ext rema on t he E(c)
dependences may also form when the transitional metal is the main
component (FeAl, TiAl) or it is also an addition (CuTi), or both
(TiMo).
The complicated nature of the changes of binding forces in alloy-
ing of transition metals has so far prevented the construction of a
unified mechanism of the effect of foreign atoms on the elastic
characteristics of the transition metals.
In ferrous alloys, it is possible to evaluate the effect of the elec-
tron factor on the change of the Young modulus in alloying with dif-
ferent elements [14]. The electron factor of the transition metals of
the same period as iron (chromium, vanadium, cobalt, nickel, man-
ganese) is almost 0 and, consequently, all changes of the elasticity
moduli in alloying are associated with the dimensional factor. The
atoms of the transitional elements from higher periods are charac-
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.6. .2.6. .2.6. .2.6. .2.6. Change of the elasticity moduli in relation to the concentration of the solid
solution.
23
terised by non-zero electron factor values. The values of the elec-
tron factor of the elements from the same period (for example, Ru
and Rh or Re, Ir, Pt) are the same and increase with increase of the
number of the period.
The dependence of the Young modulus on composition for iron-
based alloys is complicated (Fig. 2.7 and 2.8). The most significant
changes of the E(c) dependence are recorded at small amounts of the
additions. This phenomenon is associated with the fact that the for-
mation of the solid solutions of the transitional metals is accompa-
nied by an increase of the number of electrons when interaction
takes place between s and d electrons. This increases the Young
modulus. The increase of the concentration of the alloying element
is accompanied by an increase of the strength of the effect of the
dimensional factor which increases the distance between the atoms.
The determination of the changes of the Young modulus and the
accompanying change of the parameters of the crystal lattice with
the change of the composition of the alloy has made it possible to
conclude that, after dissolving in iron, the alloying elements form
additional bonds and the effect becomes stronger with the distance
of the added element from iron in the periodic system of elements.
The temperature dependence of the Young modulus for binary
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.7. .2.7. .2.7. .2.7. .2.7. Dependence of the Young modulus of iron-based alloys on the content of
different additions (molar %).
24
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.8. .2.8. .2.8. .2.8. .2.8. Effect of temperature on the dependence of the Young modulus on the temperature
of an FeCr alloy.
alloys is characterised by the temperature coefficient which depends
only slightly on the concentration of the added element. Conse-
quently, the E(T) dependences with increasing content of the alloying
element are almost parallel.
The increase of the carbon content of iron decreases the elasticity
characteristics. In annealed steels, the largest increase of the Young
modulus is recorded at low carbon concentrations (to 0.2 wt.%). In
quenched steels, the E(c) dependence decreases, even though the
increase of the carbon content accelerates the increase of the Young
modulus in comparison with the annealed condition.
The dependence of the elasticity characteristics on composition
in the case of the FeNi system is also influenced by prior tensile
deformation and annealing (Fig. 2.9).
In the steels, carbon is present in most cases in cementite Fe
3
C
and, consequently, the evaluated dependences E(c) are examined
mainly from the viewpoint of the effect of different factors on ce-
mentite. Cementite is a ferromagnetic phase with T
C
210C. Since
Armco iron has a conventional, almost linear dependence E(T), the
dependence for carbon steels at T 200C is characterised by a
small delay which changes to a local maximum with the increase of
the carbon content of the alloy, for example in white cast iron. The
25
form of the previously plotted curves also enables extrapolation of
the changes of the E(T) dependence for cementite.
Examination of the titanium alloys with different iron and alu-
minium content [16] showed higher elasticity moduli and the in-
crease of the Debye temperature with increasing content of the al-
loying elements. If the different electron structures of the Al and Fe
atoms are considered, it may be concluded that aluminium has a
significant effect on the nature of atomic interactions in titanium
alloys. Increase of the aluminium content increases the force char-
acteristics of the atomic bonds; this may be one of the reasons for
the increase of the ultimate tensile strength when alloying titanium
with aluminium from 480 MPa (for example, titanium alloy VT1-
0) up to 1000 MPa (for example, titanium alloy VT5).
Investigations of the elasticity characteristics of alloys of tita-
nium with molybdenum, vanadium and niobium shows that the for-
mation of extrema on the E(c) curves may be attributed to the start
and finish of transformation of the -phase to -phase, and in the
case of the titanium alloys with these elements, the dependences are
quantitatively similar indicating the same nature of the mutual ef-
fect of titanium alloys with these elements. The additions decrease
the elasticity moduli of the alloys with the -phase and also with
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.9 .2.9 .2.9 .2.9 .2.9. Dependence of the Young modulus and Poisson number on the composition
of ferrous and nickel alloys after cold tensile deformation (symbol 1) and after annealing
(symbol 2).
wt.%
26
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.10. .2.10. .2.10. .2.10. .2.10. Dependence of the Young modulus of alloys of Ti with Mo (a) and with
V (b) after rapid cooling (1) and tempering (2).
+ phases. Transition to the single-phase region () is associ-
ated with the minimum on the E(c) dependence. Alloying of the
single-phase () solid solutions results in a monotonic increase of
the elasticity moduli up to the values typical of the pure compo-
nents.
Figure 2.10 shows that -Ti is characterised by higher values of
the Young modulus in comparison with -Ti. Differences are also
evident in alloying. Whilst in the case of -Ti the Young modulus
decreases, in the case of -Ti the Young modulus increases with in-
creasing concentration of the additions.
Rapid cooling of the alloy greatly changes the dependence of the
Young modulus on concentration, Fig. 2.10. The rapid decrease of
the Young modulus in the range of low concentration is associated
with the formation of supersaturated - and -solid solutions. In
the case of the TiMo alloy this takes place up to 6 wt.% Mo. The
subsequent increase of the E(c) dependence is caused by the forma-
tion of the martensitic phase which formed as a result of the
transformation of to . The maximum of the E(c) dependence
corresponds to the highest volume content of the -phase. The sec-
ond minimum of the E(c) dependence can be explained by the in-
crease of the content of the -phase. This results in an increase of
wt.% Mo wt.% V
27
the volume fraction of the metastable cubic volume-centred struc-
ture with less dense packing and, consequently, in a decrease of the
Young modulus. In the region where there is only the -phase, the
increase of the Young modulus takes place as a result of the in-
crease of the strength of the effect of alloying elements on the
change of the interatomic forces. In the region of the single-phase
-alloys there are no significant differences in the values of the
elasticity moduli for the annealed and quenched condition.
The differences in the elasticity moduli are characterised by dif-
ferent sensitivity to the composition of the alloy. In the TiZn al-
loy, the E(c) dependence is represented by a smooth curve with the
mi ni mum at c = 50 wt . %. In t hi s range, K and change non-
monotonically in relation to composition.
In alloys where the components form a mechanical mixture, spe-
cifically AlBe, AlSi, BiSn, FeFe
3
C, etc., the dependence of the
Young modulus on composition is linear. The Young modulus also
depends on the distribution of the inclusions which is reflected in
the upper and lower boundary of the elasticity moduli of the me-
chani cal mi xt ures. Cal cul at i ons show t hat at concent rat i ons
c < 40 wt.%, the elasticity moduli are the additive characteristics
of the phases present. At a large amount of the second phase in the
alloy, the calculated and measured values of the elasticity moduli
differ.
Ordering in the alloys also influences the elasticity moduli be-
cause the effect of the electron factor is very strong. Ordering in-
creases the interatomic forces, the electron factor has the positive
orientation and increases the level of the Young modulus. The de-
pendence of t he Young modul us on t emperat ure i n ordered
alloys at temperatures below Kurnakov temperature T
k
is character-
ised by a constant value of the temperature factor of the change of
the Young modulus e. With the increase of temperature to the range
T T
k
, the dependence E(T) shows an anomaly in the form of a
jump or a sudden decrease of the Young modulus to the value cor-
responding to the difference of the elasticity moduli of the ordered
and disordered state of the alloy (Fig. 2.11).
2.1.2 Elasticity characteristics of structural materials
In most cases, multiphase and multicomponent alloys with different
chemical composition are used in technical practice. The compli-
cat ed phase composi t i on and t he di fferences i n t he degree of
metastability of structural components result in large differences in
extent of the utilisation of the processes of structural and phase
28
changes, ageing, recovery, etc. in the application of various mate-
rials. Analysis of the effect of these factors on the elasticity char-
acteristics is complicated owing to the fact that factors, determin-
ing the actual value of the Young modulus, are also important.
These processes determine the effective value of the interatomic
forces by the change of the concentration of the alloying elements
in the solid solutions, the change of internal stresses at coherent
phase boundaries, actual changes of the elasticity moduli of the in-
dependent phases, the increase of the number of structural defects,
etc. (the first group of factors).
The second group of fact ors i ncl udes t he processes of
anelasticity; this is reflected in the structural sensitivity of the elas-
ticity moduli. The change of the structure and phases of the alloys
in quenching, tempering, ageing, etc. results in a change of the level
of the elasticity moduli; this change is large in comparison with the
values given in the tables. Consequently, it is necessary to have not
only the values from various tables or material specifications, but
also data on the specific structural state and the relationships of
their changes in the expected working conditions of the material.
The sensitivity of the elasticity moduli of the material to the
change of the structure and phases is the reason for the qualitatively
new thermal hysteresis of the moduli. In this case, the curves E(T)
in heating and cooling differ. Hysteresis is found only in a specific
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.11. .2.11. .2.11. .2.11. .2.11. Effect of temperature on the Young modulus of ordered CuZn and Cu
3
Au
alloys.
29
temperature range (Fig. 2. 12, curves 2). Figure 2. 12 shows the
changes of the Young modulus in relation to temperature for a steel
with 0.4 wt.% C (curves 1) and for white cast iron with 2.8 wt.%
C and 1.4 wt.% Si (curves 2). Both materials were normalised in
the initial condition. In the temperature region below the eutectoid
t ransformat i on t emperat ure (curves 1) t he dependence E(T) i s
slightly nonlinear. In the eutectoid transformation temperature range
there is a large decrease of the elasticity moduli associated with the
start of dissolution of cementite particles. Completion of the
transformation results in a drop in the rate of decrease of the E(T)
dependence. The large increase of E at temperatures of 10001050
C is interpreted by the equalisation of the composition of the
phases as a result of the dissolution of the solutes built up at the
grain boundaries in the disappearance of the old grain boundaries
during the growth of austenite grains. With the reversed change of
temperature the extent of relaxation at the grain boundaries de-
creases and the dependence E(T) is shifted higher in comparison
with gradual heating. The curves E(T) in heating and cooling be-
come identical below the eutectoid transformation temperature.
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.12. .2.12. .2.12. .2.12. .2.12. Effect of temperature on the Young modulus of steel 40 (1) and white
cast iron (2).
30
The special feature of the E(T) dependence of cast iron is the
presence of a wide temperature range in which thermal hysteresis
forms. The form of the E(T) dependence depends on the process of
breakdown of cementite and ferrite formation. The most significant
changes are recorded in the temperature range 680850C. In heat-
ing, the E(T) curve shows two distinctive steps associated with the
start (710720C) and finish (810840C) of eutectoid transforma-
tion in white cast iron. The first stage corresponds to the transfor-
mation of pearlite to austenite which is part of ledeburite, and also
to the compressive stress in the transformation of ferrite to austenite
as a result of the differences in the coefficient of thermal expansion
of eutectic cementite and pearlite. The second stage corresponds to
the completion of the breakdown of pearlite at the original austenite
grain boundaries where extensive relaxation of a large part of the
residual stresses could have taken place during the tests. The meas-
urements of internal friction with the change of temperature showed
that every step on the E(T) curve corresponds to the internal fric-
tion maximum. The relaxation mechanism is associated with the
change of the susceptibility of the grain boundaries to stress relaxa-
tion with the formation and growth of new phase particles on them.
The elasticity characteristics of the materials change in relation
to the method and conditions of heat treatment. The final results are
the consequence of the mutual effect of the factors which increase
or decrease the Young modulus. In quenching of carbon steels, the
volume fraction of cementite in the structure of steel decreases. The
Young modulus of cementite is lower. Therefore, this process in-
creases the Young modulus. In addition, quenching is accompanied
by martensitic transformation resulting in supersaturation of the
dislocation density. This process decreases the Young modulus. After
adding up the processes, the quenching of steels and cast irons de-
creases the Young modulus. The magnitude of the decrease depends
on the carbon content, Fig. 2.13. The increase of the carbon con-
tent to 0.45 wt.% increases the relative change
1
z z
z
E E E
E E
j \
, (
( ,
of the steel after quenching from 900C. A further increase of the
carbon content has no longer any effect on the value of E/E
1
. This
can be explained by the formation of the effective values of the
Young modulus with another influence. Increasing carbon content of
31
the steel decreases the temperature at which the martensitic trans-
formation is completed. For steels with a carbon content higher than
0.5 wt.%, the temperature of completion of the martensitic transfor-
mation is lower than 0C so that the structure of the quenched steel
also contains retained austenite. The Young modulus of austenite is
higher than that of ferrite, and this compensates the decrease of the
actual values of the Young modulus as a result of the effect of the
previously mentioned factors.
The increase of quenching temperature to 1050C changes the na-
ture of the changes of the Young modulus in relation to the carbon
content of the steel (Fig. 2.13, curve 2). Therefore, the increase of
E/E
1
may be caused by increase of the grain size, resulting in a de-
crease of E and, consequently, increase of E/E
1
. In the case of
steels with a high carbon content, the decrease of E may also be
reflected in the formation of various defects of the structure during
quenching.
Quenching temperature of the steel affects the Young modulus.
The largest decrease of the Young modulus of the carbon steels is
recorded at the quenching temperatures higher than 740750C. This
is accompanied by a large and rapid increase of the value of E/
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.13 .2.13 .2.13 .2.13 .2.13. Dependence of the Young modulus of steel on carbon content after quenching
from 900C (1) or 1050 C.
wt.%C
32
E
1
in the temperature range to 900C, and the increase of E/E
1
is
smaller in steels with a higher carbon content (U10A) than in the
steels with a lower carbon content (U8A). At temperatures higher
than 900C the change of E/E
1
in the case of U8A steel stabilises,
but in U10A steel the change continues to increase. This may be
associated with the formation of microcracks and also a decrease of
E
z
when quenching from high temperatures.
Quenching affects the temperature dependence of the Young
modul us [17]. Fi gure 2. 14 shows t hat t he Young modul us of
quenched U8A steel changes non-monotonically during heating. In
the temperature ranges 50150C, 300400C, and 500700C, the
temperature coefficient of the change of the Young modulus de-
creases. This indicates the increase of the rate of decrease of the
Young modulus, and at temperatures of 50300C and 400500C
there is a large increase of e.
The maxima on the e(T) curves are distributed in the temperature
ranges corresponding to the development of various transformations
during tempering of steel. In the temperature range 50150C, where
the value of e decreases, the -carbide, coherent with the mother
phase, appears. The regions of internal stresses are characterised by
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.14. .2.14. .2.14. .2.14. .2.14. Temperature dependence of E/E and of e for USA steel after quenching
from 800 C (a) and tempering at 150 (b), 300 (c) and 450C (d).
33
a decrease of t he val ues of t he Young modul us and by t he
increase of the rate of decrease of the Young modulus in this tem-
perature range. The increase of the degree of precipitation of the
part i cl es of t he -carbi de i s accompani ed by a decrease of t he
extent of distortion of the crystal lattice. This is also reflected in
the increase of the Young modulus to the values corresponding to
the given temperature. The rate of decrease of the Young modulus
slows down with increasing temperature and this decreases the value
of e.
Prior tempering at 150C results in the precipitation of the -
carbides and in the removal of distortions of the crystal lattice
associated with the formation of this carbide. Consequently, in sub-
sequent heating at 50150C the height of the maximum on the e(T)
dependence decreases. The large increase of the value of parameter
e in the temperature range 300400C is associated with the forma-
tion of cementite. Prior tempering at 450C results in the precipi-
tation of cementite and the removal of distortions of the crystal
lattice associated with the formation of cementite. Subsequent heat-
ing in this temperature range is accompanied by a continuous change
of the Young modulus. The values of the Young modulus of the
quenched steel in the temperature range 200300C and the decrease
of the values of e in this range are associated with the breakdown
of retained austenite.
The experiments with the changes of the retained austenite of
quenched steels showed that the increase of the retained austenite
content results in a decrease of e in the temperature range 200-
300C. This phenomenon can be explained by the fact that the re-
tained austenite is in the stressed state. Its breakdown decreases the
level of internal stresses thus decreasing the rate of decrease of the
Young modulus with increasing temperature. The precipitation of
carbon in the solid solution of alpha iron also contributes to the
process. When the retained austenite content of the quenched steel
is increased, the change of the Young modulus with increasing tem-
perature is more marked. The decrease of the temperature coefficient
of the change of the Young modulus e in the temperature range 50
150C with increasing quenching temperature is explained by the
increase of the number of coherent particles of the -carbide as a
result of the increase of the number of nucleation areas of the car-
bide.
The alloying of steels increases the structural sensitivity of their
Young modulus, especially after heat treatment. This is caused by
the increase of the metastability of the structural components. There
34
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.15. .2.15. .2.15. .2.15. .2.15. Temperature dependence of the Young modulus of 70S2ChA steel after
quenching from 900C in oil (a) and tempering for 1 h at 300 (b) and 400 C (c).
are also changes in the form of the E(T) dependence, reflected in ad-
dition changes of the curves of the temperature hysteresis of the
elasticity moduli associated with the development of phase transfor-
mations in the material.
The dependence of the Young modulus on temperature tempera-
ture in alloyed chromium steels is shown in Fig. 2.15. At tempera-
tures of 150200C and 350500C, the elasticity moduli of the
quenched steels increase. The decrease of the rate of increase of the
Young modulus in tempering in the temperature range 150200C is
associated with the breakdown of martensite and the formation of
-carbide. The second plateau in the temperature range 350500C
is attributed to the transformation of carbides.
The Young modul us i ncreases as a resul t of t emperi ng t he
quenched steel at temperatures higher than 500C, especially in al-
loyed steels. This is associated with the fact that the addition of
alloying elements, such as Mo, Cr, V reduces the rate of the break-
down of the supersaturated solid solution and increases the tempera-
ture range in which this process takes place. The extension of the
breakdown time of martensite and the formation of pearlite increase
the Young modulus after tempering at high temperatures. The in-
crease of the chromium content in the steel increases the intensity
35
of this phenomenon. The increase of the Young modulus at tempera-
tures higher than 500C is also influenced by the process of coa-
lescence of the carbide particles. This is reflected in a higher de-
gree of equilibrium of the alloy.
Whilst the quenched U8A steel is characterised by a monotonic
decrease of the value of E with increasing temperature, the 70S2Kh2
and 60S3KhMVA steels, quenched from a temperature of 900C,
show an increase of the Young modulus by 1.21.5% in a specific
temperature range. If the temperature in subsequent tempering is
increased, the intensity of this defect decreases, Fig. 2.15c. In the
alloy quenched steels in the temperature range 200500C the val-
ues of the dependence E(T) are lower than for the quenched carbon
steels, although outside this temperature range there are no differ-
ences in the values of the E(T) dependence. This is explained by the
shift of the region of transition of the metastable to stable carbide
of the cementite type. The process of breakdown of the super-
saturated solid solution of carbon in -iron is accompanied by the
formation and growth of finelly dispersed particles of metastable
carbides, coherent with the matrix. This process is associated with
the formation of high internal stresses which contribute to a further
decrease of the Young modulus. The formation of the stable carbides
with the disruption of coherence of the carbides and the matrix de-
creases the efficiency and number of defects of the crystal lattice
and E increases. Silicon may also exert an effect; this element
changes the nature of interatomic forces as a result of a change of
the fraction of covalent bonding in the alloys.
The increase of the elasticity moduli of the materials with struc-
tural inhomogeneity in the transition from the metastable to stable
phase is probably a general phenomenon which takes place not only
in steels because similar behaviour was found in CuBe, CuTiCr
and CuNiSn systems containing metastable intermetallic phases.
With the change of temperature, the Young modulus is greatly
affected by combined heat treatment and plastic deformation. If un-
der normal conditions the change of the Young modulus after plastic
deformation is not high, for example, in U8 steel it does not exceed
2.5%, in the case of alloyed steels these changes are considerably
larger. For alloy steel 1Cr18Ni9Ti after quenching from 900C and
40% deformation, the change of the Young modulus E/E is 10
11%. In nickel martensitic steels after deformation and ageing, the
decrease of E in comparison with the condition of the steel after
tempering at high temperature is as high as 14%. Evaluation of the
elasticity characteristics of 36NKhTYu alloy steel after quenching
36
and ageing showed that the decrease of the Young modulus of the
material is associated with the change of the texture during heating
to the quenching temperature as a result of recrystallisation. After
ageing the Young modulus increases. This phenomenon is control-
led by the process of short-range ordering and by the formation of
nuclei of the -phase with a size of 11.5 nm. Continuation of age-
ing results in a small increase of the Young modulus. This is ex-
plained by the anisotropy of the elasticity characteristics of the
particles of the -phase during their growth.
The elasticity moduli are influenced not only by the type and
number of the particles of the strengthening phase but also by the
uniformity of distribution of this phase in the volume of the mate-
rial. For example, the Young modulus of a high-speed tool steel
decrease in the case of the nonuniform distribution of the carbide
phase, or the moduli of elasticity of steels for stamping dies de-
crease as a result of the formation of small areas with free ferrite.
This increases the structural homogeneity of the material.
The effect of the main metallic mass and the shape of graphite
on the change of the Young modulus with increasing temperature for
grey and high-strength cast iron was investigated in Ref. 18. The
anomalies of the E(T) dependence are caused mainly by the number,
dimensions and shape of graphite and also, to a lesser degree,
whether the main metallic mass is ferritic or pearlitic.
The method of measuring the E(T) dependence can also be used
in examination of the kinetics of arrangement of the silicon atoms
in the main the metallic mass of ferritic grey cast iron. The decrease
of the Young modulus after quenching when the solid solution is dis-
ordered, and also the anomalous increase of the temperature depend-
ence of the Young modulus in the temperature range 350550C are
explained by the breakdown of the superlattice. Evaluation of the re-
covery of the elasticity moduli after quenching grey cast iron from
different temperatures made it possible to determine the critical
value (approximately 775C) separating the characteristic changes
of the elasticity moduli. In quenching from temperatures in the range
from Curie temperature to 775C, the solid solutions of iron and
silicon in the matrix are characterised by the disordered distribution
of the solute atoms resulting in a decrease of the elasticity moduli.
Quenching from 775C and higher temperatures results in the rapid
decrease of the Young modulus as a result of more extensive defects
in the structure formed in the process of quenching from higher tem-
peratures.
37
2.1.3 Elasticity characteristics of composite materials
Significant changes of the elasticity moduli are caused by the re-
laxation of stresses in materials with high structural inhomogeneity,
especially in metals with pores. The effect of porosity on the level
of the elasticity moduli is also observed in the case of many met-
als in the cast condition (alloys with a high melting point, sintered
systems, composites, etc.).
The Young modulus of the material with porosity p, denoted E
(p)
,
can be determined from the empirical equation in the form
( ) ( )
( )
0
1 ,
m
p
E E p (2.30)
where m is the experimental factor. Increase of porosity is accom-
panied by a decrease of the Poisson number; this is often ignored
when comparing the mechanical properties of dense and porous ma-
terials. In fact, the p dependence is almost the same as that for
the dense material.
Frantsevich et al. [5] recommend the following equation
2/ 3
0
1
,
1
p
b
p
E E
ap
+
(2.31)
where a, b are the experimental coefficients taking into account the
effect of stress concentration in the vicinity of non-spherical pores.
The elastic characteristics of the material, representing a me-
chanical mixture of certain types of particles with different defor-
mation, can be evaluated from the deterministic and statistical view-
point.
In the first case, the mechanical model of a composite material
is represented by a solid in which the interaction of the components
depends on their mutual displacement. The equation of motion is de-
rived for the displacement of the matrix and the filler. The equation
contains factors and variables which depend on the heterogeneity pa-
rameters of the material. Some models solve the propagation of pla-
nar waves when: 1. The stress tensor of one component depends on
the strain tensors of other components and on the tensors of the
partial initial volume strains; 2. A force pulse is transferred from
one component to another; this pulse depends on the uniaxial dis-
placement and the deformation of the volumes of components.
38
In the second case, in the statistical theory of random fields in
the mechanics of inhomogeneous deformation, it is necessary to
solve a large number of problems of the elastic equilibrium of
inhomogeneous media. This is carried out on the basis of the sta-
tistical characteristics of the stress and strain states of the solids.
In inhomogeneous media, the mean stress at a specific point of
the solid depends not only on the deformation at this point but also
on the deformation at all other points of the solid. A special situ-
ation arises in the intermediate layer which in the homogeneous me-
dia is represented by, for example, the surface of the solid, but for
inhomogeneous media this region is found more often.
The composite materials based on metals include systems with
dispersion strengthening and materials reinforced with particles or
fibres. In all cases, the material contains a metallic or alloy matrix
with other phases, particles of fibres with different distribution [19].
Usually, the second phase is regarded as stronger and more rigid
than the matrix. The elasticity characteristics of a two-component
composite can be described, for the upper limit, using the equation
1 1 2 2 h
E E c E c + (2.32)
and for the lower limit
1 2
2 1 1 2
,
s
E E
E
E c E c
+
(2.33)
where E
1
, E
2
are the Young moduli of the filler and the matrix, c
1
,
c
2
are the volume fractions of the components.
The expression for E
h
corresponds to the case with the same de-
formation in the two components, and the expression for E
s
for the
same stresses. The difference between E
h
and E
s
decreases if calcu-
lations are carried out using the variance principles, the method of
the theory of random processes, etc.
The calculated and experimentally determined elasticity moduli
for powder composites based on iron, molybdenum and tungsten
with the content of an copperiron binder to 35% are compared in
Table 2.3.
The deviation of the experimental values of the Young modulus
to higher values is explained by the fact that the expressions for E
h
and E
s
do not take into account factors such as the interaction of
39
T TT TTa aa aab bb bble 2.3 le 2.3 le 2.3 le 2.3 le 2.3 Calculated and experimental values of the Young modulus of composite
materials with different matrix
%
r e l l i f f o
f o e u l a v d e t a l u c l a C E 0 1 (
5
) a P M
f o s e u l a v f o s t n e m i r e p x E E
0 1 (
5
) C ( f o s e r u t a r e p m e t t a ) a P M
E
h
E
s
E
m
E
0 2 0 0 2 0 0 4 0 0 6 0 0 8
*
5
5 2
0 3
5 7 8 . 1
5 7 8 . 1
5 7 8 . 1
8 6 7 . 1
8 6 7 . 1
8 6 7 . 1
0 3 9 . 1
8 0 8 . 1
9 7 7 . 1
0 5 9 . 1
0 4 8 . 1
3 1 8 . 1
0 8 . 1
7 7 . 1
3 7 . 1
0 7 . 1
1 6 . 1
6 5 . 1
0 6 . 1
3 3 . 1
4 3 . 1
8 4 . 1
* *
0 2
5 2
2 3
6 3
7 8 6 . 2
7 8 6 . 2
7 8 6 . 2
7 8 6 . 2
3 1 2 . 2
3 1 2 . 2
3 1 2 . 2
3 1 2 . 2
9 4 5 . 2
6 4 4 . 2
6 4 2 . 2
8 2 1 . 2
6 9 4 . 2
6 4 2 . 2
4 2 8 . 1
6 8 3 . 1
1 8 3 . 2
0 3 1 . 2
1 2 9 . 1
0 4 7 . 1
0 8 3 . 2
0 3 1 . 2
0 2 9 . 1
5 2 7 . 1
3 3 . 2
6 0 . 2
0 9 . 1
9 6 . 1
3 3 . 2
6 9 . 1
6 8 . 1
5 6 . 1
6 1 . 2
7 8 . 1
8 7 . 1
9 5 . 1
* * *
5 2
8 3
7 3 1 . 3
0 1 4 . 2
5 5 8 . 2
0 7 1 . 2
3 7 . 2
5 0 . 2
3 7 . 2
5 0 . 2
5 6 . 2
0 0 . 2
5 5 . 2
5 9 . 1
Comment: * - iron; ** molybdenum; *** - tungsten
t he el ast i c fi el ds of t he i ncl usi ons and t he mat ri x, t he l ocal
nonuniformity of the stress state, the elastic properties of the com-
ponents, etc. More accurate calculations of the elastic characteris-
tics of the composites can be carried out taking into account the
statistical nature of the distribution of heterogenities, the mutual
effect of the components and correlations between their elastic
fields.
The theory of isotropic deformation of elastic solids with random
heterogenities, using the elasticity factors and , gives
( )
3 2
.
m
E
+
+
(2.34)
The method of calculating E
m
is suitable for composites with a small
volume fraction of the filler. For the volume fraction of the filler
larger than 20% we can use the following equation
( )
( )
( )( )
( )
0
1
,
1 1
k c
k k c
M cc
E E
c M c
+
(2.35)
40
where E
0
is the Young (elasticity) modulus of the matrix material,
M
(c)
is the function which takes into account the mutual effect of the
microinclusions, c is the volume fraction of the filler, c
k
is the criti-
cal concentration of the filler at which E = E
1
, i.e. the Young modu-
lus of the filler, (= E/E
0
).
The data presented in Table 2.3 show that the values obtained by
calculations using equation (2.35) are in good agreement with the
experimentally determined values for the case in which the volume
fraction of the filler is larger than 20%, whereas equation (2.34) is
suitable for volume fractions of the filler smaller than 20% and also
for materials with a small difference of the elasticity moduli of the
matrix and the filler.
The experi ment al resul t s show t hat t he val ues of t he Young
modulus decrease with increasing volume fraction of the filler. As
the Young modulus of the binder decreases, the rate of decrease of
the Young modulus increases. At higher temperatures this relation-
ship is sometimes not fulfilled. The experimental results obtained for
powder composites, produced by liquid-phase sintering (ironcopper,
tungstencopper, tungstencoppernickel, tungsten-ironnickel, mo-
lybdenumsilver, nickelsilver, etc.) show that the dependence of the
elasticity moduli on the volume fraction deviates from the lower
values determined in accordance with the rules of mixing.
The dispersion-strengthening particles affect the composite when
they restrict the deformation of the matrix. Usually, the Young
modulus of such a system is lower than that indicated by equation
(2.32). Calculations carried out using equation (2.32) and the ex-
perimentally obtained data are compared in Fig. 2.16. For all ex-
amined systems, the experiments show positive deviations of the
Young modulus values from the calculated values, indicating the
constriction and limited deformation of the matrix.
In Ref. 20 and 21, the method of finite elements was used to
determine the algorithms for predicting the elasticity moduli of ho-
mogeneous isotropic two-phase materials with any geometry of the
phases forming the composite. The authors analysed the stress fields
in the vicinity of the individual particles and groups of the parti-
cles in a continuous matrix, and also examples of the application of
the algorithm for determining the elasticity characteristics of the
porous and sintered materials.
The strength of the reinforcing fibres in the composites is often
very high but the cross-section of the components may be unsuit-
able because it does not ensure the required rigidity and, conse-
quently, the stability of the structure. In some cases, the high rela-
41
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.16. .2.16. .2.16. .2.16. .2.16. Effect of the volume fraction of dispersion-strengthening particles in a
composite on the relative change of experimentally and theoretically determined
elasticity moduli.
tive strength of the composites is not utilised because the energy of
elastic deformation (
2
/E) increases in direct proportion to the
square of stress or yield limit. All reliability parameters decrease
with increasing energy of elastic deformation.
The parameters affecting the actual service efficiency of materials
greatly differ from those of real structures. For example, at R
m
=
5000 MPa, the energy of elastic deformation decreases by an order
of magnitude and the rigidity parameters are 34 times lower than
the required boundary values. One of the methods of solving these
problem is to produce alloys where not only the tensile strength but
also Young modulus increases. When retaining the characteristic de-
termined by the ratio E/
n
, where is the specific density and
1>n>1/3. For materials used in aviation industry with = 1.19
g cm
3
, n = 0. 5. The composites characterised by a high Young
modulus and low specific density have advantages not only in com-
parison with steel but also magnesium and aluminium alloys.
The behaviour of the composites outside the elastic range depends
on whether the strengthening particles of fibres are deformed. Solid
surfaces of the inclusions restrict deformation of the softer matrix
under loading. When the hydrostatic component becomes 34 times
42
higher than the yield limit of the matrix, failure takes place. When
this stress is insufficient for particles to be deformed, failure propa-
gates through the matrix.
This description of the elasticity characteristics is also valid for
laminated composites [22]. To solve the boundary problems of the
elasticity theory, it is necessary to know the geometrical parameters
of the phase, the distribution and cross-section of the fibres. Irregu-
lar distribution of the fibres in the cross-section of the component
greatly complicates the calculations. If the geometry of the phases
and approximation of the stress fields are taken into account, it is
possible to find simple methods of joining the elements of the com-
posite. The main problem in determination of the elastic character-
istics of the composites with fibres is the evaluation of the moduli
by the variance calculation procedures.
The modulus of elasticity along a solid in the direction of rein-
forci ng fi bres can be det ermi ned as an addi t i ve charact eri st i c,
whereas the values in the direction normal to the direction of the
strengthening fibres greatly differ from the values determined from
the decrease rule. Reinforcement of the matrix with fibres greatly
increases the Young modulus in the direction normal to the direc-
tion of fibres. However, the increase of the Young modulus of the
fibre results in a situation in which the increase of the transverse
modulus of the composite is not significant and the solution ap-
proaches the values determined for infinitely rigid fibres. The ra-
tio of the longitudinal and transverse modulus of normal elasticity
at higher values of the Young modulus of the fibres is small and this
restricts the application of fibres with high elasticity moduli in the
composites. The increase of the rigidity of the system in the trans-
verse direction can be achieved by selecting the orientation of fibres
in different layers which obviously decreases the rigidity of the com-
posite in the axis of the component. A suitable example is a lami-
nated composite in which the orientation of the fibres in the indi-
vidual layers deviates by the selected angle. The properties of this
composite are similar to those with the isotropic characteristics, and
the values of the Young modulus fit in the group of the values de-
termined in the longitudinal and transverse direction in relation to
the distribution of the fibres.
The elasticity properties of the component of the composite char-
acterise to a certain extent the conditions of failure of components
made of composi t e mat eri al s. The fi bre-rei nforced composi t e
remains sound if
43
( )
2
3.25
,
1
F
E d

(2.36)
where is the proportionality factor, F is the friction factor, is
the Poisson number, E
v
is the Young modulus, and d
v
is the fibre
diameter.
The magnitude of the tensile stresses formed in the fibre is low
and, consequently, the critical value of the tensile stresses is
obtained in the case of long fibres (for example, for boron fibres in
and aluminium matrix the length of the fibres is 0. 650. 70 m).
Equation (2.36) characterises a simple condition for the process of
single-component plastic deformation of the matrix in elastic defor-
mation of the fibre.
The compl i cat ed nat ure of t he process of fai l ure of fi bre-
reinforced composites under cyclic loading [22] is shown in Fig.
2.17. The composites consist of a matrix made of and aluminium
alloys and strengthening fibres of molybdenum or tungsten, with a
different volume fraction of the fibres in the component.
Puskar [23] describes the characteristic stages of failure in the
longitudinal loading of components in tension and compression. Ini-
tially, transverse cracks form and propagate (Fig. 2.17), and this is
followed by the formation and propagation of longitudinal cracks
(Fig. 2.17b) in the matrix. With loading, the entire cross-section
fails by fatigue (Fig. 2.17c) or the matrix disintegrates and fall out,
initially from the surface and in later stages from the space between
the fibres (Fig. 2.17d). The formation of a specific stage is deter-
mined mainly by the type and dimensions of the reinforcing fibre
and i t s vol ume fract i on i n t he component . The aut hor of [23]
assumes that the mechanism of failure of composites is based on the
significant difference of the elasticity moduli of the strengthening
fibres and the matrix material during propagation of an elastoplastic
wave in the component.
2.2 MANIFESTATION OF ANELASTICITY
Elastic deformation is characterised by the complete reversibility of
the Hooke law which is fulfilled only when the loading rate is very
low and the level of acting stress does not cause any changes in the
density and distribution of lattice defects or in the distribution of
magnetic moments.
44
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.17. .2.17. .2.17. .2.17. .2.17. Stages of damage and failure of a composite material.
2.2.1 Delay of deformation in relation to stress
The Hooke law characterises the time relationship between stress
and strain . The total elastic strain of the solid
c
is the sum of
instantaneous elastic strain
e
and additional (quasi-inelastic) strain
d
whose equilibrium value is obtained only after stress has been
operating for some time (Fig. 2.18). The time required to obtain the
equilibrium value
d
is determined by the processes associated with
the redistribution of atoms, magnetic moments and temperature in
the material.
The redistribution of the atoms in the interstitial solid solutions
under loading can be illustrated on an example of the fcc lattice (for
example, -iron) with interstitial atoms (for example, carbon). The
interstitial atoms can be displaced to the positions (0, 1/2, 1/2) and
(1/2, 1/4,0). In the first case, the atomic spacing is 0.90 nm, in the
second case it is 0.36 nm. The radius of the carbon atom is 0.8 nm;
this results in non-symmetric deformation of the lattice during the
formation of a solid solution. The first position is characterised by
a potential well whose depth is smaller than that in the second po-
sition. The application of the criteria of the minimum deformation
energy for the given positions shows that the first position is sig-
nificantly more stable than the second position with respect to the
45
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.18. .2.18. .2.18. .2.18. .2.18. Time dependence of the change of strain when loading the solid with constant
stress (a) and the change of stress when loading the solid with constant strain (b).
positioning of the interstitial atom. If there is no external stress, the
interstitial atoms can travel to the positions in the direction of the
x, y and z axes. Loading with a stress along some axis, for exam-
ple z, increases the space in the faces of the cube parallel with this
axis in comparison with the faces of the cube parallel with the axes
x and y. The distribution of the interstitial atoms in the positions of
the z axis is therefore preferred. This results in tetragonality of the
lattice in the z axis. Consequently, additional deformation takes
place and its magnitude increases with loading time.
In fcc lattices, the largest void is found at the point of intersec-
tion of the body diagonals. The interstitial atom in this void causes
cubic stretching of the lattice. Tetragonality maybe the result of the
presence of a pair of interstitial atoms placed in two adjacent lat-
tices. Therefore, the redistribution of the atoms in the FCC lattice
is observed that lower concentrations of the interstitial atoms in
comparison with the FCC lattice. The pair of the interstitial atoms
is reoriented in space under the effect of external stress resulting in
additional deformation which increases with time.
The time for the establishment of the new distribution of the in-
terstitial atoms (relaxation time
r
) is the function of the frequency
of transitions of the interstitial atoms from one position to another.
In this case, it is determined by diffusion equilibrium.
46
The redistribution of the magnetic characteristics is the reflection
of the relationship between the mechanical and magnetic properties
of ferromagnetic materials, especially magnetostriction, i. e. the
change of the geometrical dimensions of the ferromagnetic materi-
als in the direction of the external magnetic field. The phenomenon
is reversible, which means that mechanical loading results in the
displacement of Bloch walls in these materials. The phenomenon can
be suppressed using a sufficiently strong external magnetic field.
The redistribution of temperatures can be illustrated by, for ex-
ample, bending of a beam resting on two supports. When bending
is adiabatic, for example, at a high rate, the flexure is proportional
to the force and is reflected in the compression of the upper fibres
and stretching of the lower fibres. The compressed area is heated
whereas the stretched area is cooled. A temperature gradient forms
in the cross-section of the beam and causes additional deformation
whose magnitude depends on time. The time for obtaining the same
temperature is determined by thermal conductivity, heat capacity and
density. With longitudinal and torsional methods of loading the in-
tensity of the phenomenon is low, but for bend loading it can reach
a significant value with the scattering of the mechanical energy in
the material.
These examples indicate the occurrence of additional deformation,
in addition to primary deformation, especially under repeated load-
ing, which is the reason for the lower values of the dynamic elas-
ticity moduli in comparison with the values determined by static
methods. The deformation process of the actual component is linked
with time by means of additional deformation which may be re-
flected immediately after loading or after a certain period of time,
and the change of the magnitude of additional deformation is con-
trolled by the exponential law and described by the relaxation equa-
tion. Movement towards uniform deformation becomes faster with
the increase of the initial deviation of the characteristics. There may
also be cases in which additional deformation copies the course of
damped vibrations. Consequently, vibrations may change to reso-
nance under the effect of the external force. Additional deformation
may depend on stress by a directly proportional dependence
d
= c,
by means of a certain function (
d
= f()) or hysteresis. From the
viewpoint of time, we can determine immediately f(t) = const ,
determine gradually f(t) = e
(t/)
, or in damped or resonance manner
determine f(t) = e
t
e
it
, where c is the proportionality constant,
is stress, t is time, and the characteristics of the material and
is circular frequency.
47
These examples of the dependence of additional deformation on
stress and time can be combined. Three combinations are important
for practice: relaxation processes (combination of the relationships
d
= c and f(t) = e
t
e
it
), resonance processes (combination of re-
lationships
d
= c and f(t) = e
t
e
(t/)
), and mechanical hysteresis
(combination of hysteresis and f(t) = const).
The relaxation processes are described in Fig. 2. 18. At time
t = 0, stress is generated in the material and its magnitude is
maintained constant. The deformation, corresponding to this stress,
is not detected immediately. Elastic strain
c
forms immediately but
the total value of strain
c
is obtained only after a certain period of
time. The rate of approach to the value
c
is
( )
1
.
c
&
(2.37)
The value
is the time required to obtain

c
under the effect of
constant stress.
The dependences of and in loading and unloading (Fig. 2.19)
show that during a deformation process the specimen is loaded with
a constant stress for some period of time. The tangent of the angle
inclination of the ON line is the Young modulus of the material of
the specimen in the stage in which the total deformation has not yet
been realised. This modulus corresponds to the adiabatic deforma-
tion process and is referred to as the adiabatic or non-relaxed Young
modulus E
N
. The slope of the OR line determines the modulus of
elasticity of the material of the specimen when total deformation has
taken place and relaxation processes have occurred in the specimen.
In the conditions with slow deformation (isothermal loading), dur-
ing the time longer than the relaxation time we obtain the isother-
mal or relaxed Young modulus E
R
which is lower than E
N
.
A different approach to the phenomenon can also be used. The
strain
c
is generated in the specimen at a specific time and is main-
tained constant. It is necessary to decrease the stress, and the rate
of this decrease increasea with increase of the difference of the
stress and equilibrium values
0
(Fig. 2.18b), therefore
( )
0
1
.
(2.38)
48
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.19. .2.19. .2.19. .2.19. .2.19. Stressstrain dependence under the effect of connstant stress (a) and constant
strain (b).
The values

is the relaxation time of stress at constant strain.
The dependence between and is in Fig. 2.19b. It shows that the
non-relaxed and relaxed elasticity moduli must also be differentiated
in this case.
Since
D
= E
R
c
and from equations (2.37) and (2.39) we obtain
the values of
0
and
c
, the relaxation equation has the following
form
( )
.
R
E

+ +
&
(2.39)
Solids fulfilling this condition are referred to as standard linear
solids.
The evaluation of additional strain by static methods is difficult
because these strains are low and the relaxation time is short. It is
therefore necessary to use repeated loading in which strain lags
behind applied stress and the phase shift is (Fig. 2.20a). Dur-
ing a single loading cycle in the coordinates we obtain a char-
acteristic hysteresis loop (Fig. 2.20b). Its area corresponds to the
energy scattered in the material during a single loading cycle (W).
Its axis (line OD) has, however, a different slope in comparison
with the one corresponding to the non-relaxed or relaxed Young
modulus. Consequently, the tangent of the angle of the OD line char-
acterises the dynamic Young modulus E
D
. For the metals, we can
use the equation in the form
49
2 2
1 ,
1
d N
R
E E
r
j \

, (
+
( ,
(2.40)
where R is the degree of dynamic relaxation
,
N R
N
E E
R
E
is the circular loading frequency and

r
is the characteristic proc-
ess time.
The Young modulus determined by the dynamic method is lower
than that the determined by the static methods, i.e. E
D
< E
R
. The
relative difference is approximately 1% and is not associated with
the measurement error. The lower value of E
D
is caused by the fact
that repeated loading is accompanied by higher elastic deformation
in the solid in comparison with the same stress under static load-
ing. Another aspect of the phenomenon (E
D
< E
R
) is that alternated
loading by the same stress as in static loading decreases the defor-
mation resistance of the material. The phase shift is the function
of the loading frequency. At low frequencies () the relaxation
process can take place and W is low (Fig. 2.21). Consequently,
E
D
E
R
. At high frequencies ( ), the relaxation process does
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.20 .2.20 .2.20 .2.20 .2.20. Delay of strain behind stress (a) and the hysteresis loop (b).
50
not manage to take place, there is no additional deformation and
E
D
E
A
and W are low (Fig. 2.21). For an intermediate case in
which
r
= 1 E
D
= (E
N
+ E
R
)/2 and W is high (Fig. 2.21).
In cases with the effect of external factors (for example, the mag-
nitude of acting stress) or internal factors (for example, the reso-
nance of vibrations of dislocations segments with the frequency of
external loading) the area of the hysteresis loop W increases with
increasing number of loading cycles (Fig. 2.22). Consequently, the
dynamic Young modulus gradually decreases as a result of repeated
deformation and this is reflected in the fact that the selected level
of stress leads to higher deformation of the material.
2.2.2 Internal friction
Evaluation of the scatter of the energy inside metal is often used in
the direct experiments, for example, when measuring the dynamic
hysteresis loop, internal friction in the region in which it is depend-
ent on the strain amplitude, etc. Evaluation of the energy losses in
a single loading cycle W in long-term loading characterises the
kinetics of fatigue damage cumulation. The temperature, frequency,
time and amplitude dependences of internal friction provide a large
amount of important information on the mechanisms of micro-
plasticity [24] or elastic characteristics, the defect of the Young
modulus, the degree of relaxation of the stresses in the examined
material, etc.
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.21. .2.21. .2.21. .2.21. .2.21. Frequency dependence of the change of the Young modulus and energy
scattered during a single cycle.
51
Internal friction is the property of the solid characterising its ca-
pacity to scatter irreversibly the energy of mechanical vibrations
[25, 26]. In resonance methods, the internal friction of the material
is determined from the width of a peak or depression on the curve
of the amplitude of the deviation from the loading frequency at a
constant amplitude of vibrations [27]. The amount of the energy
scattered in the material is measured using the quantity
1
0
,
3
Q
(2.41)
where is the half width of the resonance peak at half its height,
and
0
is the circular resonance frequency of vibrations of the
specimen.
Taking equation (2.41) into account, we obtain
1
2 2
.
1
r
r
R
Q
+
(2.42)
At
r
= 1, internal friction is maximum, Q
1
max
= R/2.
Internal friction is also characterised by the relative amount of
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.22. .2.22. .2.22. .2.22. .2.22. Schematic representation of changes of hysteresis loops.
52
energy scattered in a single load cycle , which is determined from
the area of the hysteresis loop W and from the total energy sup-
ply to the system W, corresponding to the maximum strain in the
cycle in which W was determined, therefore
.
W
W

(2.43)
In dynamic measurements
1
.
2
Q
(2.44)
The logarithmic decrement of vibrations is determined by the
equation
1
,
n
n
z
ln
z
+

(2.45)
where z
n
and z
n+1
is the amplitude of the n-th and n + 1 cycle of
damped vibrations of the solid. The numerical values are equal to
the relative scattering of energy (irreversible change of the energy
of vibrations to heat) during a vibration cycle. When << 1, the fol-
lowing equation is valid
2 . (2.46)
For small phase shift values of and (Fig. 2.20) tan =
(1/2)(W/W). The characteristics Q
1
, , , are linked by the
equations
1
tan .
2 2
W
Q
W

(2.47)
The amount of energy absorbed by the solid can also be measured
using other criteria, such as the increment of the vibrations, the
coefficient of absorption of the acoustic wave, etc.
The values of Q
1
, , , etc. can be defined for any stress
53
state. The difference is that in the case of inhomogeneous stress the
characteristics are identical in the entire volume. For inhomogeneous
stress this holds only when Q
1
, , , , etc., are independent of the
strain amplitude. Otherwise, these characteristics represent the mean
values of these quantities in the entire volume of the solid.
Equation (2.47) is valid only for low values of internal friction.
At high values of Q
1
(and, consequently, of , , , etc.) the in-
ternal friction depends on the internal friction mechanisms and must
be determined separately for every case.
The measurements of and depend not only on the frequency
and amplitude of vibrations but also on the type of loading. The
values were determined in transverse and longitudinal vibrations and
depend on, for example, the relaxation mechanism.
The difference of the Young modulus is determined by the equa-
tion
( )
3
.
2 1
G E
+
(2.48)
For the majority of metals and alloys = 0.270.37 which shows
that the changes of G are 1018% higher than the changes of E.
It is therefore more efficient to determine the value of G than E.
2.2.3 Mechanisms of energy scattering in the material
Internal friction is an integral representation of the activity of the
individual components which depend or do not depend on frequency.
The frequency-dependent components include the thermoelastic
phenomenon, the movement of valency electrons, the viscosity of
grain boundaries, the movement of interstitial atoms in interstitial
solid solutions, the movement of interstitial atoms in substitutional
solid solutions, the change of the orientation of paired defects, and
dislocation relaxation.
The thermoelastic phenomenon can be observed when loading sol-
ids produced from single crystals or polycrystalline materials. If a
test bar is loaded with a sufficiently high rate, the bar is extended
by the value 0a' (Fig. 2.23). Accurate measurements show that the
elongation of the bar is accompanied by its cooling. The extended
and partially cooled bar equalises its temperature to ambient tem-
perature and, consequently, it is extended by the value a' b' . This
extension is referred to as the direct elastic after-effect and its rate
54
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.23. .2.23. .2.23. .2.23. .2.23. Diagram illustrating the thermoelastic phenomenon.
is low. As a result of compression the bar is again heated in rela-
tion to the environment and a reverse process takes place. In re-
peated loading of the material, this phenomenon causes the scatter
of supplied energy. Zener calculated that the scatter depends on the
dilation coefficient, heat conductivity, specific mass and the Young
modulus of the examined material. The thermoelastic phenomenon is
strongest in the frequency range from 1 Hz to 1 kHz. The frequency
at which damping is maximum is equal to D/D
2
z
, where D is the self-
diffusion coefficient and d
z
is the mean the grain size of the poly-
crystalline material.
The movement of valency electrons, associated with external
loading, can be observed especially at low temperatures (several
Kelvins) and at a high frequency of changes of the orientation of
loading of the solid. At a relatively high rate of compression of the
material, for example, in the x direction, the velocity of movement
of the valency electrons in this direction increases. This changes the
original, for example, the spherical Fermi level to an ellipsoid. The
new shape of the Fermi level is obtained after a certain period of
time and the stress in compression, required for elastic deformation,
gradually decreases. Part of the supplied vibrational energy is con-
sumed for these changes.
The vi scosi t y of t he grai n boundari es i s charact eri sed by
microplastic deformation which already forms under the effect of
low shear stresses and is associated with the displacement of the
atoms of the grain boundaries, even though the deformation of the
grains is only elastic. This leads to hysteresis phenomena. When a
polycrystal is subjected to repeated loading at low temperature, the
energy scatter is small (Fig. 2.24) because the time available is too
short for atom displacement. In loading in the medium temperature
55
range there is a significant scatter of the supplied energy explained
by the self diffusion of atoms along the grain boundaries.
The movement of interstitial atoms in the interstitial solid solu-
tions can be evaluated most efficiently in -iron which contains car-
bon and nitrogen, already at room temperature and a frequency of
approximately 1 Hz.
According to Snoek, if steel is not subjected to external loading,
the carbon or nitrogen atoms are in octahedral positions, Fig. 2.25.
When stress is applied, the atoms are transferred to stretched inter-
stitial positions from compressed positions. The length of the jump
in repeated loading is x = (a2)/2, where a is the lattice spacing.
The time t required to travel the distance x is determined by the
equation x
2
= Dt, where D is the coefficient of diffusion in -iron.
For a diffusion process, time
1
, required for a single jump, is
determined by the equation
1 0
.
q
kT
e

(2.49)
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.24. .2.24. .2.24. .2.24. .2.24. Temperature dependence of internal friction for polycrystalline aluminium
(1) and single crystal aluminium (2) at a frequency of vibrations of 0.8 Hz.
56
where
0
is the physical constant, k is the Boltzmann constant, T is
absolute temperature, and q is the size of the energy barrier which
the carbon atom must overcome when jumping from the interstitial
position to the adjacent one.
When the time t, given by the frequency of external stress, is
many times higher than
1
for the given temperature, the carbon
atoms manage to move under the effect of external stress, without
deformation lagging behind stress. When t <<
1
, the carbon atoms
remain in their sites and there is no delay (). Only at t
1
, the
interstitial atoms exert time-dependent resistance to deformation
resulting in a delay and, consequently, damping, Fig. 2.26. In this
case, x
2
= D
1
. Consequently
2
1
2
.
2
a
D
The maximum of internal friction Q
1
is directly proportional to the
concentration of the interstitial element in the solid solution.
The increase of the frequency of vibrations displaces the maxi-
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.25. .2.25. .2.25. .2.25. .2.25. Positions for the distribution of interstitial atoms in the cubic body-centred
lattice: 1) atoms of the main metal; 2) octahedral positions; 3) tetrahedral positions.
57
mum of Q
1
to higher temperatures, without any change of the height
of the peak. Similar maxima of Q
1
were detected for the bcc met-
als with interstitial atoms (for example, nitrogen in iron, nitrogen
in tantalum, oxygen and nitrogen in vanadium and niobium, etc.).
Snoek friction enables the diffusion coefficient to be measured at
room temperature. It makes it possible to evaluate the change of the
carbon content of the solid solution; this is highly advantageous in
investigations of precipitation processes.
The movement of interstitial atoms in fcc lattices, being an ana-
logue of the previous description, was observed but the internal fric-
tion resulting from the movement of these atoms was extremely
small because the deformation of the lattice by the interstitial at-
oms is small. This also applies to vacancies or substitutional atoms
placed in the nodal sites of the lattice.
The change of the orientation of pair defects contributes to the
formation of internal friction. The effect of the external forces
changes the orientation of the individual pairs of defects (pairs of
vacancies, substitutional and interstitial atoms, substitutional atom
and vacancy, in the close vicinity). It is assumed that a pair of
substitutional atoms is situated in the cubic lattice. A pair of de-
fect s causes deformat i on of t he cl ose vi ci ni t y and resul t s i n
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.26. .2.26. .2.26. .2.26. .2.26. Temperature dependence of internal friction for pure iron with 0.027 wt.%
of nitrogen.
58
tetragonality of the lattice. If the metal is not subjected to the ef-
fect of external forces, the individual pairs of the defects are ori-
ented randomly according to the orientation of the individual crys-
tals, Fig. 2.27. After applying an external force, the orientation of
the pair of the defects changes. When the pairs of the defects are
formed by atoms larger than the atoms of the main lattice, under the
effect of the external force they are oriented in the direction of the
external force. This may be used to explain the maximum of damp-
ing for CuZn alloy (Zeener), AgZn (Nowick, Fig. 2.28) and other
alloys.
The extent of damping is proportional to the number of defect
pairs which can change the orientation.
The relaxation of dislocations (Bordoni phenomenon) is associ-
ated with the change of stress in the dislocation line. The decrease
of stress is determined by the movement of small kinks of the dis-
locations pinned at impurities or other dislocations (Manson). The
dislocation line can be shortened as a result of vibrations of the dis-
locations and depends on the shape of the dislocation line and the
level of local stress (Seeger). The formation of the maximum of in-
ternal friction at a specific temperature depends strongly on the fre-
quency of repeated stress because the phenomenon is of the reso-
nance nature. Dislocational frequency-dependent friction forms at
megahertz frequencies. In the case of kilohertz frequencies, it is pos-
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.27. .2.27. .2.27. .2.27. .2.27. Illustration of the change of a pair of defects under the effect of a pair
of defects.
59
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.28. .2.28. .2.28. .2.28. .2.28. Temperature dependence of internal friction of AgZn single crystals with
the (110) orientation containing: 1) 3.7 wt.% Zn; 2) 10.6 wt.% Zn; 3) 16.5 wt.%
Zn; 4) 26.2 wt.% Zn; 5) 30.25 wt.% Zn.
sible to ignore the dislocational frequency-dependent friction.
Information on the operation of the individual mechanisms of
scattering of mechanical energy in the material at different frequen-
cies is presented in Fig. 2.29. The formation of internal friction
peaks, their height and frequency affiliation are a function of the
type of material, its composition, substructural state and, in particu-
lar, temperature during loading.
The frequency-i ndependent processes i ncl ude t he magnet o-
mechanical phenomenon and the amplitude-dependent vibration of
dislocation segments.
The magnetomechanical phenomenon is the result of magnetic
hysteresis in ferromagnetic materials and is associated with the
movement of Bloch walls. The effect of this component of internal
friction can be greatly suppressed by applying a sufficiently strong
external field to the loaded solid. For example, a magnetic flux with
an intensity of 210
4
Am
1
greatly decreases the contribution of this
phenomenon in iron and mild steel.
The amplitude-dependent vibration of the segments of the dislo-
cations can be described using the model of vibration of an an-
60
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.29. .2.29. .2.29. .2.29. .2.29. Change of internal friction in relation to loading frequency the orientation
indication of maxima at 20C for different energy scattering mechanisms: 1) change
of orientation of pair defects; 2) viscosity of grain boundaries; 3) viscosity of twin
boundaries; 4) movement of interstitial atoms; 5) thermoelastic phenomenon; 6)
exchange of thermal energy between grains.
chored spring, in accordance with the GranatoLcke theory [28],
supplemented by other authors.
We shall assume a random dislocation distribution in a crystal of
a real metal. Some parts of the dislocations L are pinned, for ex-
ample, due to the presence of clusters of point defects K at the dis-
locations, Fig. 2.30. Selecting a dislocation segment and gradually
increasing the amplitude of external stress
a
, after reaching some
value
a
the segments with the length L
p
will bend (Fig. 2.30b) in
areas where they are not blocked. As a result of tensile loading, the
pinning points can move in the dislocation line, depending on the
origin. After reaching the critical value
a
, when 2r = L
p
(2.30c),
the individual segments with the original length L
p
can combine in
a single segment with length L
n
(Fig. 2.30d).
The increase of stress results in a linear increase of strain
disl
(section ABC in Fig. 2.31) up to the stress resulting in unpinning
of the dislocation from the pinning points (section CD). Another in-
crease of stress increases the strain in accordance with the DG
curve, up to the formation of a new dislocation from a source with
the distance of the pinning points L
n
. After unstressing, the strain
61
a
= 0 increasing
a
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.30. .2.30. .2.30. .2.30. .2.30. Diagram describing the vibration of parts of pinned dislocations and the
formation of new dislocations.
decreases along the GDA line, i.e. in the direction differing from
that during loading. In repeated loading the curve passes along the
points ABEF and FEA. The area defined by these curves is propor-
tional to the absorbed scattered energy and its size depends on the
number of points from which the dislocation became unpinned. The
process of unpinning of the dislocation and generation of new dis-
locations is shown in Fig. 2.30e. After a further increase of the
stress amplitude up to some critical value, the dislocations segment
with the initial length L
n
can therefore generate dislocation kinks
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.31. .2.31. .2.31. .2.31. .2.31. Dependence of stress on dislocational strain.
62
and renew the activity of the dislocations source (Fig. 2.30f) which
leads in the final analysis to cyclic microplastic deformation.
These processes, starting with the vibration of the segments of
the dislocations pinned at the points K up to the generation of new
dislocations, depends on the magnitude of the stress amplitude
a
or the strain amplitude and provide different contributions to the
extent of internal friction.
Because of the importance of the effect of the stress amplitude
on the extent of internal friction in the examination of substructural,
structural and deformation characteristics of materials and the deri-
vation of relationships of fatigue damage cumulation in materials,
the problem is examined in detail, especially in section 3.2 and
chapter 6 of this book.
Hysteresis is observed to various degrees in all materials. The
main reason for it is the irreversible movement of the dislocations
in the stress field, i.e. microplastic deformation. The hysteresis
curve in the ideal case is independent of time and depends only on
the magnitude of stress. Consequently, the Young modulus and in-
ternal friction are independent of frequency but depend on the strain
amplitude. The slope of the hysteresis loop and its area do not
change in relation to the rate of repetition of loading. The shape of
the hysteresis loop is influenced mainly by the level of the maximum
stress.
Figure 2.32 shows schematically the frequency (A) and amplitude
(B) dependence of the Young modulus and internal friction for the
case of relaxation (I), resonance (II) and hysteresis (III).
The third case is of special importance for engineering. Strain
amplitude-dependent internal friction, formed at high strain ampli-
tudes, makes it possible to suppress the development of dangerous
resonance states of components, sections and whole structures.
2.3 Defect of the Young modulus
The above results show that the Young modulus is not a physical
constant but it is a characteristic influenced by a large number of
factors.
In practice, the concept of the ideal Young modulus can be used
only for an isotropic, single-phase and defect-free metallic material,
deformed in the elastic stress range.
When loading a real solid, total strain contains the elastic
strain
e
and additional plastic strain
p
, which depends on the mag-
nitude of acting stress and also loading rate, Fig. 2.33. The occur-
rence of the additional, plastic deformation changes the Young
63
modulus of the material which is characterised in this case by the
effective value, for example, E
ef
. In static measurements of E
ef
, we
can use the following equation
.
ef
e p
E

+
(2.50)
When measuring the elastic characteristics of materials we deter-
mine their effective values. The difference between the ideal and
effective modulus of elasticity (Young moduus) is small but, in some
cases, for example, in measurements of the elasticity moduli by
static methods at stresses of (0.70.8) R
e
the difference may reach
4050% [29]. When evaluating the effective values of the elastic-
ity moduli, it is useful to take into account information on the struc-
tural sensitivity of the elasticity moduli.
The effective values of the elasticity moduli are useful not only
for engineering calculations but they also represent a source of valu-
able information on the nature and mechanisms of the additional,
plastic component of the total strain. In this case, it is recommended
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.32. .2.32. .2.32. .2.32. .2.32. Changes of the Young modulus and internal friction in relation to frequency
(A) and strain amplitude (B) for relaxation (I), resonance (II) and hysteresis processes
(III).
64
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.33. .2.33. .2.33. .2.33. .2.33. Composition of total strain during loading of material.
to use a dimensionless parameter, the so-called defect of the Young
modulus, defined by the equation
,
ef
E E
E
E E
(2.51)
where E is the ideal or initial value of the Young modulus. The re-
lationship of the defect of the Young modulus with
p
depends on
the loading conditions. Figure 2.33 shows that in static loading
.
p
d
E
E d
In repeated loading with the stress =

0
exp (i t) the result-
ant strain contains the elastic component of strain
e
and the plas-
tic component of strain
p
, i.e. =
e
+
p
. The inelastic, plastic
component of strain can be divided into the following parts:
p
=
p
i
p
. The phase of the first part (
p
) is identical with the ex-
ternal loading phase. The phase of the second part (
p
) is displaced
by 90 in relation to the external loading phase. The occurrence of
p
is determined by the scatter of the elastic energy of vibrations in
65
the material. Different mechanisms of the transformation of the
energy of elastic deformation to thermal energy are included in the
integral name: internal friction.
Consequently
**
1
.
p
e
Q
(2.52)
The formation of
p
results in a change of the elastic properties
of the material which are characterised in this case by the dynamic
Young modulus
.
D
e p
E

+
(2.53)
The difference between the values of the static and dynamic elas-
ticity moduli is associated with the fact that the real solid is not
characterised by ideal elasticity. The value of E
D
depends on the
type, nature and mechanisms of anelasticity of the material and,
consequently, it is the equivalent of E
ef
, determined in static load-
ing. For the case of repeated loading we have
.
p
e
E
E

(2.54)
The effective elasticity moduli are the result of the effect of sev-
eral factors which can be conventionally divided into two groups.
The first group includes the factors which take into account the
phase composi t i on, st ruct ural st at e, t he l evel of mi cro- and
macrostresses, etc. This classification has a number of problems
because both groups overlap.
It is useful to distinguish between the nonlinear and nonelastic
behaviour of the material. The anelastic behaviour the material re-
sults in the formation of a hysteresis loop. The nonlinear nature of
the dependence results in the formation of E
ef
and E/E with the
change of . The anelasticity phenomena, associated with the for-
mation of the hysteresis loops, indicate the nonlinear behaviour of
the material.
66
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.34 .2.34 .2.34 .2.34 .2.34. Form of the hysteresis loop of the material with E/E = 0 (a) and
E/E 0 (b)
However, the occurrence of the defect of the Young modulus is
not direct confirmation of the anelastic behaviour of the material.
The evaluation of the contour of the hysteresis loop makes it pos-
sible to determine the parameter characterising the amount of scat-
tered energy, i.e. the area of the hysteresis loop W. The level of
the defect of the Young modulus is determined by the middle line of
the hysteresis loop [30].
In the symmetric hysteresis loop (Fig. 2.34a) the middle line is
straight. Here, the defect of the Young modulus is equal to 0. If E/
E 0, the loading curve must be nonlinear, Fig. 2. 34b. Conse-
quently
2
2
,
D
W
E
(2.55)
where
W d
z

b g
0
0
.
The nonlinear form of the middle line of the hysteresis loop is the
result of the effect of two types of factors. They are factors whose
effect results only in the formation of the defect of the Young modu-
67
lus, and factors causing both the defect of the Young modulus and
anelastic scattering of energy in the material. Additional deforma-
tion is immediately evident and depends only on the magnitude of
acting stress.
The type of anelastic processes, related to the second group of
the factors, is determined by the type of the dependence of the ad-
ditional plastic deformation on the acting stress and loading time.
In anelastic processes of the relaxation type, the defect of the
Young modulus, referred to as the degree of relaxation, is deter-
.
N R
N
E E E
E E

(2.56)
The magnetomechanical mechanism of relaxation in ferromagnetic
materials can cause the formation of the defect of the Young modu-
lus depending on saturation. The value E is the tensor of the fifth
order and depends on the mutual orientation of the main axes of the
strain tensor, crystallographic axes and the saturation vector. The
formation of the E effect is associated with the change of the do-
main structure of the ferromagnetic material during loading. It is
reflected in additional, anelastic deformation. The increase of satu-
ration from zero to the value I results in a change [31] of the Young
modulus in accordance with the equation
( ) ( ) 0
2
2
1 ,
I
b
K K Vf g
a
j \
+
, (
( ,
(2.57)
where
2
2
,
F
f
V
F is the free energy of the ferromagnetic material

,
F
g
V
a, b are the coefficients in the Bridgman equation

68
2
6 ,
V
aP P
V
+
where P is pressure and V is volume.
The change of the Young modulus E of the ferromagnetic ma-
terials
,
S
E E E (2.58)
where E
S
and E are the elasticity moduli of the material in the satu-
rated and initial conditions.
The value of the E phenomenon is high in materials with high
magnetostriction, with moderate magnetic crystallographic anisot-
ropy and a low level of internal stresses. The characteristic E/E
S
reaches almost 20%, for example, in the case of annealed nickel.
One of the manifestations of the E phenomenon is the difference
between the values of the elasticity moduli measured by dynamic
methods whilst maintaining a constant value of the external mag-
netic field (E
H
) and saturation (E
S
), and
2
1
,
S H
H
E E
k
E
(2.59)
where k
1
is the coefficient of the magnetomechanical bond.
When the temperature is increased to the range around Curie tem-
perature, the material changes to the paramagnetic state, the E
phenomenon disappears and normal changes of the elasticity moduli
in relation to temperature are recorded above T
C
(Fig. 2.35).
In the saturated condition, the dependence of the Young modulus
on temperature has the conventional form. However, for certain al-
loys (for example, Elinvar) the effect of the magnetic field with the
saturated value results in anomalies in the E T dependence. Iron
with 45 wt.% Ni in a magnetic field with an intensity of 0.8 10
4
A m
1
shows values independent of temperature from 0 to 470C.
The movement of the dislocations under the effect of the exter-
nal stress is the reason for the dislocation or anelasticity of the ma-
terials. The existence of a large variety of dislocation structures and
of specific features of the interaction of dislocations with point
69
defects and atoms of the alloying elements in alloys requires the
development of various mechanisms describing dislocation anelast-
icity. These mechanisms have been described in greater detail in
Ref. 2, 32.
Additional strain
p
, caused by dislocation anelasticity, is propor-
tional to the total length of moving dislocations and the mean value
of displacement of the dislocations from the initial (equilibrium) po-
sition. The controlling factor is the change of the local character-
istics of interaction of the dislocations and the atoms of the alloy-
ing elements situated in the atmospheres around the dislocations in
the solid solution.
In cases in which the dislocation does not interact with other dis-
locations, the movement of a single unpinned dislocation in the
ideal, pure material is of the viscous type. The rheological proper-
ties of the elasticviscous bond are important in this case. The hys-
teresis loops of mechanical hysteresis of such a material are in fact
ellipses which grow symmetrically with increasing stress (Fig.
2.36a). In actual metallic materials, the movement of the individual
dislocations is associated with overcoming barriers of various type.
The magnitude of stress, required for the start of movement of the
dislocations, is associated with the considerations of the dry fric-
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.35. .2.35. .2.35. .2.35. .2.35. Temperature dependence of the Young modulus of polycrystalline nickel
for different saturated magnetic fields (10
4
Am
1
): 1) 0; 2) 0.05; 3) 0.08; 4) 0.33;
5) 0.85; 6) 4.8 (complete saturation).
70
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.36. .2.36. .2.36. .2.36. .2.36. Hysteresis loops in operation of different mechanisms of energy scattering
in material.
tion mechanism. The nonlinear form of the curve and open-
ing of the hysteresis loop takes place only at >
t
, where
t
is the
stress for dry friction (Fig. 2.36b). Here, the defect of the Young
modulus and internal friction depend on the amplitude of acting
stress. The form of the curve in Fig. 2.36b is identical with the
deformation diagram for the mechanism of dragging the atmospheres
of alloying elements by the dislocations temporarily arrested and
blocked on a system of the disordered obstacles.
t
has its own
physical meaning for every case.
The mechanisms of dislocation anelasticity are based on the
physical models of two types. They are the models of detachment
of dislocations which are probable a modification of the dry fric-
tion model. In these models, friction does not take place in all points
of the space, but only in microvolumes with the effect of solute at-
oms. The hysteresis loop for this case is in Fig. 2.36c. The second
type of model links the displacement of the elastic stress field,
which surrounds the dislocation during its movement, with special
features of the redistribution of the atmosphere of solute atoms.
Redistribution is regarded as a diffusion process in a changing
inhomogeneous stress field around the dislocation and is described
on the basis of the considerations of the elasticviscous nature of
bonding.
71
Qualitatively similar results were obtained for the case of inter-
act i on of t he di sl ocat i ons by t he mechani sm of di sl ocat i on
anelasticity. They are based on the assumption on the conservation
of the dislocation density of the type of dislocation configuration.
Hysteresis anelasticity, formed by the movement of dislocations,
results in a decrease of the elasticity moduli in the form
.
,
disl
Ed E
E d

(2.60)
where
disl
is the dislocational strain. Equation (2.60) characterises
the defect of the Young modulus in the stress range preceding the
development of microplastic deformation.
Taking into account the model of vibrations of a spring accord-
ing to Granato and Lcke [33], the defect of the Young modulus is
determined by the equation
2
2
6
,
d
E
L
E

(2.61)
where is the orientation factor,
d
is the dislocation density, L is
the effective length of the dislocation determined by the equation
1/L = 1/L
p
+ 1/L
n
.
The redistribution of dislocations and also dislocation multipli-
cation processes contributes to the anelasticity of the material. For
these processes to take place, it must be >
t
(Fig. 2.36d).
The increase of the proportion of mutual interaction of the dis-
locations at a sufficiently high external stress results in a more dis-
tinctive nonlinear form of the curve and in a significant in-
crease of the defect of the Young modulus. In the microplastic
range, the dependence of the defect of the Young modulus on the
stress amplitude or strain (e) amplitude has the form
,
a
E
Ae
E
(2.62)
where A and a are the parameters that depend on the type and con-
ditions of loading.
The mechanisms of dislocational anelasticity are characterised by
72
a wide spectrum of the relaxation times. All models are character-
ised by the directly proportional relationship of the defect of the
Young modulus with the density of moving dislocations. In annealed
materials, the defect of the Young modulus, based on dislocation be-
haviour, is only several tenths of a per cent.
At higher temperatures, the anelasticity mechanism at the grain
boundaries is also important. It is associated mainly with the vis-
cous slip in the vicinity of the grain boundaries. Calculations of the
defect of the Young modulus for this type of relaxation show that
it is strongly influenced by the Poisson number and may represent
several tens of per cent, as confirmed for alpha brass.
The anel ast i c nat ure of deformat i on of t he mat eri al duri ng
cycling loading results in the occurrence of two mutually linked phe-
nomena, internal friction and the defect of the Young modulus. In
accordance with the equations (2.52) and (2.54), we can write that
1
,
p
p
Q
M
E
E

(2.63)
The main source of information on the anelasticity mechanisms and
the values of the parameters controlling these mechanisms is still the
measurement of internal friction. On the basis of a large number of
measurements and publications of internal friction it was assumed
that the defect of the Young modulus is a characteristic of second-
ary importance which does not provide any further information. The
latest results show that internal friction and the defect of the Young
modulus are not identical anelasticity characteristics, because inter-
nal friction evaluates the size of the hysteresis loop and the latter
the nonlinearity of the central line of the loop. Under the combined
effect of a large number of external factors and reactions of the
material in the form of activation of various anelasticity mecha-
nisms, it may be seen that each of them provides a separate contri-
bution to the formation of hysteresis loops observed in practice.
Detailed information on the behaviour of the material under the ef-
fect of external alternating loading may be obtained by combined
measurements with evaluation of the internal friction and the defect
of the Young modulus.
These characteristics (Q
1
, E/E) are measured by two methods,
i.e. as the isothermal dependences of the defect of the Young modu-
73
lus on strain amplitude or as the dependence of the defect of the
Young modulus on temperature at a constant stress or strain ampli-
tude. In the first case, the defect of the Young modulus is deter-
mined from the equation
2 2
2
,
r x
r
f f E
A
E f

(2.64)
where f
r
and f
x
is the natural frequency of vibrations of the speci-
men, determined at the minimum stress amplitude and at the selected
stress amplitude. In the second case, the defect of the Young modu-
lus is determined from equation (2.51), and E
ef
has the meaning of
the dynamic Young modulus at temperature T determined from equa-
tion (2.22). The numerical values of the parameters in equation
(2.22) are determined by the approximation of the temperature de-
pendence of the elasticity moduli from the region of lower tempera-
tures where the effect of the evaluated mechanisms of anelasticity
can be ignored.
The relationship between Q
1
and E/E (equation 2.63) is deter-
mined by the type of the mechanism of the scattering of mechani-
cal energy in the material. For the case of the effect of the relaxa-
tion and resonance mechanisms, internal friction has only the tem-
perature-frequency dependence. The internal friction, caused by the
hysteresis mechanism, depends on the strain amplitude and remains
al most const ant wi t h i ncreasi ng l oadi ng frequency. Taki ng t he
results into account, equation (2.63) changes for different mecha-
nisms of scattering of mechanical energy.
When the value of the fraction M in equation (2.63) is 0.5, the
internal friction peak characterises a specific relaxation time, or the
peak forms by the superimposition of several relaxation maxima. In
the second case, the value of the defect of the Young modulus is
determined with the accuracy equal to the accuracy of determina-
tion of the sum of the degrees of relaxation of every relaxation
process. The total height of the peak is smaller than the sum of the
heights of every separate maximum. In the case of superimposition
of several relaxation maxima, the value of ratio M in equation
(2.63) is lower than 0.5. If thermal relaxation takes place in the
material, the defect of the Young modulus is determined by the dif-
ference of the adiabatic and isothermal elasticity moduli.
The effect of the resonance mechanisms of internal scatter of
74
energy can be explained on the example of reverse movement of the
dislocations in a viscous medium (GranatoLcke model). Additional
deformation occurs by displacement of the dislocations in the exter-
nal stress field
p
=
d
bl, where
d
is dislocation density, b is the
Burgers vector, and l is the mean displacement of the dislocations
in the slip plane determined from the equation
( )
0
1
,
p
L
p
l l x dl
L
(2.65)
where L
p
is the length of the dislocation segment between the pin-
ning points. The x axis is oriented in the direction of dislocation
movement.
For the model of the elastic string, the equation of movement at
kilohertz and megahertz frequencies has the form
2
2
2
,
i t
l l
B be
t x

+

(2.66)
where B is the characteristic of viscous friction,
2
is the linear en-
ergy of the dislocations. Consequently
4
1
1
2
,
d p
A B L
Q
(2.67)
2
2
,
d p
E
A L
E

(2.68)
where A
1
A
2
1/6 is a coefficient which depends on the value of
2
.
The equations (2.67) and (2.16) show that the values of Q
1
and
E/E for the same model characterise different aspects of the proc-
ess. The area of the hysteresis loop and the formation of Q
1
are de-
termined by the viscous movement of the dislocations and, conse-
quently, depend on the loading frequency and viscous friction coef-
ficient B. The defect of the Young modulus is determined by the
75
effective force of linear stretching of the dislocation.
For the given resonance mechanism of anelasticity, the ratio M
from equation (2.63) is proportional to
2
2
.
p
B L
For copper at room temperature, a frequency of 100 kHz and L

p
=
5 10
3
mm M = 0.04.
Simultaneous measurements of Q
1
and E/E using equations
(2.67) and (2.16) have been described only in a very small number
of cases. The available studies indicate that for alloys the ratio M
from equation (2.63) is in the range 0.050.1 when the content of
the atoms of the alloying elements is increased from 0.5 up to 5
wt.%, but when the prior strain is increased to 30%, the value of
the ratio rapidly decreases. Increase of the carbon concentration
results in a decrease of L
p
in proportion to C
0.6
, and the value of
L
p
is 1040 times higher than the calculated values of the mean
spacing of the atoms of the alloying elements on the dislocations.
Areas of dislocation pinning in concentrated solid solutions are not
represented by the individual atoms of the alloying elements but by
their clusters containing several tens of these atoms, as shown for
solid solutions based on aluminium and iron [34].
For the hysteresis type of anelasticity of the material, the rela-
tionship between Q
1
and E/E depends on the relationship between
anelastic strain
p
and external stress . When the anelasticity of
the material is linear under the effect of external stress, both com-
ponents
p
and
p
depend in the same manner on the external stress
. Consequently, the ratio determined by equation (2.63) does not
depend on stress amplitude nor on loading frequency.
Two mechanisms of dislocational anelasticity have been devel-
oped. For the first case, the hysteresis of dislocations is the result
of cyclic break away of the dislocations from the atmospheres of the
solute atoms. The ratio M, determined by equation (2.63), for this
case is a constant and its value varies from ~ 0.3 (for the theoreti-
cal model according to Granato and Lcke) up to ~ 1 for the mecha-
nisms of thermal activation of release of dislocations from the at-
mospheres.
In these models, the maximum value of dislocational strain is re-
stricted by the tensile force in the dislocation. Increase of the ex-
76
ternal stress amplitude increases the magnitude of bowout of the dis-
location and the level of dislocational strain is influenced by inter-
actions of the dislocations with internal barriers, for example, with
stress fields from a dislocation forrest, mosaic boundaries, etc.
Subsequently, increase of the stress amplitude should result in a
decrease of the ratio determined by equation (2.63).
The second type of mechanisms is based on the evaluation of vis-
cous movement of the dislocations in the lattice with uniformly dis-
tributed solute atoms. For this approach, the dependence of the
speed of dislocations v
d
on the value of acting stress has the form
0
1
,
m
d
V V
j \
, (
( ,
(2.69)
where v
0
,
1
, m are experimental constants. For this model [35] with
the change of m from 1 to higher values, the ratio determined by
equation (2.63) is in the range 0.850.93.
In simultaneous measurements of Q
1
and E/E on single crystals
of copper, zinc, and on solid solutions of these elements with the
content of solute elements to 0.01 wt.%, the ratio determined by
equation (2.63) in the range of dependence of Q
1
on strain ampli-
tude is 0.51.0. For a copper alloy with 35 wt.% Zn, the ratio is
from 0.06 to 0.25.
Under the effect of higher strain amplitude the material behaves
as a nonlinear solid. This is reflected in the value of the ratio de-
termined by equation (2.63), because it becomes dependent on the
strain amplitude. Two types of dependence can be observed in this
case.
In the case of a purely hysteresis mechanism of anelasticity, the
increase of nonlinearity of the dependence results in a directly
proportional decrease of the value of the ratio determined by equa-
tion (2.63), as shown in Fig. 2.37a. The second type of the depend-
ence of M on stress amplitude appears when the viscous movement
of fresh unpinned dislocations in the crystal lattice dominates at
<
cr2
. Increase of the level of microplasticity increases the den-
sity of fresh dislocations and this lead to an increase of the value
of coefficient B which depends on the frequency of intersection of
the dislocations moving in non-complanar slip planes. In this case,
the value of M is proportional to the parameter B and will increase
with increasing . This is observed for, for example, copper, Fig.
77
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.2.37. .2.37. .2.37. .2.37. .2.37. Dependence of , G/G and r on the strain amplitude of annealed materials
at a frequency of 2 Hz.
2.37. At <
cr2
M is constant. The change of M with increasing
with both dependences added up together is shown in Fig. 2.37c.
This shows that the M dependence is highly sensitive to the
development of nonlinear anelasticity. Consequently, measurements
of the M dependence can be used to determine the range of lin-
ear and microplastic anelasticity.
If microplastic processes take place in the material, it can be
seen that the dependence of G/G on is irreversible. Evaluation
of the defect of the Young modulus with the change of temperature
and at a specific value of the strain amplitude showed that the val-
ues of E/E decrease to lower strain amplitude and are associated
with the processes of thermal activation of dislocation movement.
Consequently
,
H V
kT
E
Ae
E
(2.70)
where A is the proportionality constant, H is the effective value of
78
activation enthalpy, and V is the activation volume.
It is obvious that the elasticity characteristics and anelasticity of
the material are influenced by a large number of external and inter-
nal factors.
Factors Affecting Anelasticity of Materials
79
3
FACTORS AFFECTING ANELASTICITY
OF MATERIALS
The resultant value of the extent of internal friction and the defect
of the Young modulus is the integral representation of frequency-
dependent and frequency-independent mechanisms of scattering of
mechanical energy in materials and also of many other processes,
phenomena and mechanisms which can operate in different mate-
rials under the effect of different external influences.
In this chapter, attention will be given to explaining the physi-
cal nature of internal friction which is independent of the strain
amplitude, the so-called internal friction background Q
1
and also
the effect of temperature for materials with different structures and
substructures. Since the problem of cyclic microplasticity is exam-
ined in Chapter 6, in this chapter, we shall present only the main
data on the effect of the strain amplitude on internal friction and
the defect of the elasticity (Young) modulus. However, special at-
tention will be given to the effect of loading frequency, loading time,
the number of load cycles and the effect of the magnetic field in
ferromagnetic materials.
Each section shows that, in addition to understanding the nature
and effects of the individual influences, it is also important to ob-
tain information on the accuracy of measurement of Q
1
or E/E
on the change of these factors.
Many of t he effect s are not uni que and oft en overl ap, act
together or against each other. This is also explained by the dif-
ferences in the effect of temperature on internal friction and pos-
sibly the defect of the Young modulus, because other mechanisms
are determined by the response of the material to repeated load-
ing and this reaction is significantly influenced by temperature in
loading.
80
3.1. INTERNAL FRICTION BACKGROUND
When measuring the internal friction of materials in the area in
which there are no phase transformations and in the range of the
strain amplitudes in which the internal friction does not depend on
the strain amplitude, the internal friction background is recorded as
the reflection of the integral mechanisms of scattering of mechani-
cal energy in the material.
The quantification and analysis of the internal friction back-
ground has been the subject of special attention in the development
of new structurally stable creep-resisting materials [25,28]. Conse-
quently, it is necessary to evaluate theoretical models and activity
of the mechanisms in a wide temperature range [36].
There are three stages of the dependence of the internal fric-
tion background Q
1
0
on temperature: 1) slight, approximately linear
dependence Q
1
0
T at temperatures lower than (0. 50. 6)T
m
; 2)
the experimental dependence of the type Q
1
0
at temperatures higher
than 0.6T
m
; 3) the stage of decrease of the growth of the internal
friction background at temperatures close to the melting point.
In t he fi rst st age of t he dependence Q
1
0
(T) we can use t he
theory proposed by Granato and Lucke [28] in the form
1 4 2
0
~ and ~
M
Q L L
M

(3.1)
where is the density of the vibrating dislocations, and the mean-
ing of L was explained in the section 2/2/3. The temperature de-
pendence of Q
1
0
is associated with the function of distribution of
dislocations on the basis of their orientation [37] and with the type
of dislocation clusters [13]. The length subdivision of the disloca-
tion segments has no significant effect on Q
1
0

[39].
At present, special attention is given to the next two stages of
the Q
1
0
(T) dependence. The general relationships were evaluated
for the first time by the author of Ref. 40 and then in Ref. 26,
where it was shown that the internal friction background correlates
with the creep strength of the materials, i.e. as the creep strength
of the alloy increases, the value of Q
1
0
at the examined tempera-
ture decreases. The results showed a relationship between the flow
stress and creep rate with the value of internal friction [41]. The
internal friction background is influenced by many factors.
81
Fig. 3.1. Dependence of internal friction on temperature for copper filament crystals
(a) silicon filament crystals (b). a: 1) initial condition, 2) after plastic deformation
at room temperature, 3) polycrystalline specimens. b: 1) initial condition, 2) after
0.6% deformation, 3) after 1.1% deformation, 4) after 1.5% deformation, 5) after
anneling at 800C/1 h.
3.1.1. The substructural and structural state of material
The intergral value of Q
1
0
is influenced significantly by the mecha-
nisms determined by the presence of dislocations [42,43]. For ex-
ample, examination of whisker crystals showed that there is a re-
lationship between the value of Q
1
0
and dislocation density, Fig.
3.1. Internal friction reacts sensitively to the increase of disloca-
tion density in whisker crystals [44], i.e. Q
1
0
increases with in-
creasi ng t emperat ure and t he second and t hi rd st age of t he Q
1
0
dependence is displaced to lower temperatures. Perfect filament
crystals also show increase of Q
1
0
, in the vicinity of the melting
point [45], i.e. when the vacancy concentration rapidly increases.
On the basis of the capacity to stabilise the internal friction
background of iron, the alloying elements can be placed in the fol-
lowing sequence: Ni, Co, Cu, Cr, Mo. Increase of the content of
a carbide-forming element in iron (for example, molybdenum) shifts
the high-temperature section to the range of high temperatures.
Pol ymorphous t ransformat i ons are charact eri sed by sudden
changes of the internal friction background. For example, such a
sudden change is well-known to take place in the transformation of
alpha iron to gamma iron [46,47]. In pure metals in the form of sin-
gle or polycrystals at temperatures close to the melting point there
are anomalies of the changes of the internal friction background
(Fig. 3.2a) [48], i.e. with increasing melting point, the internal fric-
tion background is saturated or decreases. Similar behaviour has
82
Fig. 3.2. Temperature dependence of internal friction. a) aluminium, magnesium
and copper; b) beta tin, where: 1) initial heating; 2) after heating at 310C/1 h,
cooling, 3) initial heating of stabilised beta tin, 4) after heating at 310C/1 h, cooling,
5) heating after holding for 1 h at 410C.
been observed for many metals (Al, Mg, Cu [48], Ta [49], Pt [49],
etc). According to Ref. 49, these phenomena at temperatures close
to the melting point can be interpreted by diffusion mechanisms.
After melting of the metals which have closely packed lattices
in the solid state, the liquid state is characterised by the occurrence
of a structural relaxation mechanism of energy absorption [50] so
that it is possible to obtain, for example, for tin, the relationship
bet ween t he st ruct ure i n t he sol i d and l i qui d st at e. The hi gh-
temperature gamma phase is obtained by cooling the melt at 300C,
the stable beta phase is obtained from the melt at 410450C and
the phase with the nuclei of the gamma phase can be obtained
from the melt at 320C (Fig. 3.2b). The coefficient of absorption
of sound (T), caused by structural relaxation, has a background
nature in molten metals and changes with temperature in accord-
ance with the change of the ratio T
3
/v
3
, where v is the velocity of
sound. These considerations are justified when the short-range
order is retained in melting.
3.1.2. Vacancy mechanism
The models used to explain the value of the internal friction back-
ground differ. The vacancy mechanism is based on the considera-
tion according to which the intensity of the background is controlled
by the equilibrium concentration of the vacancies migrating in the
83
field of repeated loading [51]. The formation of the equilibrium
vacancy concentration requires a certain period of time (relaxation
time). The relaxation of vacancy concentration causes nonuniform
deformation leading to the scattering of the energy of mechanical
vibrations, i.e. the internal friction background. This can be ex-
pressed by the equation
( )
1
0
U
RT
f
Q e
T

(3.2)
where f() is the function of the magnitude of repeated loading ,
U is the energy required for the formation of 1 mole of vacancies.
The most frequently used equation for calculating the activation
energy of the internal friction background according to Schoeck
[52] has the form
1
1
0
const ,
n
U
RT
Q e
, ]

, ]
, ]
]
(3.3)
where is the circular frequency of oscillations, n
1
is the struc-
tural constant. To determine this constant, it is necessary to obtain
the dependence of internal friction on frequency since
( )
( )
1
0 1
1
0 2
1
2
1
ln
.
ln
Q
Q
n
(3.4)
The experimentally determined values of n
1
for annealed, poly-
crystalline samples of metals are in the range from 0.17 to 0.38
[53], and for copper single crystal n
1
= 0.65 [49]. At the these val-
ues of n
1
we can obtain the activation energy of the internal fric-
tion background U, corresponding to the energy of activation of
self-diffusion in pure metals. The phenomenological description of
the Schoeck model was published in Ref. 54. Here the internal fric-
tion background is treated as the superimposition of relaxations
with a wide time spectrum.
84
3.1.3.Diffusion-viscous mechanism
In real solids, processes determined by directional flows of point
defects can also take place [55]. The sources and sinks of these
fl ows can be i ncl usi ons and vari ous i nt erfaces. If we use t he
mechanisms of diffusion-conditioned deformation for interpreting
the internal friction background at infra-sound frequencies (<<10
2
s
1
), we obtain the asymptotic form of the dependence [56]
1
1
0
2
const
,
U
RT
z
Q e
d T
j \
, (
, (
( ,
(3.5)
where d
g
is the mean grain size. At high frequencies ( << 10
2
s
1
) we can use the equation in the form
1
,
2
1
0
const
ef
U
RT
z
Q e
d T
j \
, (
, (
( ,
(3.6)
where U
ef
is the effective energy of bonding, numerically equal to
the sublimation energy. The dependence of the internal friction
background on the grain size (decrease of Q
1
0
with increasing grain
size) has been determined in many studies [57].
When characterising the internal friction background, it is also
possible to use the mechanisms of diffusion flow with the moving
dislocations. Anelastic strain, caused by the displacement of dis-
locations, is
n
(T) = b(T), where = 1/dh is the dislocation
density in the crystal, d is the distance between the dislocations in
the dislocation wall. If we obtain the conventional dependence of
the internal friction background on temperature and loading fre-
quency, this dependence is similar to the Schoeck characteristic
with the exponent n
1
= 1 at low and n
1
= 1/2 at high loading fre-
quencies [48]. The activation energy of the internal friction back-
ground in models of unlimited dislocation walls and in the model of
blocks for polycrystals is identical at the corresponding loading fre-
quencies. Excellent agreement between the theoretical and experi-
mental data is obtained for the model of displacement of the dis-
location at the grain boundaries [58]. This procedure can be used
to obtain the analytical dependence of frequency of temperature
85
[59]. For example, at a frequency of several hertz and at T > (0.3
0.4)T
m
, for the fcc metals, the dependence has the following form
2
1
0
~ ,
m
U
RT
Q e
j \
, (
, (
( ,
(3.7)
where U is the activation energy of bulk self-diffusion. The mag-
nitude of m is determined by comparing the distribution function
f(N) and the experimentally determined histograms of the distribu-
t i on of t he grai n boundari es N() on t he basi s of t he angl e of
misorientation of the crystals [60]. For copper m ~ 0.430.78.
The model of displacement of the dislocations at the grain bounda-
ries for describing the internal friction background has restrictions
at specific temperatures because of the recovery of the structure
as a result of the formation of grain boundaries [48].
3.1.4 Dislocation mechanisms
In accordance wi t h t he cal cul at i ons based on t he model of t he
oscillating side, at low frequencies the internal friction background
is negligible. However, the experimental results show that the value
Fig. 3.3. Displacement of a dislocation segment in the stress field (ae), where
the solid lines indicate the position of the dislocation, broken lines the initial position,
1 is the position of the point defect at the start of displacement, 2 is the position
of the point defect in the vibration period T, and a) t = 0, b) t = T/4, c) t = T/2,
d) t = 3T/4, e) t = T. The diagram of relaxation of the dislocation in the stress
field (f), where the solid lines represent the positions with maximum energy, broken
lines those with minimum energy, A and B are the areas of pinning of dislocations
with length L, H is the height of the Peierls barrier.
86
of Q
1
0
in the Hertz frequency range is relatively high [61]. This
phenomenon can be explained of the basis of the assumption that
there is a possibility of small displacements of pinned impurities
behind the moving dislocations (Fig.3.3ae) [62]. Internal friction
i s det ermi ned by t wo component s. The fi rst component i s t he
directly proportional and the other one indirectly proportional to
frequency. With decreasing loading frequency the significance of
the first component decreases and that of the second component
increases. The diffusibility of the blocking areas determines the ex-
ponential dependence of the internal friction background on tem-
perature in the form
1 0
0
~ ,
U
RT
D D
Q e
RT RT

(3.8)
where D is the coefficient diffusion of point defects, U is the ac-
tivation energy of diffusion.
The contribution from overcoming Peierls and Nabarro barriers
can be taken into account utilising the model of relaxation of dis-
locations [62]. In the Mason model, the dislocations are parallel
with one of the directions occupied most densely by the atoms in
the crystal (Fig. 3.3f) and the length of the initial double kink on
the dislocation is equal to the entire length of the dislocations seg-
ment. The scatter of energy, associated with the high-temperature
background of internal friction, forms during the thermally activated
separation of adjacent double kinks from their pinning point. Since
the number of separations is described by the Boltzmann distribu-
tion, the following equation is valid
1/ 2
0
1
0
2
,
2
U
t ef
RT
N L
Q e
G
j \
, (
( ,
(3.9)
where (T) is the critical shear stress required for overcoming a
PeierlsNabarro barrier, v
t
is the velocity of sound during trans-
verse vibrations, N
0
is the number of atoms in 1 cm
3
of materials,
L
ef
is the effective length of the dislocation segment, U is the en-
ergy of activation of separation from the solute atom. The ther-
mally-activated release of the dislocations with the kinks from the
pinning points increases their mean length which increases with
87
l a t e M
q 0 1
0 2
) J (
U
n i m 0
0 1
0 2
) J (
U
n i m 0
/U
U
f e
0 1
0 2
) J (
n = U
f e
/U
d C
b P
l A
g A
u A
u C
4 0 . 1
0 8 . 0
9 7 . 1
7 8 . 1
1 1 . 2
7 1 . 2
9 4 . 2
4 2 . 2
6 9 . 4
8 2 . 5
3 9 . 5
8 0 . 6
2 . 0
3 1 . 0
2 2 . 0
8 1 . 0
1 2 . 0
8 1 . 0
8 0 . 2
2 7 . 6
0 8 . 4
1 0 . 8
7 1 . 0
3 3 . 0
0 2 . 0
5 2 . 0
increasing temperature. The internal friction background increases
with increase in temperature in proportion to T
2
[63].
3.1.5. The relaxation mechanism
The general result, according to which the magnitude of internal
friction is determined by the structural defects in metals, has been
utilised in the relaxation mechanism of energy scattering during
vibrations of solids [64]. The collective excitation of the crystal lat-
tice with increasing temperature, the so-called relaxons, are areas
with the disrupted arrangement of the particles which form in the
areas of occurrence of structural defects of the crystal lattice.
Table 3.1 gives the values of the internal friction background and
relaxons of some metals at m
min
= 7, where U is the actual and
U
ef
= nU is the effective activation energy of the internal friction
background according to Schoeck [52]. For all evaluated metals,
the ratio U
min
/U is approximately the same (~0.2, with the excep-
tion of lead). The value of exponent n for cadmium, aluminium and
copper is also close to 0.2. Comparison of these parameters con-
firms the possibility of operation of the relaxation mechanism.
The formation of a general theory of the internal friction back-
ground is still an open area with many complications.
3.2. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON INTERNAL
FRI CTI ON
The measurements of internal friction at different temperatures pro-
vide a large amount of information because temperature, combined
with other external factors of the threshold states [1], has varying
effects in different mechanisms of the scattering of mechanical en-
ergy in metallic materials. Many examples have been presented and
others will be given in the following chapters of the book.
Table 3.1 Parameters of the relaxation structure and internal friction background
in metals
88
The total relaxation maxima of this type can be found by, for ex-
ample, the superimposition of the Snoek maximum, determined by
the presence of carbon and nitrogen in iron. In some cases, the
relaxation maxima of different nature can overlap if they are dis-
tributed closely to each other on the temperature axis. In both
cases, the evaluation of the individual relaxation mechanisms starts
with the division of the overall curve Q
1
0
(T) into the individual in-
ternal friction maxima caused by the effect of various mechanisms
of mechanical relaxation. This task is similar to the case of distri-
bution of the profile of X-ray diffraction into individual components.
Like in X-ray diffraction, satisfactory solutions are obtained only
when certain conditions, relating to the distribution of maxima on
the temperature axis and the height of the partial peaks of inter-
nal friction, are fulfilled. An advantageous feature is that when di-
viding the spectrum of the maxima of internal friction, the specific
relaxation time =

0
e
H/RT
holds for the given maximum and the
analytical description of the profile of the relaxation maximum of
internal friction Q
1
r
(T) = Q
1
0
(T)

Q
1
t
(T) is available in the form
( )
1 1
max
max
1 1
sech ,
r
H
Q T Q
R T T

, ]
j \

, ] , (
, ]
( ,
]
(3.10)
where Q
1
max
is the maximum height of the internal friction maximum
(half of the relaxation step of the process) obtained at the maxi-
mum temperature T
max
.
In the occurrence of independently acting relaxation processes,
the experimentally determined internal friction at any temperature
is the sum of the partial contributions of the individual relaxation
processes in accordance with the equation
( ) ( )
1 1
.
r ri
i
Q T Q T

(3.11)
Since the partial relaxation process is characterised by only one
relaxation time, equation (3.11) has the following form
( )
1 1
max
max
1 1
sech ,
i
r i
i
H
Q T Q
R T T

, ]
j \

, ] , (
, ]
( ,
]
(3.12)
89
where summation is carried out for all partial relaxation mecha-
nisms involved.
When dividing the overall relationship Q
1
(T) into partial proc-
esses, we can use graphical and analytical methods.
The graphical method is used when combining several relaxation
processes determined by the single relaxation mechanisms. In this
case, it is necessary to process the Q
1
r
(T) curve in a hyperbolic
coordinate system, i.e.
1
1
max
1
arsech .
r
Q
f
T Q
j \
, (
( ,
(3.13)
In this system of coordinates, the internal friction curve that
describes the single relaxation maximum is a straight line. The point
of intersection of the straight line with the temperature axis indi-
cates maximum temperature T
max
. The slope of the straight line
makes it possible to determine the activation enthalpy of the proc-
ess. In the case of purely relaxation processes, the straight line is
shifted when the loading frequency is changed.
The graphical method can be used most efficiently in cases in
which the maxima are divided far away from each other on the
temperature axis. Consequently, on the overall curve Q
1
(T) it is
possi bl e t o separat e t he branches of t he maxi ma i n whi ch t he
course of the Q
r
1
(T) curves is determined by the effect of only
one relaxation process. The graphical procedure depends on the re-
lationship between the heights of the maxima. If the height of one
maximum is many times greater than that of another maximum,
then the parameter Q
max
1
in the equation is replaced by the height
of the total maximum at the maximum point (Fig. 3.4a). Transfor-
mation to the hyperbolic coordinate system (Fig. 3.4b) makes it
possible to determine the linear section. If this section is analysed,
it is possible to determine the activation parameter of the relaxa-
tion process which forms the highest internal friction maximum. The
application of the determined parameters makes it possible to ex-
press the analytical form of the higher maximum. The smaller maxi-
mum of internal friction is determined by subtraction from the
evaluated maximum.
In most cases, i t i s necessary t o use t he anal yt i cal met hods
based on the approximation of the Q
r
1
(T) dependence by the equa-
tions of the type (3.12), using the method of least squares. The
calculation programmes of the break-up of the internal friction
90
spectrum into individual components are based on the assumption
on t he i deal Debye shape of t he i ndi vi dual part i al rel axat i on
maxima [65]. The method of dividing the Q
1
r
(T) can be greatly
simplified if we use the apriori data on the values of the activa-
t i on ent hal py of t he t emperat ure posi t i on of t he maxi ma, even
though only for a part of the individual relaxation processes.
The width of the examined partial maxima of internal friction,
especially the width of these maxima, often exceeds the width of
the ideal Debye maximum, as indicated by the narrow spectra of
relaxation times or, in most cases, the specific distribution of the
activation enthalpies of the partial relaxation process. The expan-
sion of the observed relaxation maxima can be evaluated in ac-
cordance wi t h Ref. 66. If t here i s no expansi on ( = 0), t he
Debye maximum has the ideal shape, and after transforming the
data to the reciprocal coordinate values of temperatures (1/T), the
maximum is slightly asymmetric. Analysis of the Snoek maximum
Fig. 3.4. Temperature dependence of internal friction of FeN2 at% Mn alloy in
conventional (a) and hyperbolic coordinates (b), broken lines show the main peaks
of the dependence.
91
by the calculation method, for titanium alloys with 2040 mol% of
niobium or molybdenum, taking into account the expansion of the
partial maxima, was carried out in Ref. 67. The Snoek maximum
was divided into five partial maxima (Fig. 3.5), associated with the
occurrence of oxygen atoms in the lattice distributed in five differ-
ent energy positions.
Using chromium steels as an example, it is possible to evaluate
t he t hermodynami c act i vi t y of carbon i n al l oyed ferri t e where
microregions with a different chromium concentration can form at
the nodal points of the crystal lattice [68].
The graphical and analytical division of the partial relaxation
maxima makes it also possible to determine the activation param-
eters of the relaxation parameters, especially activation enthalpy H.
In some cases, t he paramet ers H,
0
and Q
1
max
are al ready ob-
tained when dividing the dependence into partial maxima. In other
cases, the activation parameters of the processes are determined
independently. Usually, it is necessary to use two groups of meth-
ods, based on analysis of the shape or temperature at which the
relaxation maxima occur.
The temperature at which a relaxation maximum occurs and the
activation parameters of the relaxation process are linked by the
equation:
Fig. 3.5. Temperature dependence of internal friction on Ti33 at.% Mo alloy
after annealing for 1 h at 1200C. The dotted lines represent the main peaks, the
solid curve is the theoretical curve.
92
0
1,
H
e
RT

(3.14)
Q
r
1
which makes it possible to determine experimentally H and
0
.
If we change the loading frequency of the specimens from
1
to
2
, the relaxation maximum Q
1
r
(T) is displaced from the tempera-
ture T
max1
to T
max2
. Consequently, H and
0
can be determined from
the equations
max1 max2
2
max2 max1 1
ln ,
T T
H R
T T

(3.15)
( )
max1 max 2
0 1 2
max1 max2
1
ln ln .
2
T T
H
R T T
+

(3.16)
If it is required to use equation (3.15) with sufficiently high ac-
curacy, frequency must be reduced by several orders of magni-
tude. When it is difficult to fulfil the condition of the change of
frequency and the shift of the temperature maximum is 2040C,
the relative error of determination of the enthalpy of activation in
the sense of equation (3.15) is up to 20%. The accuracy of meas-
uring the temperature shift T
max2
T
max1
can be increased by evalu-
ating the position of the maximum on the basis of transformation
of the curves to hyperbolic co-ordinates and by applying linear re-
gression to the resultant dependence. Two obstacles may occur in
this procedure: final expansion of the maximum of the dependences
Q
r
1

(T) or the occurrence of the temperature dependence Q
1
max
.In
this case, the method gives average values of activation enthalpy.
The activation enthalpy of the relaxation processes can be de-
termined efficiently using the equation proposed by Wert and Marx
in the form
max
max max
ln ,
kT
H RT T S +
h
(3.17)
where h is Plancks constant, S is activation entropy, is loading
frequency.
93
Act i vat i on ent ropy i s 4020 J mol
1
K
1
. Usual l y, t he val ues
S = 1012 J mol
1
K
1
are used. The equation proposed by Wert
and Marx is used mainly owing to the fact that it is very simple.
When using this equation, it must be taken into account that the
boundary conditions must be fulfilled. When deriving equation
(3.17), it was assumed that the value
0
in equation (3.14) is the
same for all relaxation processes and equals 10
13
s, which corre-
sponds to the frequency of Debye oscillations of a single atom
D
=
1/
0
. There are a large number of processes in which
0
greatly
differs from this value. For example, in the mechanism of dislocation
relaxation
0
10
9
10
10
s. Equation (3.17) can be used in cases
in which the relaxation process is associated with the thermal ac-
tivation of displacement of the individual atoms to interatomic dis-
t ances.
The shape of the relaxation maximum can be used in evaluat-
ing the activation parameters of relaxation. The activation enthalpy
can be determined utilising the low- and high-temperature sections
of the maximum of internal friction Q
1
r
(T). From equation (3.14)
and (3.23) we obtain the following equation for the low-tempera-
ture section of the maximum (T < T
max
)
( )
1
H
RT
r
Q T e
(3.18)
and for the high-temperature section of the maximum (T > T
max
) the
equation
1
.
H
RT
r
Q e
(3.19)
Equat i on (3. 18) shows t hat H can be det ermi ned from t he
angle of inclination of the low-temperature and high-temperature
sections of the maximum of the dependence Q
1
r
(T) in the co-or-
dinates ln Q
r
1

1/T. This procedure is suitable only for distinctive
maxima whose broadening is close to zero.
Activation enthalpy H can also be determined from the width of
the maximum of the dependence Q
r
1

(T). Usually, the width of the
maximum is determined at the position Q
1
max
/2. The temperatures
corresponding to this level of Q
r
1

(T) in accordance with equation
(3.23) fulfil the condition
94
0
2
2 2
0
1
.
4
1
H
RT
H
RT
e
e
+
(3.20)
The roots of equation (3.20) fulfil the equation,
0
e
H/RT
= 2 3
which shows that
1 2
2 1
2.63 ,
TT
H R
T T
(3.21)
where T
1
and T
2
are temperatures at which Q
1
r
= Q
1
max
/2.
The value H determined using equation (3.21) is accurate when
the process is characterised by a single relaxation time. If we have
the spectrum of relaxation times, the effective value of H, obtained
using equation (3.21), will be lower.
The analysed methods of calculations of the activation enthalpy
of relaxation processes show that the most suitable method is the
one based on analysis of the temperature shift of the maximum of
the dependence Q
1
r
(T). Other methods can be used under certain
conditions when the process is characterised by a single relaxation
time and there is no expansion of the maximum ( = 0), but when
the mechanism of the relaxation process is clear.
The individual mechanisms of the relaxation processes are de-
scribed in subsequent parts of this chapter.
3.2.1 Mechanisms associated with point defects
In substitutional solid solutions, there is relaxation associated with
the change of the relative position of the atoms of the alloying el-
ement and the main metal under the effect of external load. The
maximum of Q
1
was reported for the first time by Zeener [69] in
the relaxation spectrum of -brass and later by Nowick [70] in the
spect rum of t he AgZn al l oys (see Fi g. 2. 28). In t hi s case, t he
maximum is more distinctive because there is a larger difference
between the radii of the atoms of silver and zinc than between the
atoms of copper and zinc. At low concentrations of the alloying
elements the height of the maximum is directly proportional to the
square of the concentration of the dissolved element. For solid so-
lutions with a high content of the added metal, where the atoms of
the alloying elements form complicated complexes rather than iso-
95
lated pairs, the proposed relaxation mechanism takes into account
the changes of the short-range order after loading the body.
The kinetics of Zeeners relaxation is determined by the spatial
mi grat i on of t he at oms of t he sol i d sol ut i on. Thi s resul t s i n a
change of the number of pairs of atoms with different orientation,
or the parameters of short-range order. The same mechanism is the
basis of the diffusion phenomena and, consequently, the kinetic
characteristics of relaxation (relaxation time) are similar to the dif-
fusion parameters in appropriate alloys.
Experimental examination of Q
1
in ternary and multicomponent
alloys showed that Zeener s relaxation processes also take place
here [71]. The magnitude of relaxation is several times higher and
the relaxation maximum is 1.52 times higher than in the binary al-
loys of the components forming the ternary alloy.
The presence of alloying elements in interstitial solid solutions
based on the cubic space-centred lattice results in a more compli-
cated relaxation spectrum of Snoeks mechanism and in the devel-
opment of other relaxation processes [72], as shown in Table 3.2.
FeCmetal alloys show high-temperature and also additional
low-temperature maxima.
The increase of the difference of the size of the atoms of iron
and the alloying elements at comparable concentrations results in
an increase of the temperature difference of the additional maxima
and Snoeks maximum. The magnitude of relaxation of the addi-
tional maxima of both types for interstitial solid solutions with car-
bon or oxygen does not exceed 110
3
510
3
.
The maximum proposed by Finkelshtein and Rozin is relatively
wide and in certain cases is divided into two closely spaced peaks
[73]. The height of the maximum increases with increasing concen-
tration of the interstitial atoms. At concentrations lower than criti-
cal concentrations c
cr
the dependence of the height of the maximum
on carbon content is linear. The shape of the concentration depend-
ence of the height of the maximum is the same for all alloys in
which this phenomenon has been observed. The value differs from
0.1 to 0.25 wt.% of carbon or nitrogen.
In solid solutions with a face-centred cubic lattice or a hexago-
nal close-packed lattice the octahedral and tetrahedral planes, in
which the interstitial atoms can be distributed, have the same sym-
metry as the lattice itself. In these materials, Snoeks relaxation
process does not occur. Despite this, the point defects (interstitial
at oms) are t he reason for a speci al rel axat i on phenomenon re-
ferred to as the Finkelshtein and Rozin phenomenon. This maxi-
96
Table 3.2 Characteristics of the additional maximum in alloyed ferrite
mum was detected for the first time in an austenitic chromium
nickel alloy in the vicinity of 300C at a loading frequency of 1 Hz
and later in different austenitic steels and alloys based on the face
centred cubic lattice which also contained nitrogen or carbon.
The principle of Finkelshtein and Rozin phenomenon is explained
by Werners model, based on the diffusion rotation of a pair of in-
terstitial atoms of nitrogen or carbon under the effect of external
stress. This pair if interstitial atoms can be stable when it is ori-
ented along 110, 112, 130 and distributed in the third to fifth
g n i y o l l A
t n e m e l e
) % . t w (
g n i d a o L
y c n e u q e r f
) Z H (
e r u t a r e p m e T
k e o n S f o
m u m i x a m
) K (
n o i t a m r o f f o
l a n o i t i d d a f o
) K ( m u m i x a m
n o i t a v i t c A
f o y g r e n e
l a n o i t i d d a
m u m i x a m
l o m . J k (
1
)
m e t s y S N - e F
n M 2 5 . 0
r C 5 . 0
o M 5 . 0
V 5 . 0
l A 0 . 1
m e t s y S C e F
5 1 . 5 9 4 . 0
V
3 4 . 3 2 0 . 1
o M
o M 6 8 . 0
i S 5 6 . 1
i S 3
i S 6 4 . 3
i T 2 2 . 0 1 . 0
o C 9 . 0
o C 3 5 . 4
W 4 . 4
i N 9 . 3
r C 9 . 3
r C 8
r C 5 1
r C 0 2
r C 5 2
r C 0 3
1
1
1
1
8 . 0
0 5 4
2 . 0
0 5 9
0 5 9
1
0 6 9
5 6 . 0
0 5 9
0 5 9
0 6 9
5 4 9
0 7 9
1
1
1
1
1
7 9 2
6 9 2
6 9 2
6 9 2
3 8 2
3 8 3
9 9 2
8 8 3
0 9 3
2 1 3
3 9 3
9 8 3
9 8 3
4 9 3
6 8 3
6 9 3
0 8 2
8 0 3
0 2 3
8 4 3
0 6 3
3 2 3
8 4 3
1 9 2
3 7 4
7 2 4
4 3 3
1 3 4
3 5 3
3 5 4
2 6 3
0 6 3
3 6 3
3 7 4
0 6 4
0 1 5
5 3 5
0 5 5
0 6 5
* 9 6
* 6 . 1 8
* * 0 . 4 8
* * 0 . 2 9
* * 0 . 5 9
0 . 1 8
5 . 0 8
5 . 5 0 1
2 . 2 9
0 . 7 8
1 . 3 9
0 . 3 3 1
3 . 1 0 1
6 . 8 7
2 . 7 7
9 . 8 7
5 . 2 0 1
4 3 1
6 3 1
Comment: * - calculated from the shift of the frequency of temperature maximum;
** - calculated from maximum temperature at
0
= 10
11.5
s
97
co-ordination sphere. The pairs result in tetragonal distortion of the
lattice. During rotation of the pair in relation to the axis of tensile
loading of the specimen this causes mechanical relaxation to take
place.
The increase of the level of internal stresses by quenching, cold
deformation, ageing, etc., causes significant broadening and in-
creases the height of the maximum [74]. For the Finkelshtein
Rozin phenomenon to take place, the material must contain lattice
defects. For example, after cold deformation, the high-temperature
part of the FinkelshteinRozin maximum shows an additional maxi-
mum whose height depends on the level of internal stresses and
their heterogeneity. For a steel with 24 wt.% Ni, 0.5 wt.% Mn and
0.5 wt.% C, the maximum height of the additional maximum is ob-
tained when plastic deformation results in the formation of a ho-
mogeneous dislocation structure. When deformation leads to the
formation of a cellular structure, the height of the maximum rap-
idly decreases and the additional maximum is not detected in the
fine-grained recrystallised material.
3.2.2 Dislocation relaxation mechanisms
The effect of low strain amplitudes characterised by internal fric-
tion irrespective of the strain amplitude results in the operation of
different mechanisms of relaxation of dislocation segments and
entire dislocation substructures. The activation energy of the proc-
esses, controlling the movement of dislocations in the crystal lat-
tice, is not higher than 2.410
19
J. All processes of dislocation
relaxation under repeated loading from Hertz to kilohertz frequen-
cies occur at temperatures lower than 500600 K, i.e., below the
condensation temperature of Cottrell atmospheres T
C
.
At temperature lower than T
C
, every dislocation in annealed ma-
terial is surrounded by the atmospheres of solute and alloying el-
ements. The dislocations blocked in this manner are stationary and
do not contribute to the process of dislocation relaxation. For mo-
bile dislocations to appear in this material, the amplitude of re-
peated loading must be higher than the microscopic limit of elas-
ticity.
In the region in which internal friction is independent of the
strain amplitude, the dislocation relaxation processes can develop
as a result of the movement of fresh dislocations formed during
previous plastic deformation of the material, or during phase trans-
formations accompanied by strengthening. Since strengthening is a
condition for dislocation relaxation, the appropriate maximum on the
98
Q
r
1

(T) curve i s regarded as t he deformat i on maxi mum or t he
maximum of cold deformation.
Bordonis relaxation is the main process of dislocation relaxa-
tion in pure metals. At kilohertz frequencies, the Bordoni maxima
on the Q
r
1

(T) dependence are found at low temperatures (~100
K). The phenomenon is found in single crystals and polycrystalline
materials, but always after prior plastic deformation.
Efficiently annealed metals do not show Bordonis relaxation.
The height of the maximum depends on the magnitude of prior plas-
tic deformation
p
. The increase of
p
to approximately 3% results
in a non-monotonic increase of the maximum. A further increase
of
p
has no l onger any effect on t he hei ght of t he maxi mum
(Fig.3.6).
Bordonis maximum is resistant to annealing and disappears only
aft er compl et e recryst al l i sat i on (for copper at 500C). In heat
treatment (Fig.3.7) and also when the content of the alloying ele-
ments is increased, the height of the maximum decreases, despite
the fact that the temperature position of the maximum does not
depend on the concentration or type of alloying atoms. With the
change of the frequency of oscillations the temperature position of
the maximum changes, but the change of strain amplitude has the
form of a maximum. The activation energy of the relaxation proc-
Fig. 3.6. Bordonis peak of polycrystalline copper after plastic deformation of:
a) 0.1%, b) 0.5%, c) 2.2%, d) 8.4%. Loading frequency 1.1 kHz.
99
Fig. 3.7. Effect of annealing temperature of polycrystalline copper on the height
of Bordonis peak: 1) after 8.4% cold deformation, 2) after annealing for 1 h at
180C, 3) after annealing for 1 h at 350C. Loading frequency 1.1 kHz.
ess for all evaluated metals varies from 8 to 20 kJ mol
1
and
0
varies from 10
10
to 10
12
s. A special feature of Bordonis relaxa-
tion is that the height of the maximum is an order of magnitude
higher that in the case of the relaxation maximum with a single
relaxation time.
Bordonis relaxation is explained by the mechanism of disloca-
tion relaxation based on examination of the thermally-activated for-
mation of pairs of kinks on screw dislocations situated in the di-
rections parallel to the direction of the closest packing, in positions
with the minimum Peierls potential energy.
Anal ysi s shows t hat t he ent hal py of act i vat i on of Bordoni s
relaxation is H = 2W
k
, where 2W
k
is the energy of formation of a
double kink on the dislocation. Although the model is in good agree-
ment with the observed phenomena, the width of the maximum is
several times smaller than that indicated by the model. However,
if we consider the displacement of the dislocation in the field of
external repeated loading or thermal or geometrical kinks that are
on dislocations and are not situated in potential wells, the theory is
in good agreement with the observations. The width of the maxi-
mum is explained by the distribution of the length l of dislocation
segments N (l). Consequently,
100
( )
1 3 0
2 2
,
1
l
An
Q l N l dl
kT
+
(3.22)
where n
0
is the density of geometrical kinks without the presence
of external stress, = 1/D, where D is the coefficient of diffu-
sion of kinks of a longitudinal dislocation, A is the proportionality
coefficient.
At temperatures lower than the room temperature, fcc metals
show other relaxation phenomena after plastic deformation. These
phenomena are explained by the movement of kinks on the dislo-
cations [2]. To explain low-temperature maxima that are close to
Bordonis maximum, Hasighuti proposed a concept according to
which in certain cases relaxation can be caused by braking of dif-
fusing dislocation kinks by point defects, especially vacancies. The
recorded maxima are characterised by high activation energy in
comparison with that for Bordonis maximum.
Dislocation relaxation in deformed alloys has many other mani-
festations. The internal friction maximum of deformed iron with
nitrogen atoms was reported for the first time by Snoek in 1941 at
a temperature of 200C and a loading frequency of 0.2 Hz.
The studies by Snoek, Ko, Kster and others show that the oc-
currence of the maximum at 200C requires the presence of a small
number of atoms of C and N and also prior plastic deformation. In
FeC and FeN systems at loading frequencies of 0.20.1 Hz is
recorded at 200250C and are referred to as the SnoekKster
maximum (SK relaxation).
Later, relaxations identical with SK relaxation were observed
in different metals with the fcc lattice (Ta, V, Mo), when the solid
sol ut i on cont ai ned t he at oms of C, N, O, H [75], and al so i n
substitutional solutions and interstitial solutions based on the fcc
lattice [76] and the hcp lattice [77]. This shows that the Snoek
Koster relaxation is a general phenomenon in the case of interac-
tion of dislocation with atoms forming atmospheres around the dis-
locations that formed during plastic deformation. The activation
energy of the deformation maxima is always higher than the acti-
vation energy of the volume diffusion of the appropriate alloying
element. For example, the activation energy of SK relaxation in
alloys of iron with atoms of C and N is 127168 kJmol
1
and the
frequency factor
1
0

= 10
14
s
1
. When the level of prior strain is
increased, the height of the SK maximum increases by 5070%
101
to saturation which depends on
p
. In unidirectional deformation,
the height of the SK maximum is Q
1
SK

10
2
p
1/2
, and in thermo-
mechanical treatment it is Q
1
SK

10
2
p
.
The increase of the prior
strain changes the temperature position of the SK maximum. For
example, for iron with 10
3
mol.% C after
p
= 2% at room tem-
perat ure T
SK
= 557 K, but aft er
p
= 10% i t decreases so t hat
T
SK
= 545 K.
The height of the SK maximum depends on the type of defor-
mation and is determined not only by the density of fresh disloca-
tions but also by their type and mutual distribution. The decrease
of temperature during deformation from 200 to 70C reduces the
height of the SK maximum. When
p
= const, the highest height
of t he maxi mum aft er deformat i on i s recorded at t emperat ures
around 200C.
The effect of the grain size on the height of the SK maximum
and its temperature position is only very slight. However, the height
of the SK maximum depends strongly on the content of intersti-
tial atoms in the solid solution. When
p
= const, the height of the
SK maximum increases with increasing content of the interstitial
atoms, initially linearly and later rapidly increases to saturation
whose level increases with increasing
p
. SK relaxation in iron
with nitrogen is characterised by a certain anomaly because the
deformation maximum is recorded at a low nitrogen content of the
solid solution insufficient for the formation of a measurable Snoeks
Fig. 3.8. Dependence of the height of the SnoeckKster maximum of Armco iron
on its heating rate.
102
maximum. The temperature of SK relaxation initially increases
with increasing content of the interstitial atoms and, subsequently,
aft er st abi l i sat i on of t he hei ght of t he maxi mum, i t no l onger
changes. The concentration, corresponding to the maximum height
of the SK maximum, for nitrogen atoms is on the whole 910
times higher than in the case of carbon, and the maximum corre-
sponding to the nitrogen is 45 times higher than the maximum
corresponding to the FeC system.
The height of the SK maximum is strongly influenced by the
heating rate when measuring the changes of internal friction in re-
lation to temperature (Fig.3.8).
Sarrak and Golovin generalised the results of evaluation of the
effect of the chromium content of iron on the temperature position
of t he SK maxi mum and of t he mi xed maxi mum formed aft er
quenching a steel from 1250C followed by 12% cold deformation
(Fig.3.9). The SK phenomenon forms as a result of phase hard-
ening during martensitic transformation. The presence of retained
austenite has only an indirect effect on the parameters of the maxi-
mum because i t i s mani fest ed i n quenchi ng i n t he form of
FinkelshteinRozin relaxation. Certain special features are observed
in interpretation of this phenomenon. It is assumed that the control-
Fig. 3.9. Effect of Cr content on the temperature at which Snoeks maximum (1)
and SnoekKster maximum (upper curve) of FeC alloy is observed. The temperatures
at which the maxima are detected are indicated (2 Hz).
w
t
.
%
103
ling role in the formation of the SK maximum in phase hardening
is played by the dislocation density and the local distribution of the
clusters of carbon atoms in the vicinity of the dislocation kernel
where the arrangement process may take place. The interaction of
dislocations with the clusters of carbon atoms is used to explain the
SK relaxation in quenched or deformed steel [78]. The distribu-
tion of carbon in the vicinity of structural defects causes hetero-
geneity of internal stresses in martensite.
In addition to the maxima, recorded at 200C in the ironcarbon
and ironnitrogen systems, there are also other maxima resulting
from the deformation of the material. For example, in the FeN
system, cold deformation results in the formation of a small maxi-
mum at 29C, i.e. several degrees higher than the Snoek maximum
(T
S
= 22C, f = 1 Hz). The maximum is found after quenching
from the temperatures higher than the temperature of the ferrite to
austenite transformation, and also after cooling from temperatures
corresponding to ferrite and subsequent plastic deformation
p
=
10
4
10
3
. When the strain amplitude increases from 2.8 10
4
to
5.7 10
4
, this 29C maximum increases, whereas the Snoek maxi-
mum decreases. The phenomenon is explained by the interaction of
dislocations with the nitrogen atoms. A similar maximum was also
found by Breshers in the FeC system. When the carbon content
was ~5 10
6
mol%, a small Snoek maximum is overlapped in the
deformed material by a high deformation maximum which is dis-
placed by 7C to higher temperatures, Fig. 3.10.
The deformation maxima of internal friction recorded for alloys
Fig. 3.10. Snoek maximum (lower curve) and deformation maximum (upper curve)
of FeC alloy with temperatures at which maxima are recorded (2 Hz).
104
of iron with carbon or nitrogen can also be detected at tempera-
tures below 75 and 135C at a loading frequency of 1 Hz [79]. The
maximum was recorded immediately after deformation during the
first measurement, but after cooling or during the second measure-
ment it was no longer recorded. At temperatures higher than 200
250C, the mobility of the atoms of carbon and nitrogen is already
quite high, the atmospheres around the dislocations are dispersed
and the intensity of interaction of the interstitial atoms with the dis-
locations is insufficient for the formation of deformation maxima.
In fcc metals, such as Ta and Nb with an oxygen impurity, defor-
mation maxima are recorded in the temperature range 287470C
or 272452C at a loading frequency of 1 Hz [75].
The interpretation of the Snoek and Kster relaxation, proposed
by Shoeck and improved by Seeger and also Seeger and Hirth, is
described in greater detail in Ref. 14.
Further examples of the effect on internal friction are in fact
presented in every other chapter of this book.
3.3 EFFECT OF STRAIN AMPLITUDE
The dependence of internal friction on strain amplitude or alternat-
ing stress in external loading is interesting. This dependence is the
result of the effect of various mechanisms, such as the relaxation
mechanisms associated with point structural defects of the crystal
lattice, relaxation and resonance dislocation mechanisms, the relaxa-
tion mechanisms associated with the boundaries of the blocks and
grai ns, i nel ast i c phenomena duri ng phase t ransformat i ons, t he
magnetomechanical relaxation mechanisms, the mechanicalthermal
relaxation mechanisms, and others.
The overall value of Q
1
is the result of the joint effect of a set
of inelasticity mechanisms operating in the given ranges of tem-
perat ure, frequency and ampl i t ude of act i ng st resses. In many
cases, Q
1
= Q
0
1
+ Q
r
1
, where Q
0
1

is the internal friction back-
ground, Q
r
1

is the internal friction associated with the effect of the
relaxation mechanisms.
A special feature of relaxation in materials is that the relaxa-
tion maximum of internal friction Q
r
1
can be described in most
cases by relaxation time
t
, using the equation
1
2 2
,
1
r
r
E
Q
E
+
(3.23)
105
where is the frequency of external loading, and E/E is 10
3
10
1
. An exception is represented by inelastic phenomena associ-
ated with phase transformations and magnetomechanical phenom-
ena.
3.3.1 The GranatoLcke spring model
The studies and investigations of the effect of strain amplitude on
the extent of internal friction are based on the spring model, pro-
posed by Granato and Lcke [28]. The initial experiments already
showed good agreement between the theoretical calculations and
experimental data, and further work has confirmed assumptions, al-
though the experiments have been carried out under different con-
ditions. The original theory is applicable to different metals with a
specific dislocation structure at 0 K. The criticism of the model is
associated with the development of detailed physical considerations
regarding the effect of bows on the displacement of dislocations,
with the new results obtained regarding the movement of point de-
fects anchoring the dislocations, and with the data on thermal ac-
tivation and microplasticity. However, the theory can also be ap-
plied to materials with a high content of solute elements [80], at
temperatures higher than the temperature of Bordoni relaxation
[81], etc.
The model of the vibrating spring (Fig. 2.30), which already
takes into account the tensile force in the dislocation, and viscous
and inertia forces, was proposed by Khler [82]. The model also
links the scatter of mechanical energy with unpinning of the dis-
locations from the pinning points.
Granato and Lcke [28] proposed a quantitative theory of the
movement of dislocations based on the dependence of internal fric-
tion on strain amplitude. The calculations are based on the follow-
ing assumptions:
1. All dislocation segments of the dislocation network have the
same length L
n
,
2. L
n
> > L
p
3. When stress is zero, the distribution of the dislocation seg-
ments with length l is disordered, and is expressed by the Khler
distribution in the form
( )
2
exp ,
p p
l
N l dl dl
L L
j \

, (
, (
( ,
(3.24)
106
where N(l) dl is the number of segments with the length from l to
l + dl, L
p
is the mean length of the segment, is the density of
the dislocations released from the pinning points. Consequently
2
0 1
1
1/2
0 1
C
n
i
i
C
Q X

(3.25)
where
3
0
1 2
n
p
L
C C
L

(3.26)
2
,
p
k b
C
L
(3.27)
here is the orientation factor,
0
is the strain amplitude,
0
is:
2
0
2
8
,
Gb
S

G is the shear modulus of elasticity, S is the tensile force in the

dislocation, k is the Boltzmann constant, is the Cottrell param-
eter, b is the Burgers vector. Calculations can be carried out un-
der the condition that
0
/r << 1, where
0
is the amplitude of the
stress in external loading, r is the stress required for separating the
dislocation with the length L
p
. Shortcomings, such as, for example,
the large calculated distance of movement of the dislocations af-
ter unpinning, are explained by the inaccuracy of the boundary con-
ditions.
At low stress amplitudes, equation (3.25) is in good agreement
with the experimental results. The condition L
n
>> L
p
shows that
theory is not suitable for pure metals and this has been confirmed
in a large number of investigations. Theory is in excellent agree-
ment with the experiments on commercial purity metals at tempera-
tures higher than the condensation temperature of the Cottrell at-
mospheres T on the dislocations.
107
Theory is supplemented by the dynamic losses in unpinning of
the dislocations from the solute atoms [83] by the assumption ac-
cording to which the movement of the dislocation, unpinned from
the pinning points, is determined not only by linear stretching but
also by the interaction of the dislocation with the solute atoms
present in the solute solution, in the area in which the dislocation
moves. Statistical analysis of the process of unpinning of the dis-
location from the pinning points with different binding forces for
medium stress amplitudes gives Q
1
2
[84]. If equation (3.24)
is replaced by the distribution in accordance with the equation
( )
1/ 2
....
i
N l c l
we obtain the value Q

1
close to that determined using equation
(3.24).
3.3.2 Thermal activation
In the field of repeated stresses, structural defects, especially dis-
locations, change their position and configuration in a jump. En-
ergy scatter in the formation of steps by thermal activation is de-
termined from the following procedure [85]. If N(t) is the number
of defects (dislocations) which have jumped from position x to
position y during time t, then
( )
( ) ( )
0
,
ox x x y y y
dN t
N N t P N N t P
dt
, ] , ] +
] ]
(3.28)
where N
ox
(N
oy
) is the number of defects at position x (or y) at time
t, x (
y
) is the frequency of vibrations of the defects at position x
(or y), P
x
(P
y
) is the probability of jump from position x to position
y (or from position y to position x).
The probability of a thermally activated jump
( )
exp .
U
P
kT
j \

, (
, (
( ,
If we consider the deformation of the crystal
d
, we can deter-
mine
108
( ) ( )
1
,
,
2
l N t d
Q
W

(3.29)
where W = ( ) ( ) ; , 1 .
d d
d N t

Thermomechani cal l y act i vat ed separat i on of t he di sl ocat i on
(Teutonico model) describes the situation of two dislocation seg-
ments pinned in the centre between a point defect [86]. The total
energy of the system consists of the energy of the bowed disloca-
tion U
1
, the energy of elastic interaction U
2
and the work carried
out by applied stress U
3
. The diagram of the model is in Fig. 3.11a,
b. The effect of the magnitude of acting stress is shown in Fig.
3.11c.
Under the effect of very small (4) or very high amplitudes (4)
there is only one energy minimum, which means that there is only
one stable position of the segments. For the mean values of the
stress amplitude (5) we record two stable positions, separated by
an energy barrier. Under the effect of low stresses, there is no un-
pinning and the increase of stress results in the formation of a sec-
ond energy minimum and unpinning may take place. This results in
the disappearance of the first energy minimum and the dislocation
is mechanically unpinned from the pinning points.
Fig. 3.11. Model of separation (a), dependence of the energy of the double loop
on the distance s between the dislocation and the pinning point (b) and stress
(c), where 1 is linear energy, 2 Cottrell energy and 3 is the strain energy; m - low
stress, v - high stress,
109
The stress of thermalmechanical unpinning can be expressed as
the stress of mechanical unpinning using the equation
1/ 2
1
0
1 ln .
kr
C kT
U
, ]
j \
, ]
, (
, ]
( ,
]
(3.30)
The model is constructed for a temperature of 0 K. If we con-
sider the effect of temperature, it can be seen that the internal
friction is proportional to
0
exp ,
kr
j \
, (
( ,
where
cr
is determined by equation (3.30) and
0
is the external
stress amplitude.
The development of the Teutonico model in Ref. 87 resulted in
the determination of the conditions of catastrophic unpinning of the
dislocation pinned by several point defects. The conclusions show
that catastrophic unpinning takes place in a narrow stress range
(~
t1
, where the difference between
t1
and
kr
increases with in-
creasing temperature), and catastrophic repeated pinning also takes
place in a narrow the stress range (~
t2
, where
t2
<<
t1
).
These resul t s support t he equat i ons of t he Granat oLcke
model, when
kr
is replaced by
t1
.
3.3.3 Internal friction with slight dependence on strain
amplitude
Lcke et al. [88] analysed the conditions of thermomechanical
separation for a dislocation segment pinned in the centre of the
length by a point defect. It is assumed that the value of f changes
exponentially from f
0
to the equilibrium value
1
2
1
1 exp .
a b
U U
f
kT
, ]
+
, ]
]
(3.31)
110
At low temperatures and high frequencies, f
(
t2
) and f
(
t1
)
approach 0 and 1. The changes of f
are described by a stepped

function. Figure 3.12 presents the dependences
d
and
d
, f
,
in relation to t for the given conditions.
The investigations carried out in Ref. 88 shows that the inter-
nal friction, dependent on the stress amplitude, is
1 1
3
1 3
0 0
exp .
r t
m
Q L

, ]

, ]

]
(3.32)
Friedel [89] derived equations forming a link between internal fric-
tion, frequency and temperature, assuming a certain number of
dislocations with length L
n
uniformly pinned by point defects, lo-
cated at the distance L
p
, where L
n
>> L
p
>> b. The change of en-
ergy in relation to the magnitude of stress is expressed by the equa-
tion
Fig. 3.12. Diagrams of the dependence of individual quantities in thermomechanical
separation of the dislocation.
111
( )
,
M p
U W b dL

(3.33)
where W
M
is the total energy of the point defectdislocation bond,
d is the distance of the effective bond which is (13) b. Repeated
pinning of the dislocation was ignored. For the given conditions
4
0
1 0
2
exp .
24
M p
n
m
p
W bdL
L b
Q
kT L

, ]

, ]
]
(3.34)
The equation is valid when
0
.
M
kr
p
W
bdL
<
(3.35)
Unpinning takes place at
0

kr
. Therefore
2
3
1
0
.
12
n kr
m
L
Q
j \
, (

( ,
(3.36)
The magnitude of Q
1
m
at
0
<
kr
changes with the change of tem-
perature and frequency. Unpinning from the first pinning point takes
place at a low frequency in comparison with unpinning from the
last pinning points, so that the following conditions must be satis-
fied
exp 1.
2
p
bdL
kT
>
(3.37)
2
10 .
p
L
b
>
(3.38)
For a high-purity material, the conditions (3.37) and (3.38) are
fulfilled when L
p
> 10
2
b, > 10
4
, and the average concentration
of the solutes is c
0
< 10
5
wt.%.
When calculating Q
m
1
, Koiva and Hasigutti [90] used the follow-
112
ing equation instead of (3.28)
( )
( )
0
0 1
exp .
dN t
U
N N t
dt kT
, ]
, ]
] , ]
]
(3.39)
Approximate calculations were carried out for the case in which
0
/kT < 1, and they obtained the equation
( ) ( )
3
1 0
0
.
12
n
m
L
Q N f h
kT

, ]
+
, ]
]
(3.40)
An interesting result of the solution is that it predicts a maxi-
mum on the dependence of internal friction on strain amplitude with
Fig. 3.13. Positions of dislocation lines in the process of overcoming a point defect,
where a is the equilibrium position when overcoming the obstacle, b shows approach
to the concentrated force, c shows the binding energy for the case of repulsion
(w > 0) and attraction (w < 0). 1) stable position in front of the obstacle, 2)
unstable position behind the obstacle (saddle of the curve); 3) stable position after
overcoming the obstacle.
113
the change of temperature. The level of stress influences the func-
tions f(), h() and the shape of the maximum.
The presented data show that the model proposed by Lcke et
al. is suitable for low temperatures and high frequencies, whereas
the model proposed by Friedel is suitable for pure materials, etc.
The results are generalised in Ref. 91.
The model proposed by Indenbon and Chernov [92] analyzes the
thermal fluctuation overcoming of an elastic field of a point defect
by a dislocation, by introducing transitional configuration of the dis-
location, prior to the establishment of the equilibrium position. The
dislocation segment is situated on the slip plane x, y (Fig. 3.13),
and is pinned at the ends at points (l, 0, 0). Under the effect of
external stress
0
and thermal fluctuation, the segment is separated
from the point defect C(0, 0, z
0
). The equilibrium positions are cal-
culated in a computer. With a probability close to 1, unpinning takes
place at the energy
( )
0
0
ln , U kT
j \

, (
( ,
(3.41)
where
0
is the frequency of vibrations of the dislocation segment,
is the frequency of external loading.
The temperature dependence of the segment length L
p
fulfils the
equation
( )
( )
( )
0
0
ln /
.
/
p
p
L k
T
U L
j \
, (

( ,
(3.42)
With increasing temperature, the shortest segments are the first
to be unpinned and segments with the length being a multiple of L
p
form at relatively low stresses. The first stage is characterised by
the increase of the number of segments contributing to the dislo-
cation hysteresis, and the second stage is reflected in a decrease
of the strength of the effect of each segment.
Consequently, internal friction
( ) ( )
min
2
1
0
0
, ,
n
m n
L
Q T L N l dl
j \

, (
( ,
(3.43)
114
where 2L
n
is the length of the dislocation segment,
n
is the stress
at which the thermal fluctuation unpinning of the segment from the
defect takes place,
0
is the external stress amplitude. The value
L
min
= L
M
(
0
, T).
The effect of thermal activation can also be evaluated by solving
the equations of vibrations of a solid in analysis of functions for
additional strain
d
[93]. Into the vibration equation we substitute
the rate of change of the additional strain determined by the move-
ment of the dislocation
0 0
0 1
exp exp exp ,
d
U U S
b F
k kT kT
, ] + j \ j \ j \

, ( , ( , ( , ]
( , ( , ( , ]
(3.44)
where F is the area through which the dislocation travels, s is
the change of entropy accompanying the displacement of point de-
fects. From the resultant equations it is possible to determine the
characteristics of internal friction and the defect of the Young
modulus.
At relatively high strain amplitudes, microplastic deformation can
take place in certain areas of the material; this is a source of sig-
nificant scattering of the energy in the material.
3.3.4 Plastic internal friction
In accordance with the schematic representation in Fig. 2.30, the
effect of a certain amplitude of external stress results in the gen-
eration of dislocations, Fig. 2.30, and cyclic microplastic deforma-
tion of the material takes place. In order to describe the given proc-
ess uniformly and in considerable detail, and take into account the
importance of this response of the material to repeated loading,
this part of the dependence Q
1
() is discussed in Chapter 6 of this
book.
3.4 EFFECT OF LOADING FREQUENCY
The GranatoLcke theory [28] is suitable for examining the ef-
fect of frequency on internal friction and also for predicting many
processes taking place in solids. However, there are two compli-
cating features.
Calculations of the dislocations strain at stresses (10
7
10
8
) G
in the MHz frequency range with the value = 10
3
and at a dis-
location density of = 10
10
m
2
indicate that the segments vibrate
wi t h an ampl i t ude of 10
7
10
8
mm, whi ch i s smal l er t han t he
115
atomic spacing. This small displacement can no longer be described
by the tensile force and the Burgers vector. It has been confirmed
that the dislocations start to move under the effect of the Peierls
stress which is lower than (10
7
10
8
)G. The model of the vibrat-
ing spring does not take into account the existence of Peierls bar-
riers and does not explain the possibility of overcoming these bar-
riers in measurement of Q
1
in the range of low strain amplitudes.
The theory of internal friction caused by dislocations does not
consider the possibility of thermally activated release of the dislo-
cation segments. It is well-known that already at room temperature,
the frequency of unpinning of the dislocation segments as a result
of temperature variations amounts to hundredths of a megahertz.
In the MHz frequency range, a change of external stress is ac-
companied by a multiple, thermally-activated separation of the seg-
ments.
Despite the fact that these complications are important, it is
quite surprising that the theory of the vibrating spring describes
sufficiently the resultant experimental dependences. The explana-
tion is based on taking into account other phenomena, for example
the concept and mechanism of movement of bows on the disloca-
tions during overcoming barriers according to Shockley [94]. The
statistical and dynamic theory of bows assumes that a dislocation
in the given slip plane is oriented preferentially in the direction with
the highest density of the atoms and, consequently, causes bows to
form. At temperatures higher than 0 K, the dislocation lines are un-
stable, form pairs of bows of the reversed sign and are periodically
displaced from one potential well to another. The energy barrier,
overcome by movement of the bow along the dislocation line in the
direction of dense distribution of the atoms (so-called Peierls stress
of the second kind) at stresses of 10
4
G and the width of the bow
of 100b is 10
7
G, which corresponds to the stress amplitudes used
in internal friction measurements.
Evaluation of the strain amplitude during movement of bows
showed that its value is 1/n
p
b times higher than the amplitude used
in the model of the vibrating spring (n
p
is the number of bows on
a di sl ocat i on segment wi t h l engt h l ). The t heory of resonance
dislocational internal friction solves the movement of bows under
the effect of repeated external loading if the following conditions
are fulfilled:
the pinning points of the dislocation line are not located in the
same potential well and, consequently, the dislocations contain geo-
metrical bows;
116
below the temperature corresponding to the Bordoni peaks, n
p
is constant and does not change during the loading cycle;
the activation energy of movement of the bows along the dis-
location line is relatively small in comparison with the energy of
formation of double bows;
with increasing excitation amplitude used in measurement of
Q
1
the dislocations situated in the same potential well do not con-
tribute to anelastic deformation.
Consequently, the defect of the Young modulus is
( )
2
0
2
2
2
0
1
,
1
G
Z
G
j \
, (
( ,
, ]
j \
, ] +
, (
, ]
( ,
]
(3.45)
and internal friction
( )
1
2
2
2
0
,
1
Q Z
, ]
j \
, ] +
, (
, ]
( ,
]
(3.46)
where
2 2
4 2
0 0
8
, ,
l
l Gb aB
Z
S m

(3.47)
4 2
2
0
2
0
sin
, .
4 sin
l
l n p
aS Gb kT
S l n
q m l

+

(3.48)
In these equations, is the orientation factor, is the size factor
equal to 5 at a high angle and equal to 1 at small angle . Re-
laxation time
117
2
2
.
aBl
kT

Resonance frequency
0
decreases with decreasing angle and
approaches a constant value
2
2
0
.
kT
m l

Stretching S
1
contains the quantity
,
sin
kT
a
where a is the lattice parameter.

At low frequencies, < 1, the above equations have the fol-
lowing form
2 2
4
8
,
l
G Gb l
G D

(3.49)
2
1 4
6 2
8 1
sin
l
Gb
Q Bl
S

(3.50)
and at high frequencies, > 1, the form of these equations is
2 2
2 2 2
8 sin
,
l
Gb S G
G l B

(3.51)
2
1
2
8 sin
,
Gb
Q
B

(3.52)
where the meaning of the symbols is the same as in the case of
equations (3.45)(3.48).
118
Fig.3.14. Dependence of the relative friction decrement on relative frequency at
different values of the friction constant (B) for the delta distribution of the length
of dislocation segments.
The internal friction associated with the movement of bows along
the dislocation lines increases in direct proportion to loading fre-
quency and the value l
4
when approaching the resonance maximum
( = 1). After passing through resonance, the values start to de-
crease in inverse proportion to loading frequency.
The movement of bows on the dislocations can be evaluated by
internal friction measurements in the case of small angles that
with the magnitude of acting stresses below 10
6
G.
Figure 3.14 shows the dependence of normalised friction on nor-
malised frequency for different values of the friction characteris-
tic B, plotted using equations (3.45) and (3.46). It can be seen that
friction is of resonance nature, and the resonance frequency is con-
trolled by the values of S
1
, B and l, and also by the distribution of
the lengths of the dislocation segments in the material. For the
case shown in Fig. 3.40 we use the delta distribution. The qual-
ity of the specimen decreases with increasing B, the resonance
peak becomes wider and is displaced to lower frequencies. For the
case of damped resonance (/
0
)
2
<< 1 we have
119

o
Table 3.3 Resonance frequencies
0
and position of internal friction maxima
max
l a t e M
0
) z H M (
x a m
) z H M (
g A
l A
u A
u C
i N
b P
n Z
e G
7 6 4
8 6 8
2 5 3
8 2 6
4 8 7
0 1 2
6 8 5
0 4 6
0 . 6 7
0 . 5 6
0 . 9 7
0 . 2 9
0 . 5 3 1
5 . 4 2
0 . 9 6
0 . 1 5
1
max
max
.
2
G Z
Q
G
j \

, (
( ,
(3.53)
The frequency position of the maximum
2 2
0
max
2
,
l
S m
B Bl

(3.54)
makes it possible to determine, together with the value of Q
1
max
, the
parameters l
2
/S
1
, S/l
2
B and /B and specify these values further
when the values of S
1
and are known.
Lcke [95] determined the resonance frequency of the disloca-
tions
0
and the frequency position of the
max
of internal friction
max for several metals at l = 10
3
mm and B = 5 10
4
dyne s/
cm
2
(Table 3.3). At frequencies lower ( < 1) and higher ( >
1) than the peak, internal friction is proportional to l
4
B or
1
.
Fig.3.15. Displacement of dislocations under the effect of stress: a) displacement
at low (1) and high (2) friction; b) the case of high friction with oscillations not
in phase (1) or in phase (2); c) change of situation after adding another pinning
point (as b).
120
In the range of low (sonic) frequencies the dislocation friction
is low, as indicated by, for example, experiments with measurement
of Q
1
at 1 Hz and 10 kHz. The value of Q
1
consists of two com-
ponents, where the first component is directly proportional and the
second one indirectly proportional to frequency. With decrease of
frequency, the importance of the first and second component in-
creases.
The spring theory predicts the anomalous decrease of the veloc-
ity of sound after irradiation with neutrons or low plastic deforma-
tion [96]. The magnitude of internal friction and of the defect of
the Young modulus are influenced by various parts of dislocation
deformation that are in phase
f
or not in phase
f0
with the in-
duced st resses, i . e. Q
1
=
f0
/
e
, G/ G =
f
/
e
, where
0
i s t he
elastic strain.
The increase of loading frequency increases the viscous friction
force and also the value
0
(Fig. 3.15), and decreases
f
. This in-
crease the velocity of sound and friction (normal phenomenon). In
the limiting case ,
f
= 0, the wave propagates as in a me-
dium without dislocations. In the presence of other pinning points,
formed as a result of neutron irradiation or low deformation, the
value of
f
increases (Fig. 3.15c) and
f0
decreases. This results
in a decrease of the velocity of sound and a decrease of friction
(anomalous phenomenon). At a large number of pinning points, the
dislocation component, which vibrates in the phase with the acting
stress, is completely blocked thus increasing the velocity of sound.
The main shortcoming of the spring theory is the small displace-
ment, i.e. the amplitude of dislocation vibrations. For example, at
a stress of 10
7
G this amplitude is higher than the amplitude of
thermal vibrations of the lattice at room temperature only when
l 10
5
b, at a purity of the material better than 99.999 at.%. How-
ever, if its taken into account that the spring model is equivalent
to the model of movement of bows with a high density, these short-
comings are eliminated. The equivalence of the models was con-
firmed by Suzuki and Elbaum [97] at temperatures corresponding
to Bordonis peak and at a strain amplitude sufficient for the for-
mation of a single double bow on a dislocation.
These considerations also show that the mechanisms of internal
scattering of energy, regarded as frequency-independent, can be
influenced by frequency, although not directly but by means of a
set of mechanisms that are sensitive to frequency and form, for
example, a large part of the internal friction background.
121
Fig.3.16. Diagram of the effect of forces on the pinned atom: a) length of dislocation
segments A = B; b) A < B.
3.5 EFFECT OF LOADING TIME
The anelasticity characteristics of the material depend on loading
time and, consequently, the number of load cycles, in the range of
strain amplitudes that do not yet cause microplastic reactions.
The change of i nt ernal fri ct i on and t he defect of t he Young
modulus, caused by extending loading time, makes it possible to
determine the parameters of diffusion of atoms along dislocations,
the characteristics of stability and long-term strength, the processes
of fatigue damage cumulation in materials, etc.
The time dependence of internal friction is the result of diffu-
sion of solute atoms in a stress field. The solute atoms form clus-
ters and, consequently, dislocation segments are released from the
pinning area and the extent of friction increases. In addition to dif-
fusion displacement of the atoms along the dislocations, these at-
oms also diffuse from the dislocations into the volume of the lat-
tice. The type of atoms placement mechanisms that operates in a
specific case depends on the magnitude of acting stress, loading
frequency, temperature, concentration of the solute atoms at dis-
locations, bonds between the solute atoms and the dislocation, and
on the mutual effect of the solute atoms between each other.
External loading results in bending of dislocation segments (Fig.
3.16). The tensile force in the dislocations results in the formation
of forces acting on the solute atom. These forces can be divided
into mutually normal components. Consequently
122
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2
1 || 1
, ,
2 8
p p p p
b b
F L l F L L
C
+ +

+
(3.55)
where i s t he act i ng st ress, b i s t he Burgers vect or, C i s t he
stretching of the dislocation line, L
p
and L
p+1
are the lengths of the
dislocation segments on each side of the pinned atom. Force F
||
is
independent of the orientation of external loading and is always
di rect ed from l arger t o short er di sl ocat i on segment . Force F
changes its sense in accordance with the sense of applied stress.

Both forces (F
and F
||
) can cause movement of the blocking sol-
ute atoms. In the case of small bows of dislocation segments, the
following equation can be used
( )
1
||
,
4
p p
Gb L L
F
F C
+
(3.56)
It can be seen that F
| |
is many times smaller than F
. The move-
ment of the pinning points in the direction normal to the disloca-
tion line should be examined under static loading. With repeated
loading, the redistribution of the pinning atoms depends on the re-
l at i onshi p bet ween t he rel axat i on t i me and t he frequency of
changes of external loading.
For the simplest model of the dislocation segment with a single
pinning point, situated between two pinning points, the relaxation
time of movement of a pinned atom together with the dislocation
at the stress acting in the direction normal to and parallel to the
initial position is
( )
( )
1 2
||
|| 2 2
1 2
1 2
4
; ,
L L C
D D
C L L
L L b
kT
kT

+
+
(3.57)
where D
and D
||
are the diffusion coefficients of the atoms of the
solute in the direction normal and parallel to the dislocation line, L
1
,
L
2
are the lengths of the adjacent dislocation segments.
The displacement of the pinning atoms is interpreted by the dif-
fusion under the effect of the external force and, consequently, it
is possible to determine the diffusion coefficients along the dislo-
123
cations from the internal friction measurements at the start of re-
covery of the material. A more efficient procedure is the one us-
ing the curves of saturation of changes because the measurement
of the course is more accurate, the distance between the solute at-
oms is sufficiently large and the interaction of the atoms can be ig-
nored. The curve of sat urat i on of t he changes Q
1
()
can be de-
scribed by the equation
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1
0
1
2
1 1 1 1
0
2
1
,
1
e
Q Q Q Q
e
, ]
+
]
(3.58)
where Q
1
()
, Q
1
(0)
is the internal friction under the effect of stress
and without it, is time,
0
is the duration of saturation of the
changes, and
1
is the time related to the loading frequency.
The unpinning of the dislocations from the solute atoms and their
new distribution in the atmosphere is described in detail in the
analysis of the Q
1
dependences. In this section, it is possible
to examine the case in which a solute atom moves together with
a dislocation.
Force F
(Fi g. 3. 16) has t he meani ng correspondi ng t o t he

meaning of external loading. The solute atom does not travel far
Fig. 3.17. Region of separation (A), diffusion with activation energy of 0.32
10
19
J (B), diffusion with the activation energy of 0.8 10
19
J (C) and the position
of pinning (D) of the dislocation in relating to pinning atoms in the stresstemperature
diagram.
124
away from the dislocation. When the applied stress carries out
work higher than the binding energy of the solute atom and the dis-
location, the dislocation separates from the pinning atoms. With in-
creasi ng t emperat ures t he j ump t i me of t he sol ut e at om
de-
creases and the solute atom and the dislocation can move together.
The T dependence (Fig. 3.17) shows the region of unpinning
of the dislocation (A) and the region of displacement of the solute
atoms (B) together with the dislocation. The boundaries of the re-
gions are a function of temperature, loading frequency, binding en-
ergy of the solute atoms and the dislocations, and the activation en-
ergy of diffusion. It should be noted that due to rigid pinning (C)
the probability of joint movement of the solute atoms with the dis-
locations increases with increasing temperature.
This model explains the temperature dependence of the critical
strain amplitude
cr
where the value of
cr
decreases with increas-
ing temperature. Examination of the Q
1
dependence for cop-
per with zinc and germanium shows that the change of the tem-
perat ure dependence of
cr
occurs at a t emperat ure of ~170C.
This temperature denotes the start of displacement of pinning at-
oms together with the dislocations, with the average displacement
being 4b. Consequently, D
can be determined.
The joint displacement of the atoms of the solute with the dis-
location may not be reflected only in the time dependence of in-
ternal friction, because the direction of diffusion of the pinned atom
during transverse movement changes during cycling loading. Dis-
placement may also influence the function of the distribution of the
solute atoms along the dislocations, with a decrease of the prob-
ability of formation of clusters of the atoms. In addition, the defor-
mation, caused by the displacement of dislocations increases, and
there are also losses associated with the frequency of jumps of the
atoms of the solute with the frequency of external loading.
Continuous recording has a large number of advantages in com-
parison with discrete recording where vibrations must be periodi-
cally decreased when the saturation branch forms, and when the
unstressing branch appears it is necessary to excite the specimens
for measurement of Q
1
. Disregarding the short measurement time,
this results in errors which are especially evident at short relaxa-
tion times.
Since the diffusion coefficient of the solute atoms along the dis-
locations causes a change of Q
1
, the time dependence of Q
1
is
reflected in certain temperature and frequency ranges. At low tem-
perature, the mobility of the solute atoms is low and the long-term
125
Fig. 3.18. Temperature dependence of internal friction (A) for aluminium A999
at different frequencies: 1) 1.38 kHz, 2) 2.41 kHz in instantaneous measurements;
3 and 4) the same frequency and after saturation lasting 3 min. b) temperature
dependence of friction decrement.
effect of loading does not lead to any significant changes of Q
1
.
At high temperatures, relaxation takes place already during the pe-
riod of increasing loading and it is difficult to determine the time
dependence of the changes of Q
1
, because the atoms managed to
return to the initial position at the end of the loading cycle.
Figure 3.18a shows the temperature dependence of Q
1
of pure
aluminium, recorded at the start of saturation and after loading for
three minutes. Figure 3.18b shows the increase of the friction dec-
rement on t emperat ure. The t emperat ure ranges i n whi ch
Q
1
depends on temperature and also the homologous temperatures
of the boundaries of the ranges for different materials are pre-
sented in Table 3.4. It can be seen that for all evaluated materi-
al s, t he t emperat ure ranges wi t h t he t i me dependence of t he
changes of Q
1
are on average close to temperature (0.30.45)T
t
.
In these ranges, the relaxation stability of the metals is reduced.
Measurements of the time dependence of the changes of Q
1
can
be utilised efficiently in the quantitative evaluation of the relaxa-
Table 3.4 Temperature ranges of the time dependence of internal friction
l a t e M
f o t n e t n o C
s e t u l o s
) % . t w (
) K ( e g n a r
e g n a r e r u t a r e p m e T
g n i t l e m o t d e t a l e r
t n i o p
y c n e u q e r f g n i d a o L
u C
i N
l A
e F
1 0 . 0
1 0 . 0
1 0 . 0
1 0 . 0
0 4 5 0 7 3
0 2 7 0 3 6
0 0 4 0 5 2
0 2 7 0 0 5
0 4 . 0 8 2 . 0
2 4 . 0 6 3 . 0
7 4 . 0 0 3 . 0
0 4 . 0 8 2 . 0
7 . 0
9 . 0
5 . 2 9 . 0
9 . 0
126
r
Fig. 3.19. Dependence of the increase of the decrement of oscillations on the radius
of the solute atom.
tion stability and stability of the dimensions of metallic solids op-
erating under repeated loading. Measurements should be taken us-
ing specimens with the natural frequency, the same as the fre-
quency of the source of the vibrations. Static and repeated load-
ing results in the redistribution and clustering of the solute atoms
as a result of their displacement along the dislocations which is the
initial stage of low-temperature creep, and the dimensions of the
solid change by ~0.1%. The temperature ranges of occurrence of
this phenomenon should be avoided in service of components. Load-
ing frequency also influences the occurrence of temperature ranges
in which changes of Q
1
depend on time. The decrease of the load-
ing frequency results in a decrease of temperature at which the
time dependence of the changes of internal friction is evident.
The time dependence of the changes of Q
1
is recorded in the
region in which Q
1
is independent and also dependent on the strain
amplitude. Long-term loading results in a decrease of the critical
strain amplitude and increases internal friction. The largest increase
of Q
1
is at stresses corresponding to the critical amplitude, but
with increasing the increase of Q
1
becomes smaller. In the en-
tire strain amplitude range up to the microplasticity range the in-
crease of time increases internal friction (see Chapter 6).
The radius of the solute atoms also influences the increase of
the logarithmic decrement. The largest radius of the solute atom is
related to the largest change of (Fig. 3.19). Evidently, the spac-
ing of the solute atoms on the dislocations is also important in this
case.
Prior plastic deformation, accompanied by ageing, influences the
increase of the logarithmic decrement when examining the time de-
127
T
a
b
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128
pendence of the changes of Q
1
. In this case, the dislocation density
increases and the number of the solute atoms situated along the
unit length of the dislocation in the solid solutions decreases. This
is reflected in an increase of .
Of speci al i mport ance i s t he exami nat i on of t he changes of
Q
1
and E/E in relation to the time of repeated loading in the
range of cyclic microplasticity and in the part of the Q
1
de-
pendence in which Q
1
is an evident function of the loading time
(Chapter 6).
3.6 EFFECT OF MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS
In ferromagnetic materials, a large part of external mechanical en-
ergy can be dispersed as a result of changes of general magneti-
sation, reversible movement of the domain boundaries, the revers-
ible process of movement of the vector of magnetisation in domains
and irreversible displacement of the domains boundaries; eddy
microcurrents or magneticelastic static hysteresis are also impor-
tant [98].
Table 3.5 summarises the most important effects on the extent
of internal friction, with special attention to the effect of the mag-
netic field. The scatter of energy, associated with eddy micro- and
macrocurrents, is independent of the strain amplitude and is directly
proportional to loading frequency.
However, magnetomechanical friction is more important; in this
case, the domain structure of the ferromagnetic materials is char-
acterised by different orientation of the vectors of magnetisation of
the adjacent domains separated by Bloch walls. When the orien-
Fig. 3.20. Deformation curve for ferromagnetic materials.
129
tation of external loading is changed, the magnetisation vector also
changes and the domain boundaries are displaced. The formation
of elastic strain
c
is accompanied by magnetostriction deformation
, caused by the change of the orientation of vectors of local mag-
net i sat i on; t he t ot al deformat i on of t he mat eri al i s =
c
+ .
Unstressing is followed by the deformation of the stepped bound-
ary of the domains. The effect of cyclic loading is accompanied by
continuous displacement of the domain boundaries in two mutually
normal directions with the frequency identical with the frequency
of external loading. This phenomenon results in additional magneto-
mechanical scatter of energy in the ferromagnetic materials, the
E effect appears and appropriate changes take place in the hys-
teresis loops (Fig. 3.20).
When the ferromagnetic material is placed in a saturated mag-
netic field (H = H
s
), the entire material has the properties of a sin-
gle magnetic domain and the deformation curve is linear. Conse-
quently, the friction characteristics of the ferromagnetic material are
low.
The scattering of energy in the ferromagnetic materials depends
on the initial condition of the material and test temperature, in re-
lation to Curie temperature. The loss of energy in the material is
independent of the frequency of vibrations up to 10
5
10
6
Hz, i.e.
to the frequencies at which the duration of the Barkhausen jumps
is considerably shorter than the period of elastic vibrations [99].
Fig. 3.21. Main shapes of the curves of the dependence of the amount of scattered
energy on stress amplitude in ferromagnetic materials.
130
The scatter of energy by magneticelastic hysteresis is associ-
ated with the amplitude of the acting cyclic stress through the equa-
tion W = D
n
, where n 3. Under the effect of a low stress am-
plitude n = 3, and with increasing amplitude the value of n de-
creases to 2 and at the maximum stress amplitude n = 0 at mag-
netic saturation. Similarly, at low stress amplitude, the magnetic
component of internal scattering of the energy
h
6, and the
slope of the
h
() curve decreases. The function
h
() is char-
acterised by a curve with a maximum (for example, for nickel and
alloys of iron with nickel). The dependence of
h
on the stress am-
plitude has the form of an S-shaped curve; this has been confirmed
by experiments for iron and carbon steels.
With increasing amplitude of the vibrations the magneticelas-
t i c hyst eresi s l oop of soft ferromagnet i c mat eri al s gradual l y
changes from oval to bent shape; this is associated with the for-
mation of the G effect [100].
Kekalo [98] classified the main types of the dependence of in-
ternal friction on the strain amplitude for ferromagnetic materials,
Fig. 3.21. The curves with a high maximum, Fig. 3.21a, are re-
corded in cases when
m
=
max
<< <
d
, where
d
is the mini-
mum shear stress at which the energy losses, associated with dis-
location processes, are recorded. This may be observed in iron,
nickel, cobalt, low-carbon and low-alloy steels, and also many fer-
rous alloys.
The dependence of internal friction on the stress or strain am-
plitude is often different (Fig. 3.21bd) in comparison with that
observed in nickel, iron, gadolinium, maraging steels, carbon alloys,
and al so ot her al l oys. For t hese cases
m
=
max

d
< . At
d
>
max
we obtain the case shown in Fig. 3.21d. The curves with
the form shown in Fig. 3.21d are recorded for slightly different ma-
terials, i.e. the magnetomechanical losses are not completely sup-
pressed. The form of the dependence shown in Fig. 3.21e is re-
corded in two cases, i.e. when <<
max
, or in materials with in-
creased magnetic hardness (
max

el
). The form of the curve in
Fig. 3.21f is associated with pinning of domains by different obsta-
cles, for example, after stabilisation of the domain structure in the
ordered condition, and this is reflected in the formation of an ad-
ditional maximum.
The effect of the structure on the form of the dependence of in-
ternal friction on the stress or strain amplitude from the viewpoint
of magnet omechani cal phenomena i s qui t e cl ear. Al l fact ors,
decreasing the speed of movement of the domain boundaries, de-
131
Fig.3.22. Dependence of internal friction on strain amplitude of Co and its alloys:
1) Co; 2) 2% Re; 3) 10% Re; 4) 1% Zr; 5) 8% Zr; 6) 1% Nb; 7) 10% Nb; 8) 8%
V; 9) 7% Fe; 10) 5.65% Mn; 11) 10% Mn; 12) 5% Cr; 13) 15% Cr; 14) 25% Cr;
15) 65% Ni; 16) 10% Mo; 17) 2% Ti (wt.%).
Fig. 3.23. Dependence of internal friction on the strain amplitude of the alloy at
23 kHz. 1) without the magnetic field, 2) using the electric field with 3 10
4
V m
1
, 3) after application of the magnetic field with an intensity of 1.1 10
4
V
m
1
.
crease the height of the maximum and increase the stress
max
. The
form of the dependences is also influenced by the measurement
conditions, such as temperature, application of a constant or vari-
able magnetic field, electric current, static loading, etc.
the magnitude of internal friction of cobalt and cobalt alloys is
significantly influence by the polymorphous transformation.
Increasing content of the alloying element decreases the amount of
the low-temperature -phase with a hexagonal close-packed lattice
and the temperature of the transformation increases. This
is also reflected in the dependence of internal friction on strain
132
amplitude, Fig. 3.22. The magnitude of internal friction of the al-
loys under the effect of a specific strain amplitude increases with
a decrease of the content of alloying elements. If it is taken into
account that the transformation in pure cobalt is not completed, the
magnitude of internal friction in a wide strain amplitude range de-
pends on the amount of the high-temperature phase present in the
alloys. Annealing at temperatures in the vicinity of the martensitic
transformation temperature decreases the residual stresses and in-
creases the friction capacity of cobalt [101].
Measurements taken on amorphous alloys of iron, chromium and
nickel [102], produced in the form of ribbons 0.02 mm thick and 2.5
mm wide, by cooling from a melt at a speed of 10
6
K s
1
, with a
tensile strength of approximately 2400 MPa show, Fig. 3.23, that
the level of their internal friction is influenced not only by the
strength of the magnetic field but also by the application of a uni-
directional electric field. The main relationships recorded for crys-
talline materials are also valid in the amorphous materials.
Iron alloys are also sensitive to the strength of the external mag-
netic field and, consequently, the magnetomechanical component of
internal friction contributes significantly to the level of their internal
friction. The overall effect depends not only on the chemical com-
position of the alloy (this results in the changes of the amount and
distribution of the ferromagnetic phase in the alloy), but also on
heat t reat ment whi ch may great l y change t he fract i on of t he
ferromagnetic phases in the alloys of a specific composition. Fur-
ther results of measurements in this area are published in Chapter
6.
In concluding this chapter, it should be noted that the specific
level of internal friction and of the defect of the Young modulus is
a function of a large number of factors having different effects on
the mechanisms of scattering of mechanical energy in the material.
It has also been found that in efficiently prepared experiments,
internal friction and the defect of the Young modulus reflect the
substructure, structure, prior deformation, thermal, deformation
thermal and other treatments. This means that the measurements
of Q
1
or E/ E provi de addi t i onal dat a on t he mat eri al and on
changes taking place in it.
133
Measurements of Internal Friction and the Defect of the Young Modulus
4
MEASUREMENTS OF INTERNAL
FRICTION AND THE DEFECT OF THE
YOUNG MODULUS
The requirements on equipment and devices for measuring internal
friction and elasticity moduli different [1,103]. For example, the
determination of an independent characteristic, such as the internal
scattering of energy, i.e. damping capacity, is carried out with dif-
ferent force effects on actual solids. For many actual structural
components it is important to know a wide amplitude and frequency
dependence of oscillations so that it is important to use a suitable
test system. On the other hand, the tasks of physical metallurgy and
threshold states require exact experiments in different directions (for
example, in analysis of the relaxation spectrum of internal friction
in solids it is necessary to regulate temperature from the liquid he-
lium temperature up to temperatures close to the melting point, dif-
ferent frequencies at low strain amplitude).
In the following section, we discuss the fundamentals of experi-
mental procedures and equipment for measuring internal friction and
the defect of the Young modulus and also examine the possibilities
of automating these methods.
4.1 APPARATUS AND EQUIPMENT
The basis of the classification of the methods of measuring inter-
nal friction and elasticity moduli is the general approach to the con-
struction of scientific devices and metrology (Fig. 4.1).
The main structural feature of apparatus and equipment is the ex-
citation section, the measurements section and the section for re-
cording vibrations of the specimens or test system. These sections
are characterised by defined parameters and represent independent
elements of testing equipment. Frequency is the criterion used in the
134
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 4.1. . 4.1. . 4.1. . 4.1. . 4.1. Classification of the test methods, measurements and recording of internal
friction and the defect of the Young modulus.
V
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135
conventional approach for determination of the group of the exci-
tation section. Using frequency, the systems are divided into infra-
sonic, sonic, ultrasonic and hypersonic. The frequency range in the
test characterises different structural principles of the construction
of equipment and provides different temperature and time changes
of the elasticity effects in metals. The frequency criterion has physi-
cal meaning when the appropriate frequency range is determined in
relation to the dimensions of the specimens a and the velocity of
propagation of the wave v in the material [103]. Consequently, the
range of l ow frequenci es i s represent ed by t he case i n whi ch
= 2
f
<< 2v/a, the range of medium frequencies = 2v/a, and
the range of high frequencies > > 2v/a.
Another important classification criterion for the excitation of vi-
brations in the measurements of internal friction and elasticity
moduli, reflecting the nature of propagation of the elastic waves in
the material, is the nature of elastic waves. These waves may be
standing or running. The standing waves are excited in a system
whose part is the specimens (for example, a torsion pendulum) or
directly in the specimens (for example, resonance waveguide). Run-
ning waves are excited in the surface of the specimens (for exam-
ple, Rayleigh waves) or in its volume (for example, the pulsed
method). The form of the vibrations of the specimens is determined
by the method of excitation of vibrations. There are longitudinal,
transverse and torsional vibrations. The nature of the vibrations
determines not only the special features of the structure of equip-
ment but also the measured characteristics of the materials (for ex-
ample, normal or shear Young modulus). According to the excita-
tion method, there are various units (Fig. 4.2), i.e. mechanical, elec-
tromagnetic, magnetostriction, piezoelectric, laser, etc. Consequently,
the excitation methods can be combined on the basis of the control-
ling criterion, i.e. external independent and self-excited (Fig. 4.1).
The classification of the circuit of the measurement unit is de-
termined by two factors. It is the aim of measurements and the
measurements method. When measuring the elastic or inelastic char-
acteristics of metals, there may be different tasks, e.g. determina-
tion of the absolute values or relative changes of the characteristics,
associated with the change of the state of the evaluated systems, or
with differences between the determined states. In the first case, the
high accuracy of measurements is controlling, whereas high sensi-
tivity is the controlling factor in the second case.
The classification of the measurement methods is more compli-
cated [2, 103, 104]. The direct methods include the evaluation of the
136
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 4.2. . 4.2. . 4.2. . 4.2. . 4.2. Methods of excitation (V) and recording (P is the receiver) of internal
damping and the defect of the Young modulus (1): a) mechanical (2 hammer,
3 microscope), b) capacitance (4 electrode of the condenser), c) magnetostriction
(5 magnetostriction device), d) electromagnetic (6 magnetic layer), e) piezoelectric
(7 piezocrystal), f) eddy current.
static and dynamic hysteresis loops. The method is based on the
measurement of st ress and resul t ant st rai n i n t he process of
gradual loading and unloading of the specimen. The internal scat-
ter of energy is characterised by the equation (2.43).
In repeated loading, it is possible to record simultaneously stress
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 4.3. . 4.3. . 4.3. . 4.3. . 4.3. Dynamic hysteresis loop: a) away from resonance ( /
r
< 1), b) in
resonance ( /
r
= 1).
137
and strain in the form of a hysteresis loop. Figure 4.3 shows exam-
ples of a dynamic hysteresis loop away from resonance, Fig. 4.3a,
and at resonance, Fig. 4.3b.
The energy measurement method is based on evaluating the dif-
ference of the electrical or mechanical output of the excitation de-
vice, required for maintaining the selected amplitude of the vibra-
tions of the specimen. The relative scatter of energy in the material
of the evaluated specimen is determined from the equation
1 2
,
Z Z
fW

(4.1)
where Z
1
is the total output of the excitation device, Z
2
is the out-
put required to overcome resistance in the excitation device with the
replacement of the output scattered in the circuit of the vibrating
system, f is the frequency of the resultant vibrations, and W is the
potential energy of the deformed specimen, corresponding to the
amplitude of the resultant vibrations.
The thermal method is based on the measurement of thermal en-
ergy U generated in the specimen during cyclic deformation with
frequency f during time t. Energy W scattered in the material dur-
ing a single load cycle is determined by the equation
.
U
W
t f

(4.2)
The method is integral and can be used in the case of the homoge-
neous stress state of the specimen, without connected masses.
Indirect methods of internal friction measurements, Fig. 4.1, also
include the method of damping vibrations and other methods. In this
method, the specimen is the elastic part of the vibrating system.
Internal friction is characterised by the logarithmic decrement of
vibrations .
Taking into account the decrease of the energy of the system dur-
ing a vibration cycle, it is possible to determine the difference of
the energies corresponding to the adjacent maxima A
t
, A
t+t
. We
introduce the concept of the logarithmic decrement of vibrations in
the form = Q
1
. Consequently,
138
ln .
t
t t
A
t
A
+

(4.3)
The method of increasing vibrations eliminates the shortcoming
of the previous method because the latter requires initial deforma-
tion of the specimen with the maximum amplitude which may cause
changes in the material and inaccuracies so that the evaluated state
of the specimen is not the initial state. The method of increasing
vibrations, i.e. the increment of vibrations , utilises resonance and
the constant magnitude of the excitation force. The increment of the
vibrations
2 .
t t t t
t t t ts
A A A
A A A
+
+

+
(4.4)
where A
ts
is the mean amplitude.
The increment and decrement of the vibrations, corresponding to
the amplitude A
ts
, are connected by the equation [104] in the form
0
0
,
ts
A
A

(4.5)
here
0
is the decrement of the vibrations, corresponding to the
maximum amplitude at resonance A
0
. The increment of the vibra-
tions is determined from the recording of the vibrations of the in-
creasing resonance vibrations and the values of
0
, A
0
are deter-
mined from the results of processing the recording of damping of the
vibrations. The resonance vibrations are excited in the self-excita-
tion regime.
The method of the resonance curve determines the width of the
resonant maximum or resonance valley in relation to the frequency
dependence of the vibrations, at a constant excitation force (Fig.
4.4). Internal friction is determined from the equation
1 1 0.7 0.5
and ,
3
r r
Q Q
f f

(4.6)
i.e. from the width of the resonance maximum at the height of 0.7
139
or 0.5 of the maximum, where f
r
is the internal frequency of vibra-
tions of the system without internal friction. The equations (4.6) are
valid for the determination of internal friction in the area in which
the internal friction is independent of the strain amplitude. For other
measurement ranges, the equations must be modified.
Internal friction can also be determined from the width of the
resonance well [104] using the equation
1
,
r
Q K
f
(4.7)
here K
is the coefficient of proportionality. Equation (4.7) can be

used for any dependence of Q
1
on the strain amplitude.
Internal friction can also be determined, using the method of the
resonance curve, from the following equation [4,105]
1 3
1
,
db
r
Q K
(4.8)
where K
1
is the proportionality factor which takes into account the
effective mass of the resonance system,
3db
is the three decibell
deviation of resonance frequency and
r
is the resonance frequency
of the system.
The phase shift method is based on the time delay between the
acting stress and resultant strain, denoted by angle . Consequently
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 4.4. . 4.4. . 4.4. . 4.4. . 4.4. Resonance peak of the frequency dependence of deviation
0
.
140
2
1 tan ,
r
f
j \
2
, (
( ,
(4.9)
where is the frequency of the excitation force, f
r
is the internal
frequency of the system. Since 1, then
2 tan . (4.10)
For the linear system of the hysteresis type, it is possible to find
the relationship of the decrement of the vibrations with the phase
shift in the form
2 2
0
2
tan ,
r
r
f
f
, ]

]
(4.11)
where f
r0
is the resonance or internal frequency of the vibrations of
the system, taking into account the dependence of internal friction
on strain amplitude.
In the ultrasound method, a wave is passed through the specimen.
The velocity of the wave and its damping in the material are exam-
ined. The wave equation has the following form
0
cos ,
x
x
A A e t
j \

, (
( ,
(4.12)
where is the damping factor, A and A
0
is the actual and initial
amplitude of the wave, x is the coordinate in the direction of wave
propagation. The damping factor is determined from the scatter
of energy of the sound wave at its length . The value W/W is
linked with by the equation
( )
2
1 ,
x x
x
A A W
e
W A
+

(4.13)
and at low values of and by the equation
141
2 4 .
W
W

(4.14)
Elasticity (Young) moduli
The elasticity moduli are measured using bar-shaped specimens
whose length is significantly greater than the transverse dimensions.
In the case of low damping, we have
1
, M

where M is the characteristic of the Young modulus (E or G). Con-
sequently
and ,
l t
E G

(4.15)
where v
1
and v
t
are the velocities of propagation of the longitudi-
nal and transverse wave.
It is also possible to measure the internal frequency of longitu-
dinal (f
l
) or torsional (f
t
) vibrations of the bar [106]. Consequently
2 2 2
2
1 ,
2 2
l
n E n I
f
L SL
j \

, (
( ,
(4.16)
and
,
2
t
n G
f
L
where n is the number of harmonic vibrations, L is the length of the

bar, is specific density, is Poissons number, S is the cross sec-
tional area, and I is the moment of inertia of the specimen in rela-
tion to the longitudinal axis (for the square cross section I = S
2
/
6, for the circular cross section with radius r I = r
2
/2). The sec-
ond term in the brackets in equation (4.16) is the correction coef-
ficient according to Rayleigh, which takes into account the effect of
142
transverse vibrations on the frequency of longitudinal vibrations.
The correction coefficient for the specimens with L/2r > 3 made of
a cubic lattice material is less than 1% and can be ignored.
In complicated systems with inertia masses (for example, a tor-
sional pendulum with a moving weight), the moment of inertia can
be determined from the equations derived in Ref. 107, but in most
cases, it is recommended use the dependences G f
2
with changes
of temperature. Usually, measurements are taken at the internal or
resonance frequency which correspond to the main harmonic vibra-
tions of the specimen.
The main requirements in measurements of the elasticity moduli
are described by the standards [14]. The recommended dynamic
methods (strain rates 10
3
10
4
s
1
) for the determination of the elas-
ticity moduli are based on the measurements of the resonance fre-
quency of induced vibrations of the specimen in the form of a bar
with a constant cross section.
The resonance methods enable rapid and relatively accurate (rela-
tive error 0.50.8%) determination of the Young modulus.
When using the pulsed methods, the elastic strain range is 10
6

10
8
s
1
. In these methods, it is necessary to determine the velocity
of propagation of the elastic wave through a bar where the wave-
length is small in comparison with the dimensions of the specimen.
The elasticity moduli are calculated using equation (4. 15). The
pulsed methods of measurements of the Young modulus are charac-
t eri sed by hi gh accuracy because t he measurement error i s
~0.1%. However, the extent of application of these methods is lim-
ited, especially at high temperatures of the material.
The values of the elasticity moduli for many materials and alloys
are presented in the literature (for example, Ref. 5,14,108).
Let us return to the diagram in Fig. 4.1. The sections for record-
ing the vibrations differ, depending on their construction and the
methods of obtaining information. For the most extensively used
experimental machines, the methods of recording vibrations can be
divided into visual, mechanical, piezoelectric, electromagnetic, elec-
trostatic and others. The methods of recording data from the meas-
urement sections are discrete or analogue. The results of measure-
ments can be recorded in a coordinate-recording device or on strips
of di gi t al recordi ng syst ems. Aft er t ransformat i on, codi ng and
processi ng, t he resul t s are ent ered i nt o a comput er for furt her
processing and analysis.
According to the level and state of automation, the experimental
procedures of measurements of internal friction and the defect of the
143
Young modulus can be classified into four groups: non-automated
systems, semi-automated systems, automatic systems, where the
processes of measurement and recording data in the analogue or dig-
ital form are automated, and fully automated systems, controlled by
a computer, with computer processing of the results. The general
principles for the construction of the circuits of the automated sys-
tems with continuous recording of internal friction and the defect of
Young modulus are presented in Ref. 109.
The main requirements on the systems for measuring internal
friction and the defect of the Young modulus is to ensure high ac-
curacy and sensitivity of equipment. The relative error of measure-
ments of internal friction and the defect of the Young modulus in
the most effective systems is: for the torsional pendulum 2.5%, for
resonance bars 0.30.1%, and for the pulsed methods 100.01%.
The construction of sensitive equipment and systems is based on
their automation and resolution capacity. In the case of the auto-
mated systems, the resolution power of the measurements of inter-
nal friction is sufficiently high: for the torsional pendulum 0.03%,
for the resonance systems up to 10 %, and for the method with the
running wave up to 10 %.
When comparing characteristics, it is very important to ensure
the high resolution power of the systems for measuring internal fric-
tion and the defect of the Young modulus [106].
The design of the devices and systems can differ greatly. The me-
chanical section must fulfil special requirements (for example, the
sections of connection of the specimen, the section of excitation of
vibrations, etc.). It is always necessary to optimise the test condi-
tions in order to eliminate unnecessary scattering of the energy in
the measurement section. The introduction of measurements of in-
ternal friction into laboratories in plants requires reliable systems
are reliable and fast measurements. In the case of scientific inves-
tigations, special attachments can be used.
4.2 EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS AND EVALUATION
In the last 2030 years, the extent of application of the methods of
measuring internal friction and the defect of the Young modulus has
expanded greatly. A large amount of experience has been accumu-
lated in the application of devices and systems in solid-state phys-
ics, in evaluation of damage and threshold state of materials (see
Fig. 1.1).
We shall use the conventional division of the methods of meas-
urement of internal friction and the defect of the Young modulus
144
when using the frequency criterion for: infrasound (10
4
10
2
Hz),
sonic (10
2
10
4
Hz), ultrasonic (10
5
10
8
Hz) and hypersonic (10
9

10
11
Hz). The conventional nature of the division also results from
the region of sonic and low frequency oscillations but has a certain
physical substantiation [26].
4.2.1 Infrasound methods
The methods of the static and dynamic hysteresis loops are used in
examination of the characteristic the internal friction and the defect
of the Young modulus of materials at stresses close to or higher than
the fatigue limit. The sensitivity and accuracy of this method is
determined by the error of measurement of deformation and by the
efficiency of the measuring devices (strain gauges, dynamometers).
The range of possi bl e measurement s of energy scat t eri ng i n
efficient test systems of the type Instron and Strainset is greatly lim-
ited [110].
The principal diagram of the system for measurement of internal
friction in metals using strain gauges is shown in Fig. 4.5 [111]. A
pair of sensors 4 is attached to the specimen, two other pairs of
sensors 5 and 9 are attached to the dynamometer. The signal from
the sensors 4 is directly proportional to the deformation of the
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 4.5. . 4.5. . 4.5. . 4.5. . 4.5. Diagram of equipment for measuring internal friction using strain gauges:
1) oscilloscope; 2, 12) frequency-selective filters; 3) amplifier; 4,5,9) strain gauges;
6) switch; 7, 8) resistors; 10) two-channel amplifier of strain gauge data; 11)
compensator of the phase shift of the signal.
145
specimen, passes through the strain gauge bridge, the amplifier and
the filter to the horizontal axis of the oscilloscope. The signal from
the sensors 9, proportional to the stress, passes through the strain
gauge bridge, the reverse change of the phase shift and the filter to
the vertical axis of the oscilloscope. The beam of the electrons on
the screen of the oscilloscope describes the loop in the stressstrain
coordinates. The application of accurate strain gauges (nonlinearity
2.1 10
4
%) makes it possible to increase greatly the sensitivity
of measurements. In evaluation of materials with 0.001 the er-
ror does not exceed 10%, Efficient connection of the amplifier
makes it possible to subtract the elastic strain from the total strain
of the specimen and, consequently, increase the sensitivity of the
system [110].
This system is universal and is utilised in fatigue systems load-
ing the specimen by pullpush, bending or torsional loading. At
higher loading frequencies, the method of the dynamic hysteresis
loop is used for recording the diagrams of cyclic deformation [111].
The torsional pendulum is used in the low-frequency range and
is the most efficient method of measurement of the internal friction
dependent on the strain amplitude, and in measurements of the in-
ternal friction dependent on temperature. The shear Young modulus
is determined by the square of frequency f
2
of damped vibrations
(G ~ M
*
f, where M
*
is the moment of inertia of the system). There
are three methods of using the torsional pendulum: direct, reversed,
and combined (Fig. 4.6).
A suitable example of the design of measuring heads in the
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 4.6. . 4.6. . 4.6. . 4.6. . 4.6. Torsional pendulum systems: a) direct, b) reversed, c) combined (1
specimen, 2 rod of the moving clamping jaw, 3) inertia mass for testing the
speci men, 4 cl ampi ng j aws, 5 rod of t he fi xed j aw, 6 suspensi on, 7
counterweight).
146
arrangement for the measurements of the damping of vibrations and
internal vibrations is the RKM-TPI torsion pendulum. In the first
variant [112], internal friction and the square of frequency were
measured visually or semiautomatically using a counter of vibra-
tions. The second variant [113] is based on the automatic record-
ing of the results of measurements, with continuous drawing of the
curve of the temperature dependence of internal friction and the
dependence of internal friction on the strain amplitude with discrete
recording of the data. The system makes it possible to use speci-
mens with a length of 50120 mm of circular or right-angled cross
section. The frequency range is 0.2100 Hz, the temperature range
up to 2500C. The strain amplitude range is from 10
6
to 10
3
, and
the internal friction background is smaller than 10
4
units of inter-
nal friction. Measurements can be taken in a unidirectional magnetic
field with an intensity of 410
4
Am
1
. The RKM-TPI system can
be fitted with clamping heads with the section for deformation of the
specimen during measurements [114] by superplastic loading [115],
and by an attachment for the effect of corrosive media.
Other systems based on the torsional pendulum of different de-
sign are also available [116,117]. Improvement of design is associ-
ated with the widening of the working characteristics of systems,
such as the range of strain amplitude and frequency of vibrations,
temperature [118,119], modification of the measuring heads [120,
121], increase of sensitivity for the application of strain (for exam-
ple, from 10
11
) [122].
Some systems based on the torsional pendulum also make it pos-
sible to carry out tests with bending vibrations, in addition to tor-
sional vibrations [123]. It is important to note low-frequency com-
bined pendulum systems with the original design of the suspension
[123].
When using the pendulum, excitation is carried out by the mu-
tual effect of the magnetic field of coils distributed on a suspension
system, with a permanent magnet [124]. To prevent deformation of
the specimen as a result of the weight of the rest of the system, a
container with a damping fluid is used. However, systems not us-
ing fluid dampers are also available [124]. Centring of the vibrat-
ing system is improved by a system of rollers [126] or using pre-
cision dimples [125].
Good results have been obtained with the system in which the
ferromagnetic cylinder of the suspension is centered in holes of two
toroidal electromagnets with the core in the coils thus forming an
orthogonal source of alternating current [127]. The suspension also
147
contains a square magnet which interacts with four electromagnets
powered by direct current. If the voltage to the electromagnet is
changed, the moment of inertia and frequency of vibrations of the
system change. Compensation of the mass of the suspension system
and the formation of a certain mechanical stress in the specimen can
be achieved using lever or spring systems [128].
In measurements of the characteristics of brittle material and
glass, it is necessary to ensure rigid contact of the specimen with
the clamping heads. In one of the interesting solutions, the lower
clamping jaw has the form of a vessel and the upper has the form
of a seed (the specimen is pulled from the alloy and this is followed
by the measurements), or contact is made by means of eutectics with
a low melting point [129].
In the basic models of the torsional pendulum, the change of fre-
quencies achieved by moving a weight on the one-sided lever of the
inertia system, or by changing the number of weights. Improvement
have been made in the automatic displacement of the weights along
a two-sided lever, by regulating the number of discs in the inertia
mass on the vertical shafts, or by changing the number of weights
permanent magnets on a shafts as a result of their contact with elec-
tric coils. Another solution is the mutually effect of the magnetic
fields of the inertia mass in the form of a permanent magnetic with
a stationary electric coil [127]. Expansion of the frequency range
is possible in the case of the torsional pendulum by using the re-
gime of forced vibrations [113].
The automation of the low-frequency system for measurements of
internal friction and the defect of the Young modulus is based on
the application of photocells. The diagram of recording vibrations
for this principle is shown in Fig. 4.7a. The light beam from the
mirror, secured to the inertia system, falls on photo resistances and
the signal from the passes, after amplification, to a recording de-
vice. The distribution of the photoresistances in a specific sequence
makes it possible to obtain recordings in the logarithmic coordi-
nates. Of considerable importance for automation was the concept
of determination of the decrement of vibrations from the decrease
of the speed of vibrations (time periods) during the passage of the
beam (Fig. 4.7b [130] which greatly decrease the duration of a sin-
gle measurement in the strain amplitude range 10
4
10
2
and the
frequency range 0.2 20 Hz. The method of measurement of the
duration of passage of the light trace was gradually greatly im-
proved as a result of the application of photocells in the goniometric
head [116].
148
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 4.7. . 4.7. . 4.7. . 4.7. . 4.7. The block diagram of equipment: a) (1 mirror, 2 light beam, 3
the light source, 4 photoresistance, 5 amplifier, 6,7 the recording device
with attachments); b) (1 mirror, 2 light source, 3 light beam, 4 grating,
5 photoamplifier, 6 the device for measuring the transfer of vibrations, 7
the device for measuring time during the passage of vibrations); c) (1 mirror,
2 the light source, 3 the input Schmidt trigger, 4 the frequency divider, 5
chronometer, 6 printer, 7- photocells, 8 the output Schmidt trigger); d) (1
pendulum, 2 mirror, 3 the light source, 4 shut-off attachment, 5 the
source of the signal for arresting the cycle counter, 6 the unit for stopping
the counting of cycles, 7 the counter of pulses, 8 the unit for the double
number of the pulses, 9 indicating device, 10-the device for selecting the number
of pulses, 11 the unit for the double number of the pulses, 12 photodiodes,
13 triggering photographic equipment, 14 the source of the starting signal,
15 the unit for starting the counter, 16 printer).
Accurate measurements of the time periods in the frequency range
of operation of the pendulum from 0.3 to 3 Hz are taken using sili-
con photodiodes [117]. The central part of the illuminating scale
contains photodiodes distributed at a distance of 10 mm from the
centre of the scale [Fig. 4.7c].
During the gradual passage of the beam through the photodiodes,
Schmidt triggers convert the electric signal to square pulses which
are transferred to a frequency divider and then to a timer. The data
for determining the logarithmic decrement of friction
0
1
ln
n
t
n t
j \
, (
( ,
(4.17)
149
are automatically recorded in a printer. In equation (4.17), n is the
number of vibrations, t
0
is the duration of passage of the light beam
through a constant base at the start of counting, t
n
is the identical
time after n vibrations.
Another modification is shown in Fig. 4.7d. The light beam, re-
flected from the mirror, falls on the triggering photograph equip-
ment. The signals from the starting and stopping mechanism are
change to square pulses which are then transferred to the indicat-
ing unit. The equipment for starting and stopping the counter is con-
nected to a chronometer. The pulses are then transferred to the con-
trol system, consisting of the selection device for the number of vi-
brations (n = 1, 2, 4, 8,...) and from a double counter forming the
signal for stopping the counter in accordance with the selected pro-
gramme. The device for stopping the counter issues a signal for
stopping the chronometer which records the duration of passage of
the light beam from the triggering to stopping device after the given
number of vibrations of the system. Equipment is also fitted with
a device for the generation of high-power alternating voltage. The
modified form makes it possible to determine automatically the
dependence of internal friction on temperature, strain amplitude or
time, in the form of tables or graphical dependences [131,132].
When applying transverse or bending vibrations, it is possible to
use specimens of simple shape and different dimensions, a simple
excitation method and a simple method of recording vibrations, a
wide frequency range and also a wide range of external loading of
the specimens. As in the case of the torsional pendulum, the bend-
ing vibrations do not load the entire cross section of the specimen
and this impairs the conditions of obtaining the actual internal fric-
tion characteristics.
The systems with a cantilever specimen are also used [124, 133].
Equipment with or without connected mass is available. The second
method is used when it is required to generate various stresses in
the specimen. The principle of this method is shown in Fig. 4.8. The
vibrations are excited by the electromagnetic method. Recording
from contact-free shadow observation of the vibrations is carried out
using a photographic sensor [134]. Four forms of vibrations of the
specimen are used. In the case of non-ferromagnetic materials, thin
sheets of a ferromagnetic material are secured to the specimen. The
logarithmic decrement of damping is determined by the method of
damped vibrations or resonance vibrations.
The systems suspended at the nodes of vibrations are used for the
maximum equalisation of the stress along the specimen under the
150
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 4.8. . 4.8. . 4.8. . 4.8. . 4.8. Block diagram of equipment (a) and the shape of pulsed of the cantilever
specimen (b): 1) amplifier, 2) relay, 3) sound generator, 4) oscilloscope, 5) screw,
6) measuring discs, 7) base plate, 8) wedge, 9) variable mass, 10) indicating
device, 11) electromagnet, 12) specimen, 13) microscope, 14) spring.
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 4.9. . 4.9. . 4.9. . 4.9. . 4.9. Diagram of the oscillating system and optical recording system. 1) spring,
2) inertia mass, 3) prismatic specimen, 4) mirror, 5) light source, 6) recorder.
effect of bending vibrations. On the basis of the principle shown in
Fig. 4.9, the Institute of Strength of Materials of the Academy of
Sciences of the Ukraine has developed a set of systems [104]. The
prismatic specimen 3 is suspended on thin springs 1. The inertia
mass 2 is connected to the specimen. The mass can be connected
using threads, clamps, wedges, etc. Vibration systems consisting of
two specimens and inertia mass are also available [135].
151
A system with a U-shaped specimen (tuning fork) utilises the
magnetoelectric excitation to resonance at the natural frequency or
stationary excitation [136]. The frequency of the exciting vibrations
is changed automatically and the signal, directly proportional to the
amplitude of the vibrations, is recorded. The second method is based
on the maintenance of a specific frequency, closed to the resonance
frequency, with the change of the temperature of the specimen [104].
The results show that the method of measuring the supplied
power is most promising in continuous measurements of internal
friction with the change of temperature, amplitude or loading time
[113].
The methods based on longitudinal infrasound vibrations are used
mostly in evaluation of materials with high elasticity [26].
For special purposes, it is possible to use an attachment with
cryogenic or higher temperature for the examination of the charac-
teristics under static or cyclic deformation, under the effect of X-
ray or ion radiation, for testing whisker crystals, thin foils and
highly brittle materials [2,26,104,107]. Experimental results show
that in addition to the measurements of internal friction and Young
modulus, it is also possible to evaluate other physical properties
[137].
4.2.2 Sonic and ultrasound methods
The design and application of equipment for this frequency range
have been described in a number of studies [2,26,106,138]. The
design of equipment does not contain any special inertia systems
connected with the specimen. The main groups of the measuring
equipment are:
equipment with the specimen secured at nodes by the contact
method [139],
equipment in which specimens are secured at nodes by a con-
tactless method [147],
equipment with one specimen secured at the node of the vibra-
tions [141],
cantilever-type equipment [142].
When the specimens are secured by the contact method, it is not
necessary to use any wires or supports connecting the specimens
with the sensor and receiver of the vibrations in the vicinity of the
node of the vibrations. The receiver and the sensor are far away
from the specimen and, consequently, they can be protected from the
effect of temperature, magnetic or other energy field. It should be
remembered that additional energy scattering takes place in the area
152
of contact of the specimen with the filament. For example, when us-
ing filaments 0.1 mm thick and in the case of the minimum distance
to the nodes of the vibrations, the scattering of energy in the con-
tact zone is less than 3% when the level of the background of the
internal friction of equipment is Q
1
< 10
5
. This systematic error
is almost completely eliminated in the systems without contact where
the correction of the filaments or supports to the specimen is car-
ried out exactly at the nodes of the vibrations. For example, in the
presence of bending vibrations, the contact is realised in the form
of needles. The displacement of the sensors of excitation or the
change of the method of securing the specimens make it possible to
produce not only basic vibrations but also higher harmonic vibra-
tions. A shortcoming of these systems is the low level of the strain
amplitude ( 10
5
) and in the case of contactless connection also
the proximity of the measuring unit to the zone of external influ-
ences. In both the contact and contactless variant of equipment with
single connection at the node of the vibrations it is possible to ex-
cite several types of vibrations. All these systems can be fully au-
tomated.
Equipment for cantilever securing of the specimen is used in
evaluation of thin sheets, foils, filaments and wires.
A special position is occupied by the vibrators consisting of
stepped and exponential concentrators because they make it possi-
ble to apply a wide range of strain amplitudes [105,143]. The meas-
urements of vibrations and of their changes using piezoceramic
sheets connected by long waveguides with the specimens are carried
out to evaluate the relative change of internal friction because
energy is lost in contact areas.
In electrostatic excitation, one of the ends of the bar is subjected
to the effect of a periodic force formed as a result of electrostatic
attraction between the conducting end of the bar and the stationary
electrode (Fig. 4.10). In excitation of the bending vibrations the
electrodes are situated in the area with the maximum amplitude of
the vibrations. The electrodynamic method of excitation is associ-
ated with the mutual effect of the conducting metal strip, deposited
on the surface of a non-conducting specimen, with the magnetic
field. This results in the formation of an alternating force causing
vibrations in the specimen. These methods are suitable for materi-
als with low internal friction in a wide frequency range.
The effect of the electrostatic force between capacitor plates,
where one of the plates is represented by the part of the surface of
the specimen, makes it possible to excite longitudinal, bending or
153
torsional vibrations in the specimen. In this excitation method, the
bond between the mechanical and electrical system is weak. Conse-
quently, the effect of the electrical circuit can be ignored. To elimi-
nate aerodynamic losses, the working space is evacuated. Elastic
vibrations in the specimen can also form as a result of Coulomb
forces [144] between the face of the specimen and the electrode
which is parallel to the face of the specimen. The second electrode
(the receiver on the other end of the specimen) changes the mechani-
cal vibrations to an electrical signal. The modified method requires
only one electrode [145]. The frequency modulation of the loading
and measuring signal is utilised in this case.
Equipment with electrostatic excitation and reception of informa-
tion on vibrations is being used at the A.F. Joffe Physical-Techni-
cal Institute [146].
One of the first automatic systems of this type was built at the
Academy of Sciences of Georgia in the former USSR [147]. This
equipment makes it possible to carry out continuous measurement
of the temperature dependence of internal friction. The equipment
is based on the method of supplied power of the method of damp-
ing of vibrations.
The electrostatic method of excitation ensures good acoustic con-
tact between the specimen and the electromechanical converter. This
impairs the measurement results when using the piezovibrator or the
pulsed method, especially at high temperatures. Equipment of this
type has been used for a large number of studies of the properties
of semiconductors, metallic and dielectric materials [106].
Various methods are used in electromagnetic citation. These
methods are based on the excitation of longitudinal, bending or tor-
sional vibrations using conventional electromagnetic converters (Fig.
4.11). In the first variant, Fig. 4.11a, longitudinal vibrations are
excited using thin sheets connected to the ends of the specimen.
Disadvantages of the method are the displacement of the discs in the
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 4. 10. . 4. 10. . 4. 10. . 4. 10. . 4. 10. Diagram of electrostatic excitation of longitudinal (a) and bending
(b) vibrations in specimen 3: 1) power supply from the oscillator; 2) recorded
signal travels to the receiver, recording and printing.
154
fixing area and the fact that direct heating of the specimens is not
possible. Therefore, a new system was developed, Fig. 4.11b, where
thin wire suspension is used for inducing and receiving electromag-
netic vibrations. On the one side, the suspension is connected to the
membrane of the electromagnetic converters and on the other side
at the nodes of the vibrations (or the ends of the specimen). The
suspension is outside the furnace and the entire electrical circuit is
at room temperature [139].
The circuit for automatic equipment with electromagnetic con-
verters for the continuous recording of internal friction and Young
modulus at normal or torsional vibrations is shown in Fig. 4.12
[139]. The parameters of this variant are as follows: frequency
range 0.53 kHz, the strain amplitude range from 10
7
to 10
4
, tem-
perature range from 196 to 600C, vacuum 0.13 Nm
2
, the back-
ground of equipment is 10
5
unit of internal friction, the sensitiv-
i t y of equi pment t o t he rel at i ve change of i nt ernal fri ct i on i s
10
4
%.
On the basis of the circuit with the electromagnetic excitation of
vi brat i ons and suspensi on of t he speci mens on fi l ament s, S. A.
Golovin and A.A. Morozyuk (Tula Polytechnic Institute) constructed
systems based on the differential measurement method. This system
makes it possible to record differences of the signals from the ref-
erence specimen and the measured specimen. This greatly improved
the accuracy of the method. Equipment of company Elastomat is
also used widely. These systems include electromagnetic and piezo-
electric exciters in different temperature ranges of measurement of
internal friction and Young modulus (190C to 200C, or 20 to
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 4.11. . 4.11. . 4.11. . 4.11. . 4.11. Equipment with electromagnetic excitation of oscillations. a: 1 specimen,
2 ferromagnetic plates, 3 emitter, 4 receiver, 5 oscillator, 6 amplifier
and oscilloscope; b: 1 specimen, 2 elastic suspension, 3 emitter, 4 receiver,
5 oscillator, 6 amplifier and oscilloscope, 7 furnace or cryogenic unit.
155
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 4.12. . 4.12. . 4.12. . 4.12. . 4.12. Block diagram of automatic equipment with electromagnetic excitation:
1 heating (cooling) system, 2) specimen, 3) sensor of vibrations, 4) amplifier,
5 filter, 6 potentiometer, 7 power amplifier, 8 exciter of vibrations, 9
comparison unit, 10 servoamplifier, 11 servomotor, 12 source of stabilised
voltage, 13 potentiometer, 14 recording device, 15 thermocouple, 16
recording device, 17 device for recording data from the potentiometer, 18
voltmeter, 19 oscilloscope, 20 frequency meter, 21 discriminator, 22
pulse counter, 23 oscillator, 24 amplitude limiter frequency-dependent link
sensor unit.
1000C, for the 1.015 model), using longitudinal, transverse and
torsional vibrations on the basic or higher harmonic vibrations.
Automatic systems with the excitation of internal vibrations were
described in Ref. 148 and 149.
A large amount of data on the properties of metals and structural
materials have been obtained on the systems with electromagnetic
excitation of vibrations [2,26,104].
A method of piezoelectric excitation of vibrations in specimens
for determination of the elastic characteristics of materials was pro-
posed by S.L. Quimbi. At present, this method is used in the vibra-
tor proposed by J. Marx [150]. A specimen whose section is the
same as that of the piezoceramic specimen is connected to one of
the ends of the piezoceramic specimen (Fig. 4.13). The piezoceramic
specimen is secured at the node of elastic displacements formed
after supplying an alternating electric field to the electrodes. Meas-
urement of the resonant frequency, the quality of the piezoceramic
material and the piezoceramicspecimen system makes it possible to
calculate the internal friction characteristics and the Young modu-
lus. At high temperatures, it is recommended to use a triple vibra-
156
tor consisting of piezoceramics, a ceramic bar, and the specimen.
Various types of a compound piezoceramic vibrator are possible: 1)
piezoceramics with a specimen of arbitrary length; 2) piezoceramics
loaded simultaneously with two specimens of any or identical length;
3) piezoceramics with the specimen whose length corresponds to the
resonance frequency of the piezoceramics. The third case is most
useful because the nodal plane of the vibrator is identical with the
nodal plane of the piezoceramics.
The damping decrement of the specimen
0
is determined by the
decrement and mass m of the elements of the compound vibrator
[151]. For a double vibrator
( )
1
0 2 2 1
0
,
m
m
+
(4.18)
for a triple vibrator
( ) ( )
1
0 3 3 1 3 1
0 0
,
e
m m
m m
+ +
(4.19)
where m
e
is the mass of the reference bar,
0
and
1
or m
0
and m
1
are the decrement of vibrations or the mass of the specimen and the
pi ezocerami cs,
2
i s t he decrement of t he vi brat i ons of t he
piezoceramicsbarspecimen system. For the natural frequency of
the specimen in the vibrator
( )
1
0 2 2 1
0
,
m
f f f f
m
+
(4.20)
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 4.13 . 4.13 . 4.13 . 4.13 . 4.13. Diagram of piezoelectric excitation: 1) piezocrystal, 2) specimen, 3)
oscillator, 4, 5) voltmetres, 6, 7) resistances.
157
and for a triple vibrator
( ) ( )
1
0 2 3 1 3
0 0
,
e
e
m m
f f f f f f
m m
+ +
(4.21)
here f
e
is the resonance frequency of the reference bar.
Crystals of alkali halides have been used successfully in the
evaluation of the effect of the amplitude vibrations on internal fric-
tion and the defect of the Young modulus [152]. A compound vibra-
tor, consisting of the specimen, a duralumin bar and piezoceramics,
is placed in a cryostat. The equipment has the following character-
istics: temperature range from 4.2 to 300 K, working frequency 50
125 kHz, strain amplitude from 10
7
to 10
4
, with the error of meas-
urement of the decrement of vibrations of approximately 10%.
A suitable example of the development of acoustic systems with
piezoceramics is the automatic system developed at the Joffe Physi-
cal-Technical Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The
problem was solved on two planes: analogue automation [153], and
the variant using a computer and digital equipment [154]. Examples
of the application of this type of equipment for polycrystalline mag-
nesium have been published in Ref. 106.
Step vibrators with magnetostriction or piezoceramic exciters
(Fig. 4.14) can be utilised in the quantification of internal friction.
A fully automatic system of measurement of internal friction and
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 4.14. . 4.14. . 4.14. . 4.14. . 4.14. Vibrators with a ceramic converter and stepped concentrator (a) and
with an exponential concentrator (b): 1) supply of electric signal, 2) earthed
electrode, 3) sensing electrode (dimensions in mm).
158
the defect of the Young modulus was developed at the Technical
University at Zilina (Slovakia) under the supervision of the author
of the book [505]. The measurement of internal friction Q
1
by the
method of determination of the quality of the resonance system and
the defect of the modulus of elasticity E/E by the method of de-
termination of the displacement of the resonance frequency of the
syst em i s carri ed out i n a resonant syst em consi st i ng of a
piezoceramic converter 1, a titanium attachment 2 and the specimen
3 (Fig. 4.15). All parts of the resonant system (1, 2, 3) fulfil the
resonance condition according to which their length is half the
wavelength of damping in the given material at resonance frequency
f
1
.
The internal friction of the entire system Q
1
1,2,3
or of the system
without the specimen Q
1
1,2
, is determined by the equation
1 3
1,2,3
1,2,3
,
r dB
r
f
Q
f
j \
, (
( ,
or
1 3
1,2
1,2
,
r dB
r
f
Q
f
j \
, (
( ,
(4.22)
where f
r3dB
is the 3 dB deviation of the resonance peak. If voltage
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 4.15. . 4.15. . 4.15. . 4.15. . 4.15. Diagram of equipment for automatic measurement of internal friction
and defect of the Young modulus (Technical University, Zilina).
159
U
n
with frequency f
r
is supplied to the piezocrystal, a standing wave
forms in the resonant system and the piezocrystal generates, on dif-
ferent planes, the voltage recorded as U
s
. This voltage is directly
proportional to the strain amplitude in the central part of the speci-
men in accordance with the equation
1
,
s
k U (4.23)
where k
1
is a constant for the given system with the specimen.
The internal friction of the entire resonant system is also deter-
1,2,3 1
1,2,3
,
n
s r
U K
Q
U f
(4.24)
where K
1,2,3
is the characteristic of the system, determined from the
equation
1,2,3 3
.
s
r dB
n
U
K f
U

(4.25)
The quantity f
r3dB
is determined at U
s
/2 by increasing the fre-
quency of supplied current gradually until we record U
s max
at f
t
.
Subsequent l y, t he syst em i s det uned t o val ue f
rx
at which U
s
=
U
s max
/2. The increase of frequency above f
r
also results in a de-
crease of U
s max
to the value U
s max
/2 at which the frequency of the
system is f
ry
. Consequently
3
.
r dB ry rx
f f f
(4.26)
The internal friction of the specimen Q
1
3
is determined from the
equation
1 1 1
3 2 1,2,3 3 1,2
, Q k Q k Q

(4.27)
where k
2
and k
3
are the constants calculated from the dimensions,
shape and properties of the connected specimens and their material
(156).
160
The defect of the Young modulus of the specimen E/E is deter-
1,2,3
1
3
,
r r
r
m
f f E
E m f

(4.28)
where m
1,2,3
and m
1,2
at the calculated effective masses of the entire
system without the specimen, f
r1
is the resonance frequency of the
entire system, determined using the value of differing from that
used in the determination of f
r
.
For the currently available range of from 510
6
to 710
4
it
is sufficient to measure at least 30 points at different values of
from the given range. For every point it is necessary to determine
U
n
, U
s
, f
r
. Special attention must be given to at least tenfold rep-
etition of the measurement for the determination of f
r3dB
(equation
4.26), because this value is included in the calculations of Q
1
1,2,3
. In
the manual setting of the values of U
n
in the range from 100 mV
to 1000 mV on a dial-type electronic voltmeter, with the manual set-
ting of the frequency of the resonance peak with the accuracy of 1
Hz in the frequency meter, and with subjective determination of the
value of U
s
on a dial-type electronic millivoltmeter with the manual
search for the value of f
rx
of f
rt
with the accuracy of 1 Hz, sub-
jective determination of U
s
at U
s max
/2, taking into account the
manual inputting of the initial data, interoperational values and the
output values, we obtain that at f
r
= 22.5 kHz and Q
3
1
= 10
4
the
measurement error is approximately 1% and at E/E = 10
3
it is
~0.1%. The measurement time of every experimental point is no
longer than 60 seconds, i.e. for a set of 60 measurements, together
with the adjustment time of the measurements, it is no less than
3600 s, with high concentration of the operator.
Puskar, Palcek and Houba [155] constructed equipment in which
these disadvantages are removed. The decrease of the measurement
time and improvement of the accuracy of measurement of internal
friction and the defect of the Young modulus are based on the com-
plete automation of the selection of power supply, measurement,
evaluation and graphical expression of the results of measurement
using a microcomputer. The resonant system 1 + 2 + 3, or 1 + 2
+ 7 + 3 (Fig. 4.15) is powered by the oscillator 11, controlled by
a programmable generator with the attenuator 10, activated using
the interface 7 from the microcomputer 4. The magnitude of U
n
is
161
monitored using the multi-meter 8. The data on the magnitude of U
n
are entered through the interface 7 into the operating memory of the
computer 4. When a standing wave forms in the resonant system the
resonance frequency f
t
is measured and the signal is transferred to
through the interface 7 to the operating memory of the microcom-
puter 4. Subsequently, voltage U
s
is generated in the piezoceramic
material of the converter 1, and the magnitude of this voltage is
measured with the multimeter 9 and the signal travels through the
interface 7 to the operating memory of the microcomputer 4. The
measurement algorithm is presented in the flow chart in Fig. 4.16.
After completing measurements at a selected point, the microcom-
puter 4 issues a signal which, after passing through the interface 7,
defines the next measurement point for the programmable generator
with the alternator 10. The operating memory of the microcomputer
4 records data of all measurements. On the basis of the programme,
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 4.16. . 4.16. . 4.16. . 4.16. . 4.16. Flow chart showing measurement and evaluation of internal friction
and the defect of the Young modulus in equipment VTP-A (Technical University,
Zilina).
+
+
Density of specimen ?: H
Size of specimen?:L1,L2,D1,D2
Speed of sound?: v
Frequency range?:t
1
,t
2
max
?:
max
Initial value U?:U
0
Printing of results
Graph
Interpolation U(i)
Calcul. U
s max
, f
r
, f
rx
,f
3dB
Calcul. , Q
1
, k
2
, k
3
, m
1
, m
2
Interpolation U(i)
Calcul. U
s max
, , f
r
, Q
1
, dE/E
162
it transfers the data to the disk storage 5 and the signal for print-
ing the selected data and the graphical dependences in the printer
6. For the case of a sandwich converter 13, Fig. 4.15, consisting of
the piezoceramic plates 14, adhesion bonded to the metallic sections
15, t he al gori t hm, Fi g. 4. 16, i s t he same. Usi ng t he ext ensi on
waveguide 17 with the length n/2, where n is an integer and is
the wavelength of the waves in the material of the waveguide, speci-
men 3 can be placed in a furnace or a cryogenic unit with program-
mable temperature change, in a unidirectional magnetic field with
the programmed change of the intensity, in vacuum which can be
varied using a programme, or in the testing space of a nuclear re-
actor where the intensity of neutron radiation can be varied in ac-
cordance with a programme, or it can be placed in other energy
fields which are either constant or can be varied in accordance with
a programme. The data on the parameters in the unit 18 are proc-
essed by the unit for evaluating the defect 19 and, subsequently, the
data are transferred through the interface 7 into the microcomputer
4 which then controls the parameters in unit 18.
The system reduces the measurement time of a single point to
4 s which means that 30 points can be measured within 600 s, in-
cluding the setting time. The system also increases the accuracy of
measurement of U
n
, U
s
, f
r
, f
r3dB
, f
r1
at a frequency of 22.5 kHz so
that at Q
3
1

= 10
4
the measurement error is approximately 10 per-
cent. The system described in the invention eliminates the subjec-
tive error of measurement caused by the operator. As a result of
eliminating manual calculations and drawing graphical dependences
in the selected coordinates, the time required for obtaining reproduc-
ible data on Q
3
1

and E/E is reduced further. The application of the
programmabl e generat or wi t h t he al t ernat or 10 and di gi t al
multimeters 8 and 9 makes it possible to set more sensitively the
val ue of U
n
and measure appropri at e val ues, as wel l as sel ect
U
n max
= 1500 V thus expanding the strain amplitude range from
1.210
7
to 110
3
. The programmed control of the measurements
enables data to be obtained on the time dependences of Q
3
1

and
E/E from 4 s to the selected time.
Magnetostriction vibrators for a frequency of 320 kHz using
longitudinal vibrations have also been developed at the Institute of
Strength of Materials of the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine [104,
157].
The evaluation of internal friction by the calorimetric method at
a frequency of ~ 20 kHz, Fig. 4.17a, can also be carried out using
the magnetostriction vibrator (1). The magnetostriction phenomenon
163
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 4.17. . 4.17. . 4.17. . 4.17. . 4.17. Diagram of calorimetric (a) and resonance (b) methods: a: 1) magneto
striction vibrator, 2) concentrator, 3) specimen, 4) calorimeter filling, 5) thermocouple,
6) casing of the calorimeter, 7) microscope, 8) mixer, 9) rubber membrane, 10)
base plate, 11) collar, 12) cooling of vibrator; b: 1) stabilized power source, 2)
capacitance sensor, 3) detector, 4) electronic potentiometer, 5) frequency meter,
6) oscillator, 7) amplifier, 9) vibrator, 10) concentrator, 11) specimen.
is based on the observation which shows that the magnetostriction
material (Fe, Co, Ni, and alloys of these metals) changes its dimen-
sions with the change of the magnetic field in which it is placed.
Concentration of the energy in a small cross section is carried out
usi ng t he concent rat or 2 of t he coni cal or st epped t ype whi ch
changes the magnetic field. The length of the vibrator and of the
concentrator corresponds to half the wavelength of the waves in the
material of the vibrator and the concentrator at a frequency of f
r
.
Specimen 3 is attached to the concentrators; the natural frequency
of the specimen correspond to f
r
. The areas where the mechanical
joints of the system are located are not loaded with mechanical
stress. The electric signal from the generator, connected to ampli-
fier, is supplied to the winding of the vibrator. The latter must be
cooled. Consequently, the vibrator is placed in the vessel 12 with
running water.
The heat dissipated in the material can be measured using the
calorimeter 4 filled with water, containing a thermometer and a
mixer 8. The relative scattered energy is calculated from the equa-
tion
164
2
0
4
,
Em T
V ft
(4.29)
where E is the Young modulus of the material of the specimen, m
is the mass of water in the calorimeter, T is the change of the
water temperature in the calorimeter during time t of cycling load-
ing, V is the volume of the working section of the specimen,
0
is
the stress amplitude in the specimen, and f is the frequency of the
vibrations.
The method has been used in evaluation of the fatigue properties
of structural steels and alloys.
Recording of the resonance curve, Fig. 4.17b, for a cyclically de-
formed specimen is based on the excitation of longitudinal vibrations
of the system which contains the specimen 11, concentrator 10 and
vibrator 9. The excitation of vibrations with a frequency of 310
kHz is determined by the coil of the magnetostriction vibrator re-
ceiving alternating current from the amplifier 7 and direct current
for the magnetisation of the vibrator. The system is powered by an
ultrasound oscillator operating in the independent excitation regime.
The amplitude of vibrations of the specimen can be measured using
the electronic potentiometer 4. The amplitude of the vibrations of
the specimen is recorded by the capacitance sensor 2 powered by the
stabilised source 1. The alternating voltage, whose magnitude is
proportional to the amplitude of vibrations of the end of the speci-
men, is transferred from the sensor to the amplifier and the detec-
tor 3. The voltage is then further amplified and direct voltage is
measured. The voltage is then transferred to the potentiometer.
When the movement of paper in the recording device corresponds to
the frequency and the movement of the pen to the amplitude of the
vibrations, we obtain a recording of the resonance curve.
Puskar [158] constructed and tested equipment for the visualisa-
tion of hysteresis loops at kilohertz loading frequencies. Conse-
quently, it was possible to evaluate the cyclic strain curves of dif-
ferent materials.
The pulsed excitation of the vibrations is based on the moving
wave generated in the converter, Fig. 4.18. The pulse from the high-
frequency generator with the frequency corresponding to the reso-
nance frequency of the plate of the transducer based on the principle
of the inversed piezoelectric phenomenon then induces vibrations in
the ceramics or a crystal. The vibrations are transferred through a
thin transition layer to the specimen in the direction normal to its
165
surface. A moving ultrasound wave forms. After interrupting the
electric signal passing into the transducer, the ultrasound waves are
reflected many times between the walls of the specimen up to com-
plete attenuation of the vibrations. The time to complete attenuation
is determined using the transducer, Fig. 4.18, which now operates
as a receiver.
In the transmission method, one side of the specimen contains the
transducer operating as an emitter and the other side the transducer
acting as a receiver. The amplitude and analysis of echo signals on
the screen of the oscilloscope which is synchronised with the fre-
quency of the pulses makes it possible to determine the internal fric-
tion. When the sensitivity of the oscilloscope is sufficiently high, it
is possible to determine the delay of various echo signals and, con-
sequently, the speed of propagation of elastic or waves in the ma-
terial can be determined. The relative decrease of the amplitude of
the reflected signals enables the coefficient of absorption of ultra-
sound in the evaluated specimen to be determined.
The method of connection of the reflected echo signals is based
on the phenomenon according to which a group of reflected signals
enters an oscilloscope synchronised with the frequency of the emit-
ted signals from the oscillator. When the repetition frequency
s
of
the synchronised pulses is matched with the measurement time the
echo signals, i.e. at
s
= n, where n is the difference between the
number of reflections of the combined echo signals, the screen of
the oscilloscope shows the image of superimposed pulses of different
orders n. The value of
s
can be determined with high accuracy
using and electronic frequency meter. The main inaccuracy of the
method is associated with the visual placement of the signals on
each other on the screen of the oscilloscope which makes it possi-
ble to record the change of acoustic delay from 0.01 to 0.05 s. The
accuracy of the method is 0.20.5%.
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 4.18. . 4.18. . 4.18. . 4.18. . 4.18. Placing of the transducer on the specimen. 1,2) silver coatings with
the transducer between them, 3) transition layer, 4) specimen.
166
The pulse-phase method of measurement of ultrasound is based
on the comparison of the phases of ultrasound waves passed through
different paths in the examined material, Fig. 4.19, in accordance
with Ref. 159. The piezoconverter 1 emits the ultrasound signal 3
into the specimen 2. At the moment of incidence of the reflected
signal on the piezoconverter 1 (during 2) another reference signal
is supplied (4) and, consequently, interference of the signals 3 and
4 takes place in the specimen. The complete attenuation of the vi-
brations taking place in the profile occurs when
( )
2 1 ,
2 2
n
n
n

+
(4.30)
where
n
is the circular frequency at attenuation of vibrations, is
the phase shift of the n-th reflected wave, n is a positive integer.
The meaning of (2n1) is determined from two levels for
n
and
n+1
. In the vicinity of the resonance frequency of the converter
where the thickness of the transition layer is smaller than 5 m, the
compensation condition can be simplified to the following form
( )
1
2
2 1 2 ,
n
Z
n
Z
j \

, (
( ,
(4.31)
where Z
1
and Z
2
are the acoustic resistances of the piezoceramics
and the specimen. Since the time is real only at the natural fre-
quency of the converter
0
, we use frequencies
n
and
n+1
closer
to
0
so that
n
<
0
<

n+1
. Consequently
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 4.19. . 4.19. . 4.19. . 4.19. . 4.19. Diagram of propagation of an acoustic pulse in the examined medium.
167
( ) ( )
1 2
1
2 1 2 2 1 2
and .
4 4
n n
n n
+
+

(4.32)
Linear interpolation of
1
and
2
to frequency
0
makes it possible
to determine the actual time of propagation of the wave in the speci-
men and, consequently, the phase velocity of ultrasound. The rela-
tive error of the method is approximately 0.01%.
The authors of Ref. 160 described ultrasound equipment for the
measurement of the velocity of sound in solids by the pulse-phase
method. The sensitivity to the change of the velocity of sound is
10
6
. This method makes it possible to measure the elasticity moduli
of the third order from constants characterising the anharmonic
properties of the solid and accompanying phenomena [161], exam-
ine anharmonic behaviour of the dislocation structure (162] and
other phenomena [163].
The compensation phase method is based on comparison of the
phases from two high-frequency signals which have passed through
different media, a specimen and a reference liquid [164]. The sys-
tem has the form of a balanced (with respect to 0) acoustic bridge.
It can record very small relative changes of the velocity of sound
in the specimen (~10
6
), caused by the effect of external factors. The
method with the pulsed, continuous or combined wave emission re-
gime can be used. The acoustic bridge can also be of the self-bal-
ancing type. The phase difference formed when the balance of the
bridge is disrupted results in a change of the amplitude of the
shifted ultrasound signals and, consequently, the frequency of the
oscillator is automatically adjusted up to complete compensation of
the phase shift. Similarly, small changes of the velocity of ultra-
sound in the specimen are transformed to the change of the fre-
quency of the reference oscillator; this change can be carried out
with a high accuracy.
Other methods of the excitation of vibrations, for example, the
eddy current method [165], the laser pulse method [166], and oth-
ers are also available.
4.2.3 Hypersonic methods
Microwave ultra-acoustics is a new direction in the solid state
physics. The generation of acoustic waves with a frequency higher
than 10
9
Hz is difficult in the excitation of higher harmonic vibra-
tions of piezoceramic sheets. However, some authors have managed
to measure the absorption of hypersound up to 2000 Hz, for exam-
168
ple, Ref. 167. In fact, high-frequency microwaves are similar to
thermal phonons, with the exception of the non-coherent nature of
the phonons. For example, the characteristic frequency of thermal
phonons of the lattice at 1 K is approximately 20 GHz.
Using an X-cut of quartz, place in a superhigh-frequency reso-
nator, Baranovskii [168] observed the generation of waves with a
frequency of 1020 GHz. The diagram of the experimental setup is
shown in Fig. 4.20. A quartz horn with the X-cut (or Y-cut) with
parallel faces and the diameter considerably smaller than the length
of the electromagnetic wave but greater than the length of the acous-
tic wave was placed in the superhigh-frequency resonator and sub-
jected to the effect of radiowave pulses with a frequency of 1020
GHz; the duration of the effect of the pulses was approximately
1 s. Every elementary volume of the piezocrystal, situated in the
zone of the effect of superhigh frequency, generates an acoustic
wave with the direction normal to the face of the crystal. After leav-
ing the resonator, a planar hypersonic wave is generated in the horn
and it can be transferred to the examined object. The echo signal
is received at the reversed effect of excitation of the resonator by
the acoustic wave. The excitation of shear waves with a frequency
of 1 GHz as a result of the ferromagnetic resonance in a thin layer
of nickel deposited on the quartz surface was described in Ref. 169.
The application of the piezoelectric phenomenon for the generation
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 4.20. . 4.20. . 4.20. . 4.20. . 4.20. Principle of the hypersonic method utilising the piezoelectric phenomenon:
1) resonator for superhigh frequency; 2) ultrasound pulse with a length of 1 s;
3) crystal; 4) transition layer; 5) specimen; 6) propagation of ultrasound waves;
7) shape of the echo signal on the oscilloscope.
169
of hypersound in quartz was discussed in Ref. 170, where a layer
of Permalloy was used at the end of the horn to make it operate as
a receiving transducer. The horn was placed in the super high-fre-
quency resonator and vibrations with a frequency of 8.9 GHz were
produced. The development of this method was impaired by difficul-
ties in producing high-intensity magnetic fields. In most cases,
hypersonic measurements are taken at low temperatures in order to
reduce the extent of damping of the examined material.
4.3 PROCESSING THE RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS
AND INACCURACY
The resultant values of the internal friction and the defect of the
Young modulus as a basis for evaluating the physical processes tak-
ing place in the metals and alloys are influenced by the design of
testing equipment and also by the methods used to determine the
characteristics.
4.3.1 Inaccuracy caused by the design of equipment
Mechanical friction
The main requirement when designing testing equipment is to ensure
minimum losses in the system. The losses maybe caused by me-
chanical friction in clamping sections, by the friction of moving
components with the environment and by the dispersion of the en-
ergy of vibrations in the materials of the components of the system.
It is assumed that the losses in the clamping sections are small and
can be ignored, and the mass of the specimen is many times greater
than the mass in the area of clamping.
Using a simple model of a vibrating system, the authors of Ref.
170 determined the ratio of the damping decrement of the entire
system
s
to the decrement of the specimen
v
, i.e.
s
/
v
in relation
to the ratio of the inertia moments of the fixing section M
1
and the
specimen M
2
, i.e. M
1
/M
2
, for three constant values of the elasticity
characteristics (q
1
/q
2
), Fig. 4.21a. The ratio
s
/
v
is selected as 10
3
,
which corresponds to the experimental observations. For steel speci-
mens q
1
/q
2
= 5. The effect of the fixing section on the determined
value internal friction is determined from an example.
The effect of the design factors on the optimisation of low-fre-
quency systems of the type of portional pendulum was evaluated in
Ref. 171. The optimisation criterion was the background of inter-
nal friction at room temperature. The factor of the effect is deter-
mined by the ratio of the rigidity of securing the specimen and the
170
rigidity of the bar moving the specimen (K
t
/K
v
, where K = (d
4
G)/
(32l), d is diameter, l is length), and by the ratio of the rigidity of
the suspension wire to the rigidity of the specimen. The tests were
carried out on specimens of aluminium, stainless steel and brass.
The diameter of the securing bars was 3, 3.5 or 6 mm. The wires
were produced from tungsten, nickelchromium alloy or capron of
different diameters. The zero level and the variation range were se-
lected for all combinations.
Processing of the results has provided a regression equation in-
cluding the coefficient of the mutual paired effect. Verification con-
firmed the accuracy of the model. This was followed by construct-
ing nomograms for selecting design parts of equipment in order to
ensure the minimum losses in the system (Fig. 4.21b). Reference
measurements were taken on specimens of 25KhNMFA steel. Secur-
ing sections made of brass and the suspension bars with a diameter
5 mm were selected from the nomograms. Measurements of the in-
ternal friction background showed a decrease of 25% in compari-
son with the case in which the normal parts of the measuring sys-
tem were used (clamping sections made of stainless steel, suspen-
sion bars with a diameter 3 mm). It should be noted that this im-
provement of the efficiency of measuring equipment has made it
possible to obtain information on the interaction of dislocations with
solute atoms.
For the equipment based on the principle of torsional pendulum
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 4.21. . 4.21. . 4.21. . 4.21. . 4.21. Calculated (13) and experimental (4) dependences log (
s
,
v
) on
log (M
1
/M
2
) (a) and nomogram for selecting structural members of equipment
with the minimum level of losses in the system (b).
171
the ratio K
t
/K
v
100 is sufficient for obtaining accurate data on the
internal friction of materials.
Aerodynamic losses are a function of the density of the medium
in which measurements are taken, and also of the shape of moving
components and the rate of changes of their temperature. Taking
into account the fact that the distance of different parts of the sys-
tem from the axis of rotation differs, and the speeds of these parts
are also different, it is necessary to solve a problem of the non-
stationary movement of a solid in a viscous medium. In accordance
with the calculations carried out by Yu.V. Piguzov [107], the aero-
dynamic losses by friction with the environment can be expressed
by the equation
2 3
0
2
8
,
3
a
S R
K T

(4.33)
here is the resistance coefficient whose value at low speeds is
equal to the value of the Reynolds number (Re), is the density of
the surrounding environment, S is the cross sectional area of the
bar, normal to the direction of the vector of the speed of movement
v, R is the half length of the inertia arm,
0
is the maximum angle
of rotation of the torsional pendulum, K
v
is the rigidity of the speci-
men, and T is the period of vibrations.
The results of the calculation show that the losses of this type
decrease with increase of the vibration frequency and increase in
proportion with the increase of the strain amplitude. This gives the
nonlinear dependence of the aerodynamic losses on the strain am-
plitude in the specimens [172]. It should be noted that these con-
clusions are valid up to a frequency of 100 Hz. The calculations of
losses for high loading frequencies should be supplemented by the
effect of the resistance coefficient and by the contribution of sol-
ids with a complicated shape.
The aerodynamic losses can be significantly suppressed is the ac-
tive section of the measuring system is placed in vacuum. The mag-
nitude of the losses decreases asymptotically with decrease of the
pressure of the environment, down to the linear dependence at a
pressure of 1.33 Nm
2
[107].
172
4.3.2 Inaccuracies of the measurement method
The magnitude of the error of internal friction measurements de-
pends of the selected testing method and the sensitivity of measur-
ing equipment.
The method of damped vibrations has a relative error based on
the measurement and expressed by the equation derived in Ref. 107
( )
1
1
,
ln
p k
p
k
Q A A
A
A
+
j \
, (
( ,
(4.34)
where A
p
, A
k
is the initial and final amplitude of vibrations, respec-
tively; A
p
is the dependence of the magnitude of the relative error
Q
1
/Q
1
on the value of the ratio A
p
/A
k
. The magnitude of the er-
ror when determining this ratio is 34%. The logarithmic decrement
is the measure of internal friction from Q
1
~ 10
1
. A different meas-
urement method must be used at higher values.
When evaluating the recording of damped vibrations, the inaccu-
racies are determined by the accuracy of determination of the range
of vibrations (2A
i
). At the value of the absolute inaccuracy h of
measurements of the i-th range of the vibrations, the relative error
of calculation of internal friction is determined by the equation
[104]
1
.
1 1
2
i
i n i
i n
i i i i n
in
i n i n i n
A
h h
A
Q
A A h h
A
A A A
+
+
+
+ + +

j \ j \ +
+ +
, ( , (
( , ( ,
(4.35)
The required value 2A
i
, at which these calculations can be car-
ried out with the error not exceeding the maximum error of the
damped vibrations on photographic material and in determination of
the range by a slide rule, is h = 0.20.3 mm. This means that for
internal friction calculations with the inaccuracy smaller than 5%
the required difference of the ranges is 812 mm.
The application of automatic discriminators passing signals pro-
portional to the amplitude of the damped vibrations in the range A
i
to A
i+n
and also of counting devices for the determination of the
173
value of n in the given range or of timers of time periods for n
vibrations enables the accuracy of measurements to be increased up
to 2.5%.
The resonance curve, used for the determination of internal fric-
tion, is also characterised by some inaccuracies when processing the
results. The inaccuracies are caused by the determination of the
frequency of the half width of the curve
r
(
r
is the resonance
frequency of the vibrations) from the equation
( )
1
,
r
Q
(4.36)
where () is the inaccuracy of determination of the half width of
the resonance curve,
r
is the relative inaccuracy of determination
of the resonance frequency of the vibrations. The systematic analysis
of the inaccuracies in low-frequency experiments showed [124] that
at strain amplitude lower than 10
6
the relative error of measure-
ments as a result of the inaccuracy () is ~ 10% and rapidly de-
creases with increasing strain amplitude. Figure 4.22b shows the in-
accuracy of the measurement of internal friction determined by dif-
ferent met hods (1 t he met hod of damped vi brat i ons, 2 t he
method of the resonance curve) in relation to the extent of internal
friction in the specimen.
The resonance method is used in equipment with kilohertz fre-
quencies in measurements of the Young modulus. For example, when
using cylindrical specimens, the inaccuracy of determination of the
Young modulus in tension is 0.8%, and in torsion it is 0.5%.
The inaccuracies of the determination of the Young modulus were
evaluated methodically using the instructions in Ref. 173.
The method of supplied power depends, as regards the measure-
ment accuracy, on the accuracy and stability of operation of the
automatic control equipment, the selection of suitable devices for
measurements, the stability of the power source, the adaptability of
the feedback system, etc.
For the equipment of this type, the relative inaccuracy of inter-
nal friction measurements can be determined from the equation
1
, Q Z C N
+ +
(4.37)
where Z is the error caused by the instability of the amplification
factor of the feedback, C is the calibration error, N = Z + N
e
,
174
is the reference voltage. The relative inaccuracy for the equipment
assembled on the basis of the principle of the supplied power is ap-
proximately 0.5%. The accuracy of the absolute measurements of in-
ternal friction is determined by the accuracy of calibration and the
scale of the devices for determination of the data.
Evaluation of the inaccuracies of internal friction measurements
is described in instructions published in the former Soviet Union in
Ref. 174.
Phase and ultrasound methods require consideration of many spe-
cial inaccuracies. For example, when using the echo method, there
may be inaccuracies caused by non-monochromatic pulses, diffrac-
tion phenomena, non-parallel form of the ends of the specimen, the
effect of side walls, losses in the transition layer, etc. When ana-
lysing inaccuracies, reference should be made to specialised litera-
ture [2, 151].
4.3.3 Errors in processing the measurement results
When plotting various dependences of internal friction, for example
on temperature, there are sources of additional errors caused by
thermal instability [107]
1
2 1
0.4 ,
T
Q H
RT q

(4.38)
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 4.22. . 4.22. . 4.22. . 4.22. . 4.22. Dependence of the relative error of measurement of internal friction
on the ratio of the initial and final amplitude (a) and internal friction (b).
175
where H is activation enthalpy, T is the absolute error of deter-
mination of the temperature peak, q
1
= Q
1
/Q
1
max
Q
1
is the internal
friction at temperature T, Q
1
max
is the internal friction at T
max
, and
R is the gas constant.
The overlapping of the relaxation maxima, observed in the ex-
periments, may exert different effects on the temperature dependence
of internal friction. In Ref. 171, the authors presented models and
results of experiments carried out in the area of overlapping of the
maxima of the relaxation processes, where the following effects are
recorded: 1 superimposition of two relaxation Snoek peaks in iron
with different types of solutes, 2 superimposition of three high
temperature diffusion processes in vanadium, molybdenum, or tung-
sten, containing solute atoms.
In the first case, it is possible to separate the maxima of the
temperature-dependent internal friction, where T
max
= T
max
T
max1
,
and the height of the peaks is 1:0.5 (Fig.4.23a). Figure 4.23b shows
the dependence of the resolution of the spectrum for temperature
dependent internal friction (the relationship of the height of the
smaller peak and internal friction in the saddle area Q
1
s
) on the
relationship of the calculated maxima. The resolution power of the
spectrum becomes lower with increasing difference in the sizes of
the peaks, for example, those corresponding to the concentration of
the interstitial impurities in the solid solution. When the ratio of the
heights of the peaks is 1:0.8 or 1:1, the general curve shows a pla-
teau. For complicated shapes of the maximum, for example, in the
high-temperature region, the resolution power of the spectrum is
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 4.23. . 4.23. . 4.23. . 4.23. . 4.23. Temperature dependence of internal friction (T
m1
= 313 K, T
m2
= 343
K) for computer-calculated two maxima (a) and the dependence of the resolution
of the spectrum on the ratio of the height of the maxima (b).
Q

1
0
4
0 40 80 120 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
120
100
80
60
40
20
T, C
0
1
2
1
max
1
max
Q
Q
1
m
a
x
1
s
Q
Q
176
considerably lower. This is associated with the superimposition of
the high-temperature background of internal friction and appropri-
ate maxima. The systematic calculations carried out in computers
show that the decrease of the resolution power of the spectrum is
often caused by lower efficiency of the devices and equipment used.
The errors i n processi ng t he resul t s of measurement s of t he
dependence of internal friction on strain amplitude were evaluated
in detailed in the Laboratory of Metals Physics and Strength of the
Tula Polytechnic Institute [175].
Figure 4.24a shows the dependence of the decrement of damping
on the amplitude of the deviation of the arm of a torsional pendu-
lum for steel 22KhNMFA, obtained from 25 parallel measurements
carried out in a RKM-TPI torsional pendulum [112]. Figure 4.24b
shows the dispersion of determination of the mean range of the
value of the decrement S
2
. The scatter of the results of the meas-
urement increases with increasing amplitude. The coefficient of vari-
ation v of determination of the decrement of vibrations is divided
into two parts by a horizontal broken line (Fig. 4.24b). Above the
line v > 5%, below the line v < 5%. A similar result can also be
obtained for the alloys, for example, alloys of copper, iron, etc. The
application of semiautomatic and automatic systems almost doubles
the range of amplitude in which the condition of identical measure-
ment accuracy is fulfilled.
In many pure materials and alloys, the dependence of internal
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 4.24. . 4.24. . 4.24. . 4.24. . 4.24. Dependence of the decrement of oscillations of annealed 25Kh2NMFA
steel on the amplitude of oscillations (a) and the dependence of the variance
factor v and dispersion S
2
on the amplitude of oscillations (b).
177
friction on amplitude is regarded as a linear dependence with the
slope determined by the tangent of the angle of slope of the depend-
ence of the part of the decrement of the vibrations in relation to the
axis of the amplitude (tan ). It is recommended to determine
t he paramet er by t he l east squares met hod whi ch makes i t
possible to determine markedly not only the value of but also the
dispersion and probability range of the appropriate quantity.
When the aim of the experiments is the examination of damping
mechanisms, the linearisation hypothesis cannot be accepted but it
should be carefully evaluated because otherwise it would be possi-
ble to loose a large number of valuable information and the evalu-
ated values of the dispersion and the probability range will be
inaccurate. If measurements are taken in the evaluation of kinetic,
time or other processes and if it is required to describe the inten-
sity of changes in the dependence of internal friction on the strain
amplitude and the visual examination results lead, in the first ap-
proximation, to a linear dependence, it is then possible to treat the
dependence of internal friction on amplitude as linear.
The verification of whether internal friction depends in a linear
manner on amplitude is necessary when dealing with a new mate-
rial for the experimentator and also in cases in which there is no
original information on the nature of the dependence of internal fric-
tion on strain amplitude. Verification of the linearity hypothesis is
based on comparing the dispersion corresponding to the scatter of
the mean values of the decrement of the vibrations, in relation to the
empirically determined regression line; this makes it possible to
determine whether the model is adequate and the dispersion, deter-
mined by the error in repetition of the method, can also be deter-
mined. The non-adequacy dispersion S
2
n
can be efficiently calculated
from the equation
( )
( )
2 2
1
1 1 2 2
2
1
1 1
1
,
2
m m
i i
m
i i
n i
m m
i
i
i i
n y n x x y
S n y
m
n n x x

j \ , ]

, ( , ]

( , ]

(4.39)
where n is the number of parallel measurements of the dependence
of internal friction on amplitude taken on the same specimen, or the
number of specimens used for measuring the given dependence in the
178
selected amplitude range, m is the number of measurement points on
the dependence, y
i
is the mean value of the decrement of the vibra-
tions at the given amplitude, determined from a series of n repeated
measurements, y
i
is the value of the decrement of the vibrations at
the given amplitude, calculated from the regression equation, x is
the mean value of the amplitude, x
i
is the actual amplitude. The dis-
persion of repeatability is determined by the equation
2
1 1 1
2
0
1
,
m n m
ij i
i j i
m
i
i
y n y
S
n m
j \
, (
( ,

(4.40)
where y
i
is the change of the decrements selected m times from each
curve at n parallel measurements of the dependence of internal fric-
tion on amplitude.
If repeated measurements are not taken (this is often the case in
measurements of the dependence of internal friction on amplitude),
the nonadequacy dispersion S
2
n
can be calculated. In this case, the
experimentator plots the results graphically and evaluates them visu-
ally. Consequently, the dispersion can be determined using equation
(4.39), if the value of is known; in determination of the probabil-
ity range, the number of degrees of freedom is selected m = 2. Veri-
fication of the linearity hypothesis using this procedure can be car-
ried out only if the dispersion of internal friction in all amplitude
ranges is the same.
When the dispersion of determination of the decrement of the vi-
brations depends on the strain amplitude (this is the most frequent
case in the measurements), it is also necessary to consider differ-
ences i n t he accuracy of t he measurement s [176, 177]. Speci al
groups of experi ment s are t hen prepared for eval uat i ng t he
repeatability of the method, and the number of parallel measure-
ments in each group is more than 20. The input data are initially
verified whether the accuracy is the same, and further statistical
processing is carried out using the amplitude range in which the dis-
persions are equal.
The results of measurements of the dependence of internal fric-
tion on amplitude, presented in the following part, fulfilled the lin-
earity hypothesis.
179
The internal friction background of iron, determined on 25 dif-
ferent specimens subjected to tensile deformation of 5% for the for-
mation of an unstable structural state, is characterised by a vari-
ance factor of 5%. The results indicate that the measurements of the
background are highly reproducible, despite the fact that in many
studies it has been shown that the results are highly sensitive to the
structural condition. The variance factor in measurements of back-
ground on a single specimen with 25 parallel measurements, carried
out without dismantling the specimen, was approximately 3% (v =
2.97%). The accuracy of determination of the internal friction back-
ground is sufficiently high, and the extent of damping in the first
case was ~ 2810
4
and in the second case 810
4
.
The intensity of damping after annealing of the specimen was
evaluated by measurements. The measurement of the dependence of
internal friction on the strain amplitude was taken by two methods.
In the first method, internal friction was measured at increasing
strain amplitude, in the range in which the linearity hypothesis was
valid. The amplitude was always increased by 5 mm and then de-
creased by 5 mm. In the second method, 20 parallel measurements
were taken at the extreme values of the amplitude range, always
after 10 measurements at every extremum. The measurement time in
both cases was the same. This was followed by standard statistical
processing of the results to determine the dispersion and the vari-
ance coefficient within the individual groups. In the first case,
S
2
0
= 1.747, in the second case S
2
0
= 0.903.
Comparison of the dispersion carried out using the F criterion
showed that the difference in the dispersion was negligible so that
the same accuracy was used in all cases. In the first case, v = 3.4%,
in the second case v = 2.4%. Since the material has a linear depend-
ence of the decrement on amplitude, the accuracy of determination
of is 24%, i.e. slightly higher than the accuracy of determina-
tion of the internal friction background. Similar measurements were
taken on specimens after 5% tensile deformation. Subsequently, v =
30% in a batch of 20 specimens. This shows that the variance co-
efficient in determination of internal friction increases when the
specimens are in the unstable structural condition.
The critical strain amplitude can be obtained simply if we have
the experimentally determined regression equation, obtained by the
method of least squares, and if we know the level of the internal
friction background and the entire course of the dependence of in-
ternal friction on strain amplitude. The background is substituted
into the regression equation and this gives the value of the first
180
critical strain amplitude
kr1
.
The variance factor for
kr1
, determined from a series of 20 par-
allel measurements, taken on specimens prior to tensile deformation,
was approximately 15%. If the specimens were not annealed prior
to measurements, the measurement error
kr1
was not higher than 5%
and for
kr2
it was 9%.
To conclude this chapter, it should be stressed that the efficient
selection of the equipment and devices, careful execution of the
measurements and evaluation of the results in accordance with the
required procedures necessitate a critical review and determination
of the measurement accuracy.
1 8 1
Structural Instability of Alloys
5
STRUCTURAL INSTABILITY OF
ALLOYS
The thermal and frequency dependence of internal friction as a re-
sult of relaxation is associated with the mean time of movement of
atoms in the equilibrium position of the crystal lattice and relaxa-
tion time
r
. The relaxation time is determined by the nature of
processes and i s a mat eri al charact eri st i c. In t hi s chapt er, we
present several mechanisms of the relaxation of internal friction
used in solving the problems of physical metallurgy and threshold
states of materials.
5.1 DIFFUSION MOBILITY OF ATOMS
Internal friction measurements make it possible to determine the dif-
fusion characteristics of point defects, their thermal activation, for-
mation of different pairs of point defects and their redistribution
under the effect of external stresses.
A point defect produces local elastic strains in the crystal and an
elastic dipole, which is a tensor of the second order, forms. On the
basis of the group theory, Nowick and Berry [66] produced tables
which make it possible to determine inelastic interactions for elas-
tic dipoles and the formation of peaks on the Q
1
T or Q
1
f depend-
ence. The best known inelastic interaction is the one determined by
the presence of an interstitial atom i in the cubic body-centred lat-
tice. This atom forms tetragonal symmetry and can be located in
octahedral or tetrahedral voids. The difference of these tetragonal
dipoles can be determined from the absolute value of the shape fac-
tor (
1

2
) of the deformation ellipsoid [66]. It has been confirmed
that the interstitial atoms in iron are distributed in octahedral voids;
this is also confirmed by the interpretation of the Snoek maximum.
In the cubic fcc and hcp lattices, the interstitial atoms do not
form these anelastic formations [66]. A single substitutional atom
1 8 2
s or vacancy i n fcc, bcc and hcp l at t i ces does not form t he
anelasticity state, because a defect results in distortion whose sym-
metry is the same as that of the crystal. However, in the formation
of the s s or s v pair, the anelastic phenomenon may occur.For
example, the ss pair in the bcc lattice forms a tetragonal and in
the fcc lattice an orthorhombic dipole with the orientation 110, and
under the effect of external stress they can be mutually displaced.
Zener relaxation and the associated occurence of a kink on the curve
of the internal friction dependence in the single crystal of -brass,
caused by the initial displacement of a pair of atoms, is a general
feature associated with the dissolution of atoms in the substitutional
solid solutions.
The temperature of formation of the maximum of internal fric-
tion and the activation parameters of the relaxation process are
connected together by the expression
0
exp (H/RT), which is also
used for the determination of H and
0
. If the frequency is changed
from
1
to
2
, the internal friction peak is displaced on the tem-
perature axis from T
max1
to T
max2
. Consequently
max1 max2 2
max2 max1 1
ln ,
T T
H R
T T

(5.1)
ln ln .
max max
max max

0
1 2
2 1
1 2
2
1
2

+
H
R
T T
T T
b g
(5.2)
The calculation of activation enthalpy H with sufficient accuracy
requires the changes of by several orders of magnitude. When the
shift of the maximum with the change of the frequency of oscilla-
tions is 2040C, the relative error in determining H is approxi-
mately 20%. Determination of
0
from equation (5.2) using the ef-
fective value of H requires analysis of the physical nature of the re-
laxation process. Otherwise, the physical meaning may be lost.
Wert and Marx proposed a suitable equation for further determi-
nation of H in the form
max
max
ln ,
kT
H RT S +
h
(5.3)
1 8 3
where R is the gas constant, k is Boltzmann constant, h is the re-
duced Pl anck const ant , S i s t he act i vat i on ent ropy (~1012
Jmol
1
K
1
).
Equation (5.3) can be used only when the relaxation process is
associated with the thermal activation of displacement of the indi-
vidual atoms by the distance equal to the atomic spacing. Even in
this case, it should be expected that there will be a systematic er-
ror in determination of H, caused by the difference of the relaxa-
tion process and the ideal model according to Debye.
The diffusion coefficient, determined by internal friction measure-
ments, does not depend on the thermodynamic factor. Its value can
be determined from the equation
2
,
a
D
(5.4)
where a is the spacing of the adjacent atoms, is the geometrical
factor with the value 1/24 for the bcc lattice and 1/12 for the fcc
lattice, where = 3/2
r
for the interstitial solid solution, or =
r
for the substitutional solid solution. Basically, it is possible to
evaluate not only the mobility of individual atoms and pairs but also
of larger clusters of the atoms capable of migrating in the crystal
in different dimensions and with different speeds [2].
Determination of the value of D using equation (5.4) and the
value of H using equation (5.1) or (5.3) makes it possible to deter-
mine the value of D
0
in the equation D = D
0
exp (H/RT).
When comparing the effective coefficient of diffusion from the
displacement of the mass, determined from internal friction meas-
urements, the thermodynamic activity of the element is characterised
by the correlation factor [2].
5.1.1 Interstitial solid solutions
The fcc, bcc and hcp lattices contain octahedral voids (OV) and tet-
rahedral voids (TV). The dimensions of these voids in the fcc and
hcp lattices are 0.41r for (OV) and 0.225r for (TV). The size of
these voids in the bcc lattice is 0.154r and 0.291r, and in the case
of the OV it is the minimum spacing between two adjacent atoms
in the lattice. The void is asymmetric and the spacing of the four
atoms, forming this void, is 0.631r. In evaluation of the internal
friction of interstitial solid solutions attention is given especially to
the orientation polarization of the paraelastic medium. This polari-
1 8 4
zation forms when the introduction of a defect results in disruption
of the symmetry which is considerably lower than the symmetry of
the lattice. This phenomenon is based on the tendency of the dipole
to orient in the stress field in such a manner that its energy is mini-
mum. The symmetry group of the tensor of the dipole is the sub-
group of the symmetric group of the crystal, and the following in-
equality must be fulfilled
1,
k
t
t
h
n
h

(5.5)
where h
k
and h
t
are the numbers of operations of symmetry for the
crystal and for the tensor, n
t
is the number of possible operations
of the dipole in the lattice. The condition m
t
1 is essential but
insufficient for relaxation to take place.
This model makes it possible to determine the boundary of ap-
plication of internal friction measurements for a homogeneous solid
solution [178]. The shape factor varies in the range from 0.01 to
1.0. If it is taken into account that the sensitivity of internal fric-
tion measurements is 10
4
to 10
5
, it can be seen that it is possible
to record changes of the solid concentration range from 10
4
to
10
3
. If the measurement conditions are not favourable, this range
varies from 0.1% to 1.0%. The shape factor is related with solubil-
ity and increases with decreasing solubility. When evaluating the
relative change of concentration, the sensitivity of the method, based
on internal friction measurements, is a constant value in a wide con-
centration range.
The Snoek relaxation is the best known phenomenon caused by
the diffusion of interstitial atoms in the bcc lattice. Snoek [179] ob-
served this phenomenon in iron at a frequency of approximately 1
Hz at temperatures close to room temperature. The shape of the
peak is similar to the Debye dependence (Fig. 5.1). The formation
of the peak is associated with the migration of interstitial atoms
(carbon and nitrogen) and of the effect of the external stress in oc-
tahedral positions. In the diffusion of oxygen, nitrogen and carbon
in iron, this mechanism has been confirmed by experiments. For the
metals with the bcc lattices, the interstitial atoms can migrate in the
OV and also TV [708]. These types of migration are also referred
to as Snoeks relaxation.
This relaxation is controlled by the thermally activated jumps of
atoms. The relaxation time can be determined using the Arrhenius
1 8 5
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 5.1. . 5.1. . 5.1. . 5.1. . 5.1. Dependence of internal friction on temperature for tantalum with 0.013
wt.% C at two loading frequencies.
equation in the form
r
=
0
exp (H/kT). Internal friction measure-
ments are usually taken at a constant frequency. If we disregard
temperature changes (T) and (T) at = 1 and T = T
max
, we can
use the equation
( )
1
max
sech ,
2
1 1
H
Q T
k
T T
, ]
, ]
, ]
, ]
j \
, ]
, (
, ]
( ,
]
(5.6)
where is the degree of relaxation of the elasticity modulus (at
= 1 Q
1
max
= /2).
In the exact procedure, the experimentally determined Snoek
maximum does not correspond to the position of the peak at =
1 and corresponds to the condition ()
2
= (1 + kT/H)(1 kT/H),
because ~ 1/T [180]. Therefore,
1 8 6
( ) ( )
( )
2
0 0
1
,
c F g
kT M g

(5.7)
where c
0
is the concentration of the interstitial atoms in the solid so-
lution, v
0
is the atomic volume, =
1

2
is the resistance of the
dipoles (the shape factor), g is the geometrical factor of the main
stress axis, = 4/3, M = G, F(g) = g (in torsion), but = 2/9,
M = E, F(g) = (1 3) g (in tensile loading).
The quantity
0
=
0
[S/kT], where S is the activation en-
tropy,
0
= 6 ( is the Debye frequency). According to Wert and
Marx [181], one can confirm, with good approximation, the linear
relationship of the temperature of occurrence of the Snoek maximum
max
and activation enthalpy H using the equation
( )
0
max max max 0
ln ln . H T k T S T k
j \
+
, (
( ,
(5.8)
Table 5.1 shows the generalised data on the Snoek maximum (H,
0
) in the interstitial solid solutions obtained by measurements of the
temperature dependence of internal friction [180]. The published re-
T TT TTa aa aab bb bble 5.1 le 5.1 le 5.1 le 5.1 le 5.1 Parameters of Snoek relaxation in bcc metals and interstitial solute
at oms
m e t s y S
H 0 1
0 1
) J (
0
0 1
5 1
) s (
T
x a m
z H 1 t a
) K (
O b N
N b N
O a T
N a T
O V
N V
N r C
N o M
C e F
C e F
N e F
N e F
N e F
C b N
C a T
C V
1 0 . 0 6 8 4 . 1
3 0 . 0 0 2 5 . 2
1 0 . 0 9 6 7 . 1
3 0 . 0 4 6 6 . 2
4 6 0 . 2
2 1 5 . 2
4 0 9 . 1
0 8 0 . 2
1 3 3 . 1
4 9 2 . 1
5 7 2 . 1
7 1 2 . 1
3 7 2 . 1
6 5 2 . 2
8 6 7 . 2
2 5 9 . 1
8 . 0 5 6 . 2
8 . 0 2 2 . 1
5 . 2 6 5 . 8
0 . 2 4 6 . 3
6 9 . 0
1 5 . 0
4 4 . 1
1 1
7 7 . 5
6 . 3 1
6 6 . 4
0 . 8 1
2 7 . 5
8 0 . 2
8 . 0 2
8 0 . 2
2 2 4
2 6 5
9 1 4
5 1 6
8 5 4
4 4 5
9 2 4
0 3 5
2 1 3
2 1 3
6 9 2
6 9 2
8 9 2
2 1 5
7 2 6
3 4 4
1 8 7
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 5.2. . 5.2. . 5.2. . 5.2. . 5.2. Dependence of activation enthalpy on temperature of formation of Snoek
relaxation peak.
sults contain only data on the experiments in which the number of
interstitial atoms and the resultant dependence of the height of the
Snoek peak on the solute content were determined by analysis.
According to Weller [180], the value of the relaxation parameters
corresponds to the experiments with displacement as a result of the
change of frequency (for example, for tantalum H = 1.92 10
19
J
and
0
= 7 10
5
s [182]).
Using equation (5.8) at a low loading frequency (~1 Hz), we can
calculate the temperatures of formation of the Snoek maximum and
plot the H(T) graphic dependence shown in Fig. 5.2. After extrapo-
lation for the case H = 0, T = 0, we have H
2
= 4.4 10
23
T
max
(J).
If H = 0 at T
max
= 0, H
1
= 4.5 10
23
T
max
8.8 10
21
(J), and this
value corresponds to
0
= 2.08 10
15
s = const.
The solubility of carbon in niobium, tantalum and vanadium is
very low. This complicates experiments because of the need to use
superpure metals and dope the material with low concentrations of
carbon [180]. Snoek peaks are recorded at 525 K ( = 2.1 Hz) in
the Nb C system, at 642 (2.2 Hz) in the Ta C system, and at
454 K (1.93 Hz) in the V C system. Details on the temperature
at which the Snoek maximum is recorded are obtained for nitrogen
and oxygen in, for example, the V N system (T
max
= 540 K),
V O (T
max
= 455 K), Nb N (T
max
= 559 K), Nb O (T
max
= 418
K), Ta N (T
max
= 616 K) and Ta O (T
max
= 415 K).
The data on the Snoek peaks for the metals of group VIa are pre-
1 8 8
T TT TTa aa aab bb bble 5.2 le 5.2 le 5.2 le 5.2 le 5.2 Parameters of Snoek relaxation for metals of group VIa
sented in Table 5.2. Difficulties in experiments are formed not only
by the low solubility of interstitial atoms (C, N, O), but also by
defects of the actual spectrum of the dependence of internal friction
and temperature as a result of the formation of Snoek and Kster
peaks (production of alloys maybe accompanied by deformation, e.g.
annealing in a gas atmosphere followed by rapid cooling).
The possibility of the formation of a Snoek peak as a result of
the migration of boron atoms in the solid solution of -iron has
been discussed in the technical literature. Experiments yielded peaks
on the Q
1
(T) dependence [183], widening of the initial peak caused
by carbon migration (T
max
= 30C at 1 Hz) [184], and al so t he
formation of unstable peaks (T
max
= 13C at 15 Hz) [185]. Later,
systematic experiments [186] showed that the addition of boron to
iron does not result in the formation of a new peak caused by the
migration of boron to the interstitial positions in -iron. No wid-
ening of the peak, associated with carbon migration, was detected.
For the interstitial solid solutions of metals with the bcc lattice, the
diffusion coefficient at T = T
max
is determined by the equation
2
,
36
r
a
D
(5.9)
where
max max
1 1
.
2
r
f

Measurements of the diffusibility of atoms with the evaluation of
Q
1
are in agreement with the results obtained by other methods,
Fig. 5.3a. The set of points at higher temperatures corresponds to
k a e P r e t e m a r a P C r C O r C C o M O o M C W O W N W
l a t n e m i r e p x E
T
x a m
) K (
f ) z H (
5 1 4 - 3 1 4
5 3 . 1 7 . 0
0 0 6
1
5 7 4
1
3 5 6 3 8 6
4 . 0 1
d e t a l u c l a C
T
x a m
) K (
H 9 1 0 1
) J (
7 1 4
4 8 . 1
2 8 5
7 5 . 2
0 8 5
6 5 . 2
8 8 4
6 1 . 2
8 0 7
2 1 . 3
8 7 3
6 6 . 1
0 5 4 0 6 5
9 9 . 1 8 4 . 2
1 8 9
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 5.3. . 5.3. . 5.3. . 5.3. . 5.3. Temperature dependence of the coefficient of carbon diffusion in alpha
iron. 1) low-temperature range; 2) high-temperature range; 3) experimentally
determined curve; 4) calculated according to Wert and Marx.
the results obtained in other methods, for medium temperatures it
corresponds to the method of measurement of Q
1
and at low tem-
peratures to the elastic loading method. Processing of the results
yielded the equation for carbon diffusion in -iron in the following
form
84
0.02exp
C
D
RT
j \

, (
( ,
(5.10)
and for nitrogen in -iron
76
0.003exp ,
N
D
RT
j \

, (
( ,
(5.11)
where activation enthalpy is in kJmol
1
, and the dimension of the
diffusion coefficient is cm
2
s
1
.
Figure 5.3b shows a more accurate determination of the depend-
ence D
C
(T). One of the curves was obtained on the basis of empiri-
1 9 0
cal dependences, the other one was calculated according to Wert and
Marx from the data on internal friction. If the slope of the straight
line in Fig. 5.3a is modified in such manner as to describe the low
and high-temperature measurements, the straight line 4 in Fig. 5.3b
reflects accurately the results of measurements of Snoeks peak. The
reason for the difference of the data obtained in the high-tempera-
ture range was described in detail in Ref. 2 and is based on the
occurrence of an additional activation process, causing a deviation
from the Arrhenius relationship, and on the effect of vacancies.
The data on the diffusion characteristics in transition metals can
be supplemented by analysis of the results presented in Table 5.1
and 5.2. Consequently
The experimental data on the activation entropy S
e
can be obtained
from the equation D
0
= p
2
exp (S/R), where p is the number
of equivalent diffusion paths, is the geometrical factor, is the
magnitude of the jump of the atom, is the frequency of vibrations
of the atoms. Wert confirmed good agreement of the values of S
e
and S
theor
for carbon and nitrogen in -iron and oxygen and nitro-
gen in tantalum, as stated in Ref. 2.
At present, a large number of data is available on the diffusion
characteristics in interstitial solid solutions with the bcc lattice
obtained from the parameters of the Snoek maximum [187].
The strength of the effect of interstitial atoms on the thermody-
namic properties and the diffusion coefficient of the interstitial at-
oms in the ternary solid solutions based on niobium changes in the
following sequence: Ta, Ti, W, V, Hf, Zr, Cr, which corresponds to
the increase of the difference of the dimensions of the interstitial
atoms and niobium and the energy of the deformation interaction of
the s i atoms [188]. The binding energy of the s i complexes
is higher than that of the i i complexes. This results in complete
absence of the i i complexes in the ternary alloys at any tempera-
ture.
Details of the Snoek relaxation in the concentrated solid solutions
based on Ta, niobium and vanadium have been published in Wellers
study [180], and the data on the anisotropy of Snoeks phenomenon
a T r C o M W
D
0
m c (
2
s
1
) 8 1 0 0 . 0 9 0 0 . 0 3 1 0 0 . 0 4 1 0 . 0
H l o m J k (
1
) 6 . 4 0 1 2 . 9 0 1 0 . 0 6 1 2 . 2 8 1
1 9 1
in niobium with oxygen and nitrogen are in Ref. 189.
The relaxation according to Finkelstein and Rozin was observed
in 1952 in an austenitic steel. The height of the peak is directly pro-
portional to the carbon content of the solid solution and the acti-
vation energy of the peak is close to the activation energy of car-
bon diffusion [190]. These relationships were confirmed for nickel,
NiAl alloys and a large number of austenitic steels [191,192]. Ini-
tial studies already showed the extensive possibilities of utilising the
FinkelsteinRozin (FR) phenomenon in the examination of dissocia-
tion of carbides in austenitic steels and also in analysis of phase
transformations in austeniticmartensitic steels and metals with the
fcc lattice. K et al showed that the formation of the FR peak is
determined by the reversible movement of carbon atoms (Fig. 5.4),
because the carbon atom occupies the vacancy V and forms a pair
with the carbon atoms in the position 2 or 2' ; possibly, two atoms
are situated in the positions 2,2', and the vacancy is in the position
V.
The concent rat i on dependence of t he paramet ers of t he
FinkelsteinRozin peak for different alloys is approximately the
same [193]. At low concentrations, the height of the peak increases
in proportion to c
2
, and at higher concentrations the height of the
peak is proportional to c, where c is concentration. For manganese-
containing alloys, the parabolic region of the concentration depend-
ence is less significant because the peak is detected only at concen-
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 5.4 . 5.4 . 5.4 . 5.4 . 5.4. Model for explaining the FinkelsteinRozin phenomenon (A is the iron
atom, V the foreign atom, e. g. substitutional or interstitial atom or vacancy).
1 9 2
trations higher than the critical value c
0
. The transition from the
parabolic to linear dependence is characterised by the concentration
c
k
. Its level differs for different alloys (usually c
k
> c
0
). When ap-
proaching the solubility limit, the concentration dependence starts
to deviate from linear. Increase of the amount of the second phase
may result in a decrease of the height of the FinkelsteinRozin peak
with increase of the concentration of interstitial atoms. Verner [193]
confirmed the absence of any strong effect of substitutional atoms
and vacancies on the FR phenomenon. This makes it possible to
understand the relaxation mechanism associated with the rotation of
a pair of interstitial atoms under the effect of external stress.
Evaluation of the probability of formation of these pairs, formed
by the interstitial and substitutional atoms, was carried out using
the data in Table 5.3 expressed in fractions of interaction in the co-
ordination sphere. In all cases, repulsion is detected in the first two
co-ordination spheres. This shows why pairs of the nearest neigh-
s r i a p f o n o i t c a r e t n I
s m o t a f o
e r e h p s n o i t a n i d r o o C
1 2 3 4 5 6
l a i t i t s r e t n I
l a i t i t s r e t n I
l a n o i t u t i t s b u s d n a
l a n o i t u t i t s b u S
0 0 . 1 +
0 0 . 1 +
0 0 . 1 +
0 1 . 1 +
0 1 . 1 +
0 8 . 1 +
4 3 . 0
0 9 . 0 +
0 9 . 0 +
3 3 . 0
0 6 . 0 +
0 8 . 0 +
5 4 . 0
0 7 . 0 +
0 2 . 0 +
6 1 . 0
0 0 . 0
0 1 . 0
T TT TTa aa aab bb bble 5. 3 le 5. 3 le 5. 3 le 5. 3 le 5. 3 Energy of interaction of pairs of atoms in fcc alloys in relation to
the first coordination sphere
bours do not form. In the case of interstitial solid solutions, pairs
can form between the atoms of the third and fifth co-ordination
sphere.
On the basis of the results it may be assumed that relaxation in
the interstitial solid solutions takes place as a result of the forma-
tion of pairs of interstitial atoms distributed in the third and fifth
co-ordination sphere. Alternating loading results in the redistribu-
tion of the pair by the transition of the interstitial atom from one
co-ordination sphere to another. According to Verner [193]:
1 9 3
2
2
max 1
max
0 max
max
exp
,
9 24 exp 1
m
d W
E c
dN kT
Q
W
N kT c
k T
j \ j \
, ( , (
( , ( ,
, ]
j \
+
, ] , (
( ,
]
(5.12)
where
0
1
m
d
N
dN
j \
, (
( ,
is the change of the distortion of the lattice during rotation of a sin-
gle pair from the direction parallel to the loading axis to the direc-
tion normal to this axis, N
0
is the number of voids in the unit vol-
ume, W is the energy of interaction of the interstitial atoms. The
relationships for the vacancies are reversed and, in this case, pairs
can form around the vacancies in the adjacent co-ordination spheres.
In the case of the interstitial and substitutional atoms, attraction can
take place from the sixth co-ordination sphere. However, this pair
will not change its orientation and no phenomenon will be recorded.
When t he concent rat i on of i nt erst i t i al at oms i s l ow, t hen
24 c exp (W/kT
max
) << 1, we obtain that
1 2
max
max
6 exp ,
W
Q c
kT
j \

, (
( ,
where
2
0 max
1 1
.
9
m
E d
N dN kT
j \

, (
( ,
At higher concentrations Q
1
max
= /4c. The transition from the quad-
ratic to linear concentration dependence is expressed less accurately
by the equation 24c
0
exp (W/kT
max
) 1. In substitutional solid so-
lutions, which greatly differ by the atomic size from the solvent, the
phenomenon of suppression of the process of formation of the in-
1 9 4
terstitial pairs takes place until the concentration of the interstitial
atoms reaches the value at which in the interstitial atoms are dis-
tributed in the fifth and lower coordination sphere. The critical con-
centration is approximately 0.10.25 wt.% C (or N), and the experi-
mental value of c
0
is also in this range [178].
Relaxation in the hcp metals, observed on the Q
1
(T) depend-
ence, has not been sufficiently quantified. More systematic analy-
sis has been carried out in the case of solid solutions -Ti. The
maximum on the Q
1
(T) dependence in titanium is observed only in
cases in which the distribution of the substitutional atoms in the
solid solution [194] is such that the individual interstitial atoms
situated in the octahedral voids cause distortion with the symmetry
identical with that of the lattice and no dipoles appear. A dipole
forms when t he i nt erst i t i al at om i s i n t he vi ci ni t y of t he
substitutional atom. The height of the peak on the Q
1
(T) depend-
ence increases with increase of the difference of the size of the at-
oms of titanium and the substitutional atom. At a constant content
of the alloying substitutional element (for example, zirconium), the
peak grows in direct proportion to the increase of the atomic con-
centration of the interstitial atoms (oxygen). In the case of a con-
stant content of the interstitial atoms, the dependence of the height
of the peak on the concentration of substitutional atoms is not un-
ambiguous [178]. For example, in alloys of titanium with zirconium,
the height of the peak of internal friction is maximum at low zir-
conium content, decreases with increasing zirconium content, passes
through a minimum at 0.5 at% Zr (for an alloy with 1 at.% oxy-
gen). The position of the minimum corresponds to the line situated
in the ternary TiZrO diagram in the ZrO relationship, corre-
sponding to compound ZrO
2
. Measurements of the Q
1
(T) depend-
ence and of the activation energy of the processes which enables the
formation of the peak on the Q
1
(T) dependence at different zirco-
nium content show in the TiZrO system the formation of an
ordered structure, preceding precipitation of the new phase.
Similar phenomena can be detected in the MgCd substitutional
solid solutions in the formation of the ordered phase Mg
3
Cd in them
[195] and also in the TiOAl system for alloys with the ratio of
the aluminium and oxygen content close to Al
2
O
3
. The peak of the
dependence Q
1
(T) for these alloys is completely suppressed. The
absence of data from the measurements of the Q
1
(T) dependence
on single crystals of solid solutions with different concentration
complicates the application of the rule of selection for determina-
tion of the symmetric of the dipole in the hcp lattice. Despite this
1 9 5
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 5.5. . 5.5. . 5.5. . 5.5. . 5.5. Temperature dependence of internal friction for brass (f = 620 Hz).
fact, examination of the solid solutions by measurement of the
Q
1
(T) dependence is highly promising and useful.
5.1.2 Substitutional and solid solutions
At comparable concentrations of components of alloys of fcc, DCC
and hcp metals and the formation of substitutional solid solutions
we can observe relaxation caused by changes of the relative distri-
bution of the atoms in the alloy under the effect of external load-
ing. As mentioned previously, Zener detected, for 30% brass, a peak
on the Q
1
(T) dependence which was attributed to the change of the
orientation of the axes of the isolated pairs of adjacent atoms of
solutes under shear loading (Fig. 5.5) [196].
At low solute concentration the height of the relaxation peak is
directly proportional to the square of the concentration of the dis-
solved element. The theory of relaxation of the pair loses the mean-
ing for higher concentrations of the dissolved element, where the
assumption on the separated pair is not justified. For solid solutions
with higher concentration, where the solute atoms form complexes,
Le Claire and Lomer [197] proposed a model which takes into ac-
count the change of the shot-range order in alloys after loading the
material (the model of directional shot-range ordering).
Zener relaxation is caused by the spatial migration of the atoms
1 9 6
of the solution and this results in changes of the number of pairs
of atoms with different orientation or of the shot-range order param-
eters in the solution. Consequently, it is possible to examine, for
example, the microscopic characteristics of the ordered alloys.
The diffusion characteristics and thermodynamic activity of a
large number of substitutional solid solutions have been measured
by different authors [2]. For example, for the Ag15.830.2 at.%
Zn system, these characteristics were determined by Nowick, for the
Al0.010.5 at% Mg by Green and Pavlov, for the Ag32 at% Cd
and Au32 at% Ag systems by Terner and Williams, etc..
The question why the Zener peak broadens has not as yet been
answered. There are two extreme cases: a) there is a spectrum of
the relaxation times, with each time depending on the temperature
in accordance with the Arrhenius equation; b) the temperature de-
pendence of the individual relaxation times differs from the Arrhe-
nius dependence.
Nowick and Berry [66] assumed the formation of spectral relaxa-
tion times characterised by the normal Gaussian distribution of the
parameters
0
,
H
kT
+
(5.13)
where
0
and
H
are independent of temperature and determine the
half width of distribution of ln
0
and H
1
. After calculating the dis-
persion of the distribution
c
, the fluctuation of concentration in the
al l oy wi t h t he approxi mat i on accordi ng t o Gorsky, Bragg and
Williams and after relating the quantities
H
and
c
by the equation
H
= (dH/dc
m
)
c
, we obtain the equation
( )
1/ 2
1 1
,
2 1
H
m m m
dH zW
dc kT c c
n
, ]
+
, ]
, ]
]
(5.14)
where n is the number of atoms in the region of concentrational het-
erogeneity, W is the energy of the ordered alloy, c
m
is the mean con-
centration of one of the components, H is the mean activation en-
ergy, z is the co-ordination number. Therefore, the spectrum of the
relaxation times is justified by the fluctuation of the concentration
in the alloys.
1 9 7
Zener relaxation is controlled by the kinetics of changes of shot-
range ordering in the alloy [198]. The depth of the potential well
is determined by the energy of interaction of the migrating atom
with its closest neighbours. The height of the potential barrier does
not depend on the atoms surrounding the potential well and is de-
termined only by the type of migrating atom. This approach gives
equations for the relaxation time of Zener relaxation. The value of
the activation energy of Zener relaxation is between the values of
the activation energy of diffusion of the components of the alloys.
Many theoretical studies take into account the kinetics of changes
of shot-range ordering for different cases of loading and deforma-
tion in fcc crystals [195], changes of shot-range ordering resulting
from the effect of temperature [200] and also the correlation func-
tions characterising the order around the vacancies [201]. The cal-
culated and experimental values of the diffusion parameters are
close. However, coefficients, not reflecting the physical nature of the
process, are quoted in certain cases.
5.2 RELAXATION OF DISLOCATIONS
The Q
1
(T) dependences of the metal than alloys show, even under
the effect of very low stresses, anomalies in the changes of inter-
nal friction with changes of temperature. The activation energy of
the processes controlling the movement of dislocations in the crys-
tal for the maturity of material is not higher than 2.4 10
19
K. The
processes associated with dislocations relaxation in repeated load-
ing of the material with the frequency in the hertz and kilohertz
range take place at temperatures lower than 500600 K, i.e. below
the condensation temperature of Cottrell atmospheres T
C
. This means
that in the range in which the internal friction depends on the state
amplitude, all types of dislocation relaxation can take place only as
a result of the movement of fresh, non-pinned dislocations formed
during prior plastic deformation or phase hardening.
The condition of prior plastic deformation from the processes to
occur causes that these peaks are regarded as the strain maximum.
5.2.1 Low-temperature peaks
The main phenomenon of dislocations relaxation in pure metals is
the Bordoni relaxation [202] whose main features were described in
section 3.2.2. In loading in the range of kilohertz frequencies the
Bordoni peaks are recorded at low temperatures (~ 100 K). The
Bordoni peak does not change duri ng anneal i ng up t o t he
recrystallisation temperature. The increase of the content of the al-
1 9 8
loying additions increases the height of the peak, even if the tem-
perature at which this is recorded does not change. However, the
change of the vibration frequency results in changes of the tempera-
ture at which the Bordoni peak is observed, but the shape of the
peak remains unchanged. This peak is also slightly influenced by the
strain amplitude. The activation energy of the relaxation process
varies from 8 to 10 kJmole
1
and
0
= 10
1
10
12
s [203]. The
characteristic feature of Bordoni relaxation is that the height of the
peak is almost an order of magnitude higher than in the relaxation
peaks with a single relaxation time.
At temperatures lower than room temperature, the fcc metals sub-
jected to plastic deformation undergo other relaxation phenomena,
differing from Bordoni relaxation, even though their occurrence is
explained on the basis of the assumption on the movement of bows
in the dislocations. To explain the occurrence of peaks at low tem-
peratures, but higher than the Bordoni peak, the author of [204]
proposed an interpretation based on the assumption that in certain
cases the relaxation may be the result of breaking of diffusing dis-
location bows by point defects, especially vacancies. Different types
of the defects then determine the formation of several peaks.
5.2.2 Snoek and Kster relaxation
The characteristic peak of the Q
1
(T) dependence for deformed iron
with the nitrogen content was detected by Snoek in 1941, at a tem-
perature of 200 C and at a loading frequency of the material of 0.2
Hz. Further experiment were carried out by Kster and many other
authors [205, 206]. They investigated the main characteristics of the
peak, the need for the presence of a small amount of nitrogen at-
oms in the solid solution and the need for prior deformation
p
. The
relaxation nature of the process was already justified in this stage,
despite the fact that the width of the peak is significantly greater
than that of the Debye peak with a single relaxation time. The ac-
tivation energy of relaxation in iron alloys containing carbon or ni-
t rogen i s 127168 kJ mol
1
, and t he frequency fact or i s
10
14
s
1
(for iron with 10 at.% C after 2% cold deformation and
T
max SK
= 557 K and after 10% cold deformation T
max SK
= 545 K).
The temperature at which the SK peak is observed in iron alloys
at 0.21 Hz is approximately 200250C.
Later, in subsequent investigations it was shown [207,208] that
the peak with this characteristic is recorded in different bcc metals
(iron, tantalum, vanadium, niobium, molybdenum, tungsten) if they
contain the atoms of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen in the
1 9 9
solid solution. This peak is referred to as the SnoekKster maxi-
mum or peak (SK peak).
The main conditions for the formation of the SK peak is the
presence of interstitial atoms in the solid solution of the material,
prior deformation of the material and the application of heat treat-
ment under certain conditions [209]. Usually, it is concluded that the
height of the SK peak (Q
1
SK
) increases with the increase of the
content of interstitial atoms in the solid solution C
0
(Fig. 5.6). This
hypothesis should be treated with care because the authors carried
out deformation in the condition after strengthening by heat treat-
ment, in order to determine C
0
from the measurement of the Snoek
maximum. It is evident that this was reflected in the redistribution
of the interstitial atoms between the precipitates and the atmospheres
around the dislocations (Fig. 5.7a).
The concentration range of the formation of the SK peak was
determined in practice [209] in alloys of iron with carbon using the
Fibonachi method taking into account the actual state of the alloy
prior to deformation. At
p
20%, the dependence Q
1
SK
(C
0
) shows
an extremum in the range of the low initial carbon content in the
solid solution (~9 10
4
wt.% C). An analytical procedure was used
to determine the optimum value of
p
for the maximum height of the
SK peak (for Armco iron
p
55%, Fig. 5.7b). This shows that the
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 5.6. . 5.6. . 5.6. . 5.6. . 5.6. Relationship of the height of Snoek and Kster peaks (Q
1
SK
) and Snoek
peak ( (( ((Q
1
S
) in ferrous alloys.
2 0 0
F FF FFi g i g i g i g i g. 5. 7. . 5. 7. . 5. 7. . 5. 7. . 5. 7. Dependence of Q
1
SK
on st rai n (a), t he durat i on of pri or agei ng at
200 C prior to 20% deformation of iron with 0.015 wt.% C (b), on temperature
in heating (c) and on holding time at T = T
max
(d) for quenched and deformed
(20%) specimens with 0.015 wt.% C.
dependence Q
1
SK
~

1/2
p
is not valid generally [205]. The maximum
height of the SK peak for iron with 0.015 wt.% C after 20% de-
formation of the specimens is obtained at 220C after one hour. It
should be taken into account that it is necessary to determine the
condition of the atmosphere of solutes during the formation of the
carbon SK peak.
There are differences in the effect of nitrogen and carbon on
SK relaxation. According to Snoek, during measurement of Q
1
in
loading with hertz frequency of nitrogen-alloyed iron we obtain a
high, complete peak. In the case of carburised iron, the height of the
SK peak is initially small and after heating the material to the tem-
perature range T T
max

SK
this difference may increase [209]. Simi-
lar observation can also be made when heating the FeC alloy for
short periods of time to 300C. At the same concentration of the
solid solution, the height of the Q
1
SK
peak is approximately 45
times higher than in the case of the FeN alloy. The boundary con-
centration for obtaining the maximum value of Q
1
SK
in nitrogen-
alloyed iron is approximately an order of magnitude higher, even
0.001 wt.%C
2 0 1
though the effective binding energy of C and N with the dislocations
in ferrite is similar (~1.28 10
19
J). The residual peak, observed
at zero nitrogen content in the solid solution, was described in Ref.
210. Its occurrence is associated with the partial breakdown of ni-
trides during plastic deformation [211].
The characteristics of the SK peak depend on the type of defor-
mation and are determined not only by the density of fresh disloca-
tions but also by their type and configuration [212].
In 1963, Shoeck [213] proposed the quantitative interpretation of
the SK peak. The model is based on the dragging of the atmos-
pheres of solute atoms by dislocations moving under the effect of
repeated external loading. The dislocations are regarded here as the
model of a spring and the interaction of the dislocations with the
solute atoms is interpreted as the unperturbed distribution of the sol-
utes in the Cottrell atmospheres characterised by viscous movement.
Consequently
( ) ( )
5
1 2
2 2 4
0
,
1
S K c
z
Q T A l f z dz
z
(5.15)
where A is the coefficient of proportionality, is the density of
moving dislocations taking part during the formation of the SK
peak, l
c
is the mean value of the length of the dislocation segment,
f(z) is the function of distribution of the length of the dislocation
segments l, z = l/l
c
, and the value
2
3
,
d c
c l kT
D Gb

(5.16)
where is the proportionality factor, c
d
and D are the concentra-
tion and diffusion coefficient of interstitial atoms in the vicinity of
the dislocation kernel.
Equation (5.15) shows that the maximum of internal friction is
characterised by the spectrum of relaxation times. The distribution
of the lengths of the dislocation segments can be described accord-
ing to Keller by the equation f(z) = e
z
. Consequently, the integral
in equation (5.15) in the Shoeck model has the maximum value of
2.2 at = 0.07 (in the Debye process = 1). The dependence
Q
1
(T) in the Shoeck model is characterised by the dependence c
d
(T)
2 0 2
and D(T), and D = D
0
exp(Hd/kT), where H
d
is the activation en-
ergy of the interstitial atom in the vicinity of the dislocation. The
dependence c
d
(T) depends on the selected model of the atmosphere
around the dislocation.
Several models of the SK relaxation have been proposed for the
solid solutions with lower and high concentration of solutes, since
the distribution of the solute atoms in the atmosphere of the dislo-
cations is modelled by the Boltzmann, Fermi or Dirac approach
[214, 215, 216, 217].
The relaxation in the presence of hydrogen is still the subject of
special interest [218]. The experiments show that the presence of
hydrogen suppresses the low-temperature and peaks on the
Q
1
(T) dependence, caused by the formation of a double bow simul-
taneously on the mixed and screw dislocations [215], with the for-
mation of the SK peak. SK relaxation is the confirmed phenom-
enon of the Q
1
(T) dependence at temperatures of 80170 K indicat-
ing the interaction of the hydrogen atoms with a dislocation. The
mean value of the activation enthalpy of the relaxation process is
H 31.8 s
1
. The results show that the values are comparable with
the values resulting in the formation of SK peaks in the FeC and
FeN systems.
Wirth [218] stressed the restrictions of the Shoeck model (Fig.
5.8), when describing the relaxation interaction of hydrogen with the
dislocation under external loading. For example, the activation
enthalpy H = 31.8 kJmol
1
does not correspond to the enthalpy of
bonding of hydrogen with the dislocation (H
H
= 58.6 kJmol
1
). An
alternative model is based on the bending of the double bow of the
dislocation atmosphere, formed by the hydrogen atoms under exter-
nal loading (Fig. 5.8b). The relaxation time of the bent dislocation
can be expressed by the equation
2
2 2
2
,
l
BGb

(5.17)
where l is the length of the dislocation segment, B is the disloca-
tion mobility parameter.
When the dislocation travels the distance x < 1, the following
equation applies:
2 0 3
*
2
exp ,
k k
bD F
B
kT kT
j \

, (
( ,
(5.18)
When the dislocation moves through the distance x > 1
*
2
exp ,
k k
l D F
B
kT kT
j \

, (
( ,
(5.19)
where D
k
is the diffusion coefficient of the bow, 2F
*
k
is the free en-
ergy required for the formation of a double bow with the critical
size. Since in the case of the schema in Fig. 5.8b3, it is not pos-
sible to correlate the experimental data, we can use the schema of
bending (Fig. 5.8, b4) and obtain the value of the frequency fac-
tor irrespective of the value of H
H
0
2 4
2
.
l kT
Gb

(5.20)
At T = 120 K = 10
13
s
1
and, therefore,
0
= 2.6 10
17
l/b, which
is in agreement with the experimental observations, since l/b = 10
3
to 10
4
[219]. The model of bending of the double bow with the at-
mosphere generated by hydrogen indicates that the absorption of hy-
drogen suppresses the first peak () and displaces the second peak
() of internal friction to lower temperatures.
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.5.8. .5.8. .5.8. .5.8. .5.8. Models of bending of a dislocation with the atmosphere formed by hydrogen
atoms (a) and kinks formed in double bow (b): 1) without stress; 2) under stress;
3) 3,4) dislocations with a bow without hydrogen (3) and with hydrogen in dislocations
(4); 5) bending of a kind with the formation of a double bow.
2 0 4
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 5.9. . 5.9. . 5.9. . 5.9. . 5.9. Dependence of the peak formed at 250C (Q
1
max

or Q
1
SK
) of quenched
carbon steels on carbon content (a, b), quenching temperature (c) and subsequent
tempering (d) at a carbon content (wt.%C) of: 1) 1.16; 2) 0,92; 3) 0.71; 4) 0.32;
5) 0.12 (f = 1 Hz).
5.2.3 Phenomena associated with martensitic
transformation in steel
Since martensitic transformation took place in the steel, the depend-
ence Q
1
(T) shows a peak similar to the SK peak. The general re-
lationships governing the formation of the peak recorded at 250C,
at a loading frequency of ~1 Hz, in the specimens of carbon steels
subjected to quenching and tempering were presented in Ref. 220
and 221. The height of the peak increases with the increase of the
carbon content of the steel and with increasing quenching tempera-
ture (Fig. 5.9), and T
max
is displaced higher temperature. The in-
crease of the tempering temperature of steel decreases the height of
the peak. Many authors interpret this peak on the basis of models
used to explain the Snoek and Kster peaks. However, this relaxa-
tion process has certain different features.
Alloying elements, influencing the bonding of dislocations and in-
terstitial atoms and changing the breakdown of cementite during
wt. %C wt. %C
0.9 wt.%C
2 0 5
heat i ng, al so change t he paramet ers of t he peak of t he Q
1
(T)
dependence. In steels alloyed with several elements there are also
other additional peaks [222]. Special attention should be given to
the data on the origin of the peak recorded at 160C in quenched
FeNiC materials. The authors of Ref. 222 showed that the for-
mation of the peak is associated with the movement of twin bounda-
ries containing moving carbon atoms, when the material is subjected
to alternating external loading. Twinned martensite makes it possi-
ble to detect a peak at a temperature of 160C on the Q
1

(T) de-
pendence at a frequency of ~1 Hz in alloyed steels, dislocation mar-
tensite at 250C, and mixed martensite shows both peaks on the
Q
1

(T) dependence.
The Snoek and Kst er phenomenon and i t s anal ogy i n t he
quenched carbon steels are only some of several interesting repre-
sentations of the interaction of solute atoms with the dislocations.
It can be expected that further work in this area will provide more
detailed relationships between the value of internal friction and the
diffusion parameters of the atoms, the movement of grain bounda-
ries and behaviour of carbon atoms under external loading, espe-
cially in alloys with complicated microstructure and structure.
5.2.4 Migration of solute atoms in the region with
dislocations
It will be assumed that low temperatures are those at which T < T
0
=
H/kln(f
0
) and at these temperatures the solute atom does not move
under the effect of external loading. High temperatures are those at
which T > T
0
, which means that the atom of the solute at time
t = 1/f completes a certain number of jumps, i.e. diffuses to a cer-
tain distance (f is the frequency of changes of external loading).
In the low-temperature range, all internal friction mechanisms can
be divided into two large groups. The first group of the mechanisms
is associated with the analysis of separation of the dislocation from
the stationary atoms of the solutes forming the atmospheres around
the dislocations (unpinning mechanism). The second group of the
mechanisms is associated with the analysis of the relationships gov-
erning the movement of the dislocation in the slip plane in which the
atoms of the solutes are distributed (' friction' mechanism).
If the temperature is increased above T
0
, to the model is men-
tioned previously we can also add another group of mechanisms, in
which anelasticity is manifested or depends strongly on the proc-
esses of diffusion displacement of the solid atoms during the period
of external loading. If the material is subjected to mechanical stress
2 0 6
m
, it can be seen that each pinning point will be subjected to the
effect of the force F() caused by the bending of the adjacent dis-
location segments (see also section 3.5). The force can be divided
into the component F and F
||
, i.e. to the direction normal and par-
allel with the initial position of the dislocation line [223], deter-
mined by the equations
( )
2 2
2 2
1 2
,
8
b
F l l
m

(5.21)
( )
|| 1 2
,
2
b
F l l
+
(5.22)
where b and m are the Burgers vector and the linear elongation of
the dislocation, l
1
and l
2
are the lengths of the dislocation segments
of the dislocations in the vicinity of the pinning point. The exist-
ence of the forces F
I
and F
II
is the physical reason for the appear-
ance of many anelastic processes (Table 5.4) at T > T
0
determined
by the effect of the normal or parallel component of the force dur-
ing movement of the atom of the solute in the region of the dislo-
cation kernel.
A special feature of these manifestations is that under the effect
of external loading the dislocation lines do not separate from the at-
mospheres of the solute atoms, even though the atoms themselves
can move along the dislocation line by the pipe diffusion mecha-
nism. Thermally activated separation of the dislocations can take
place as an independent process supplementing the phenomena
caused by the diffusion displacement of the solute atoms.
The phenomena of dislocation anelasticity, caused by the diffu-
sion displacement of the atoms of the solutes in the atmospheres
around the dislocations are controlled by the transverse and longi-
tudinal mobility of the atoms of the solutes in the dislocation ker-
nel. This model can be used in the quantification of the appropri-
ate diffusion characteristics.
A special feature of Table 5.4 is that it includes the mechanism
of formation of the thermalfluctuation relaxation peak of internal
friction (TF relaxation), caused by the separation of the dislocations
from the pinnig solid atoms. In this case, the separation of the dis-
locations segments is initiated by the thermalfluctuation jump of
the atom of the solute which pins the segments in the direction nor-
mal to the dislocation line.
2 0 7
TT TT T
aa aa a
bb bb b
l
e

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5
.
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l
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.
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.
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.
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e

a
t
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i
n

d
i
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l
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a
t
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k
e
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2 0 8
Analysis of the model in which two dislocation segments l
1
and
l
2
are pinned by the solute atoms under the effect of the defined
force law during displacement of the dislocation [224] indicates that
the width of the relaxation peak will be greater than the width of
the Debye peak with a single relaxation time, although the broad-
ening of the peak will not be very large. It is also expected that the
increase of the stress amplitude will increase the peak with satura-
tion. An anomaly of this dependence is that with the increase of
mechanical stress the peak is displaced to higher temperatures on
the temperature axis of the Q
1

(T) dependence. Analysis also shows
that the increase of the content of the solute changes the degree of
relaxation and the position on the temperature axis in the same
manner as mechanical stress
mo
.
At stress amplitudes of
mo
10
6
G and binding energies H =
0.8 16 10
19
J, the activation parameters of the TF peak can be
determined approximately from the equation
( )
max 3 0
ln 2 ,
TF m
H kT f (5.23)
where T
max
is the temperature at which the maximum of internal fric-
tion is recorded at the loading frequency f, where
3
is the coeffi-
cient of proportionality expressed in units.
Many features of the TF peak are similar to those of the Snoek
or Koster peaks; for this peak to form, the material must contain
dislocations and a solid solution with a relatively low solute con-
tent. The temperature range in which the peak is observed is in the
temperature range of recording the time dependence of internal fric-
tion.
The relaxation peaks formed as a result of the TF mechanism
were detected in solid solutions based on aluminium (Fig. 5.10) and
copper [2] and in the FeC interstitials solid solutions [224]. The
activation parameters of the peaks H
TF
and
0
of many solid solu-
tions are presented in Table 5.5. The level of the activation energy
of the diffusion of solute atoms along the dislocations H was deter-
mined by the method of the time dependence of internal friction.
The value of
0
varies in the range 10
12
to 10
13
s
1
, which cor-
responds to the value 1/d, where d is the Debye frequency of the
vibrations of a free atom. The value of Q
1

in the process of meas-
urement of the time dependence of Q
1

is the function of tempera-
ture in measurements and reaches the highest value at temperatures
where the TF is the peak of internal friction.
2 0 9
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 5. 10. . 5. 10. . 5. 10. . 5. 10. . 5. 10. Effect of temperature and frequency on internal friction of Al0. 02
wt.% C: a) effect of temperature on Q
1
at different frequencies: 1) f = 1.3 Hz,
2) 1820 Hz, 3) 2820 Hz, at strain amplitudes during measurement: 1) = 2.42
10
5
, 2,3) 410
6
; b) frequency shift of the temperature at which the peak forms.
T TT TTa aa aab bb bble 5.5 le 5.5 le 5.5 le 5.5 le 5.5 Activation characteristics of different peaks for fcc and bcc metals
m e t s y S
H
0 1
9 1
) J (
0 1
2 1
) s (
H
L
0 1
9 1
) J (
H
/H
v
u C l A
g M l A
C e F
4 6 8 . 0
8 0 0 . 1
0 2 9 . 1
3 . 1
7 . 0
6 2 . 0
4 0 7 . 0
4 8 7 . 0
4 4 . 0
3 5 . 0
8 3 . 1
The processes of dragging of the atmospheres of the solute ele-
ments by the dislocations belong to the main mechanisms control-
ling the dynamics of build-up of microplastic deformation of solid
solutions at elevated temperatures. Examination and quantification
of the TF of internal friction makes it possible to determine the ac-
tivation energy of cross diffusion and, under the given conditions,
also the type of solute atoms inhibiting the movement of the dislo-
cations.
For the temperature range below
0
, the authors of Ref.225 pro-
posed a model of dislocation internal friction based on the mecha-
nism of the thermally activated unpinning of the dislocation from the
pinning solute atoms. Blair, Hutchison and Rogers presented a
model (BHR model) which is a modification of the internal friction
mechanism, proposed by Teutonico, Granato and Lucke. The BHR
model takes into account the general interaction law between the
dislocation and the solute atoms for the frequently encountered case
2 1 0
of the uniform distribution of the pinning centres along the dislo-
cation line. Analysis of the replacement of the anelasticity mecha-
nisms with increasing temperature or stress amplitude makes it pos-
sible to observe, in the T

m
coordinates, several regions with dif-
ferent processes of the unpinning of dislocations from the pinning
points (Fig. 5.11):
in the regions A and E, movement of the dislocations takes
place as a result of simultaneous thermally activated unpinning from
several solute atoms. In the regions B, C & D, the process of re-
lease of the entire dislocation line starts with the separation of the
dislocation line from a single solute atom;
in the regions A & B, only a small part of the dislocations are
separated as a result of the effect of alternating external stress. At
high temperatures (regions C, D and E), almost all dislocations are
separated in every loading cycle;
in region D, the activation energy of separation of the dislo-
cation is constant.
In other regions, one may expect the dependence of activation en-
ergy on stress amplitude. Critical temperature T
k
is linked with the
binding energy of the solute atom with the dislocation. The value of
H
v
is determined by the equation H
v
= kT
k
ln (
1
/), where
1
is the
effective frequency of oscillations of the dislocation segment.
The BHR theory has been used in analysis of the redistribution
of the solute atoms in the atmosphere around the dislocations dur-
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.5.11. .5.11. .5.11. .5.11. .5.11. Maps of mechanisms of thermally activated unpinning of dislocations
from solute atoms (a) and dislocation anelasticity of beryllium (b). Region 1
thermally activated unpinning of dislocations from stationary solute atoms, 2)
diffusion along dislocations, 3) diffusion dragging of solute atoms in the atmosphere
by the dislocation.
2 1 1
ing their vibrations, by the mechanism of cross diffusion. The cur-
rently available results indicate that every diffusion process may
result in the formation of a relaxation peak on the Q
1

(T) depend-
ence. This hypothesis has been used to develop a single model of a
dislocation pinned at a single point [226]. The process of scatter-
ing of energy is associated in this case with the diffusion dragging
of the solute atoms by the dislocations, but no attention is given in
the model to thermally activated unpinning of the dislocations.
The displacement of the atom along the dislocation line by the
pipe diffusion mechanism results in the formation of relaxation peak
(peak ), with the relaxation time
( )
2
2 2
,
c
L
l
D

+
where
exp
C
L
L L
H
D D
kT
j \

, (
( ,
is the coefficient of diffusion along the dislocation,
2 3
2 2
0
.
4
c
G l
mk T

If the stress amplitude is increased, the peak will be displaced to
lower temperatures. The degree of relaxation of the peak will in-
crease.
The cross diffusion processes also lead to the formation of a
relaxation peak (T peak), for which
,
2
c
T
T
l kT
D m

where
2 1 2
0
exp
T
T T
H
D D
kT
j \
, (
( ,
is the coefficient of cross diffusion of the solute atoms in the dis-
location kernel. Generally, the T peak is reflected in the superim-
position of many elementary relaxation peaks and must be wider
than the Debye peak with a single relaxation time. It is useful to
draw attention to the anomalous dependence of the characteristics
of the T peak on stress amplitude. If
m
is increased, the position
of the peak on the temperature axis T
T
max

does not change. Further in-
crease of
m
already causes the displacement of the peak on the tem-
perature axis to higher values.
The development of diffusion processes in the dislocation kernel
results in the formation, in the temperaturestress dependence (Fig.
5.11b), of two additional boundaries of regions of new dislocation
relaxation mechanisms (2, 3).
When examining the Q
1

(T) dependence for pure polycrystalline
beryl l i um, Levi n [227] observed t hree Q
1

maxi ma (Fi g. 5. 12).
Analysis of the experiments showed that both high-temperature
peaks formed as a result of the mechanism of pipe (L) and trans-
verse (T) diffusion in the atmosphere of the solute elements. The
peak P is the result of the thermally activated unpinning of the dis-
locations from the stationary solute atoms, in accordance with the
BHR model. The calculation of the activation parameters of the L,
T and P peaks yielded data on the characteristics of the dislocation
complexes and solute atoms in beryllium (Table 5.6) and the results
are used to construct a general temperaturestress diagram (Fig.
5.11b), expressing the operation of different dislocation anelasticity
mechanisms, such as thermally-activated unpinning of the disloca-
tion, the processes of diffusion along and normal to the diffusion
l i ne, and draggi ng of t he di sl ocat i on by t he sol ut e at oms. The
boundaries of the additional regions are determined by the equations
2fT
T
max
= 1 and 4fT
max
L = 1.
Three peaks, similar to P, L, T in Fig. 5.12, were also observed
in zirconium [228]. Analysis of the data provides information on the
temperaturestress diagram, thermally activated unpinning of the
dislocations and diffusion-controlled dragging of the solute atoms
(probably oxygen) in single crystals of zirconium and in polycrys-
talline zirconium.
2 1 3
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 5.12. . 5.12. . 5.12. . 5.12. . 5.12. Dependence of internal friction in heating (a) and cooling (b) and on
the square of frequency (c) on temperature, with the strain amplitude /G = 4
10
5
.
T TT TTa aa aab bb bble 5. 6 le 5. 6 le 5. 6 le 5. 6 le 5. 6 Anelasticity parameters determined for internal friction peaks
r e t e m a r a P
s k a e P
T L P
H
i
0 1
9 1
) J ( 4 2 2 . 0 2 7 0 . 3 2 1 . 0 2 9 . 2 8 0 . 0 6 9 0 . 2
H
0 1
9 1
) J ( 6 9 0 . 2
l
c
b 0 6 1
H = u
b
/F
m
b 5 . 1
5.3 RELAXATION AT GRAIN BOUNDARIES
Measurement of internal friction associated with the relaxation at
the grain boundaries of polycrystalline materials provides a large
amount of information on the structure and properties of the grain
boundari es. The Q
1

(T) dependence shows a peak whi ch, aft er
analysis, provides information on the kinetics of changes at the
grain boundaries, taking under the effect of external loading; these
changes depend on the structural condition of the polycrystalline
2 1 4
material (mean grain size, the presence of a dislocation substructure,
the distribution of the group of the grain boundaries on the basis of
the angle of misorientation or the same orientation, etc. ). This
makes it possible to investigate and evaluate the interaction of the
grain boundaries with other structural defects and also recombina-
tion of the grain boundaries under the effect of various internal and
external influences on the material. A low content of solute atoms
already has a significant effect on the nature of the peak associated
with grain boundary relaxation due to the formation of the ss peak
(the designation of the peak is taken from Ref. 229), which is the
result of the interaction of the grain boundaries with the solid at-
oms. Analysis of the ss peak provides information on this interac-
tion [230].
The peak, associated with the relaxation at the grain boundaries
observed on the Q
1

(T)dependence, was described and analysed for
the first time by K in 1947. The main data obtained in the meas-
urement of the Q
1

(T) dependence in polycrystalline aluminium can
be summarised as follows [231]:
at a loading frequency of ~1 Hz and a temperature of 300C,
the curves of the Q
1

(T) dependence for polycrystalline aluminium
show a peak associated with the presence of the grain boundaries,
because this peak does not form when measuring the Q
1

(T) depend-
ence on single crystal aluminium;
the degree of relaxation of the peak is independent of the grain
size d
z
in the limiting case when the grain size is smaller than the
size of the specimen;
relaxation time is directly proportional to the grain size;
the activation enthalpy of the relaxation process is close to the
activation enthalpy of self diffusion in aluminium and
0
~ 10
14
s;
the relaxation peak is considerably wider than the peak obtained
for the conventional inelastic material.
Similar relationships were also recorded for other metals, so that
the observation made by K is universal.
The interpretation of the relaxation of the grain boundaries and
the associated peak on the Q
1

(T) dependence which, to simplify
concentrations, will be referred to as GBIF, is based on the assump-
t i on on vi scous sl i di ng (accommodat i on) of t he grai ns i n t hei r
boundaries, formulated by Zeener.
The results of a large number of experiments show that the phe-
nomenon of grain boundary relaxation is more complicated because
it depends strongly on the solutes manifested in the formation of the
ss peak.
2 1 5
5.3.1 Pure metals
The peaks on the Q
1

(T) dependences for pure silver, gold, and cop-
per are considerably smaller and wider than in the case of alu-
minium. The relaxation spectrum is characterised by a complicated
structure reflected in doubling of the peak after high-temperature
annealing. The first peak corresponds to the K peak. The second
peak is recorded at higher temperatures. The high-temperature maxi-
mum is associated with grain boundary relaxation, because it is not
found in single crystals. In copper and nickel there is also a third
peak at transition temperatures. This peak is associated with the for-
mation of annealing twins [232].
The relationship between and (where is the stacking fault
energy) in the case of gold, copper, nickel and aluminium is linear
[233]. The width of splitting
2
.
24
Gb
r
The results show that the activation enthalpy H and quantity r

are linked by the dependence similar to the dependence of on r
(Fig. 5.13). These dependences have been confirmed for many met-
als with different crystal lattices [66].
However, other data are also available. For example, in the case
of copper [234] the height of the peak increases with a decrease of
the grain size and the width of the peak decreases. For 99.999%
copper, the value of is independent of the grain size [235]. In the
case of nickel, ~ d
1
g
in a wide range of d
g
. Similar dependences
were also recorded in the case of iron and copper of commercial
purity [236]. If depends on grain size, this is observed in a spe-
cific range of d
g
and has the form ~ d
1
g
. The particles distributed
at the grain boundaries form internal stresses around them and com-
plicate grain boundary sliding. The phenomenon is independent of
the elasticity coefficient of the particle.
The change of the relaxation time of the peak associated with
grain boundary relaxation and its activation enthalpy are not in
agreement with these values determined for the K model. For ex-
ample, for pure metals ~ d
n
g
, where 1< n < 2 (n = 2 for Fe, n =
1.86 for Al). The activation enthalpy of the peak associated with
grain boundary relaxation for the pure metals is lower than the ac-
tivation energy of self diffusion. The results show [237] that the
value of H with increasing purity of the metal tends to the activa-
2 1 6
tion enthalpy of grain boundary diffusion. Since the relaxation time
of the peak can be described by the Arrhenius equation,
0
is simi-
lar to the value of this factor for the relaxation of point defects
(~10
14
s). On the other hand, it was observed [236] that in the case
of pure iron the value of
0
decreases with decreasing d
g
which
means that it depends on the microscopic parameters of the struc-
ture. This phenomenon has not been completely explained.
The peak on the Q
1

(T) dependence, associated with grain bound-
ary relaxation, is described by a set of relaxation times. The param-
eter of the logarithmico-normal distribution changes over a wide
range, and in some cases = 7. The value of this parameter de-
pends on temperature which means that there is a set of the values
of
0
and H. The peak has several components forming a wide pro-
file which also indicates that the distribution of the relaxation pa-
rameters is not in agreement with the logarithmico- normal distri-
bution.
5.3.2 Solid solutions
The interaction of the grain boundaries with the atoms of the sol-
utes in the solid solution results in the redistribution of the relaxa-
tion spectrum, and the behaviour of the interstitial and substitutional
solid solutions differs. Pearson and Rotherham [238] examined cop-
per and silver with an addition of ~1 wt.% of the solute and con-
cluded that in comparison with the pure metals, the peak on the
Q
1

(T) dependence (RM peak) is lower and a ss peak is recorded
at high temperature and is caused by the interaction of solute atoms
with the grain boundaries. The activation energy of the peak result-
ing from the presence of the solutes is close to the activation en-
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.5.13. .5.13. .5.13. .5.13. .5.13. Dependence of the degree of relaxation (a) and relative activation enthalpy
(b) of different metals on the extent of splitting r (H
0
is the enthalpy of self
diffusion of pure metal).
2 1 7
ergy of diffusion of the solutes [239] and the activation enthalpy of
self diffusion of the solvent. The value of
0
was 10
14
to 10
16
s,
as in the case of the RM peak. The relaxation spectrum of the ss
peak is wider than the RM peak. When the concentration of the
substitutional additions in copper is increased, the original peak for
relaxation at the grain boundaries (RM peak) and the peak due to
the presence of the solutes (ss peak) increases. With the decrease of
the height of the RM peak its activation enthalpy increases. In the
binary and ternary alloys based on chromium and containing La, Ni,
Fe and V, the spectrum of the Q
1

(T) dependence at high tempera-
tures contained complicated boundary peaks [240].
At present, there are insufficient experimental data on grain
boundary relaxation for the case in which the solid solution is in-
terstitial. The FeC and FeN alloys have been studied in detail
[224]. The mai n di fference of t he rel axat i on spect ra for t he
substitutional and interstitial solid solutions is that the interstitial
additions already have an effect at low concentrations, i.e. they
change the temperature at which the peak is formed and also the
activation enthalpy of its formation. The interstitial solid solutions
did not contain the isolated peak corresponding to the presence of
the solutes. The concentration dependences of the parameters of the
peaks in the FeC and FeN alloys are shown in Fig. 5.14. The
saturation of the grain boundaries with the solute atoms is found at
c 10
2
at% in the FeC alloys. A large decrease of the height of
the peak with a further increase of the concentration is associated
with the precipitation of the particles of the corresponding phase at
the grain boundaries. In the iron alloys, the internal friction, asso-
ciated with grain boundary relaxation, decreases with increasing
grain size.
5.3.3 Relaxation models
Roberts and Barrand [242] were the first authors to propose the
quantitative interpretation of the peak on the Q
1

(T) dependence,
associated with grain boundary relaxation. Their interpretation was
based on the empirically determined relationship between the degree
of relaxation of internal friction and the width of splitting of the
dislocations. They assumed that, depending on the stacking fault
energy of the metal, lattice dislocations in the vicinity of the grain
boundaries move under the effect of stress either by climb or slip.
In the metals such as aluminium or nickel with a high value of ,
the internal friction, caused by the relaxation at the grain bounda-
ries, is the result of dislocation climb and the activation enthalpy
2 1 8
of the process is close to the activation enthalpy of self diffusion.
In the metals with the low value of (for example, Ag), the extent
of dislocations splitting is very high and the relaxation process takes
place by dislocation climb at the grain boundaries because non-
conservative displacement of the split dislocations is not advanta-
geous from the energy viewpoint.
The activation enthalpy of the peak on the Q
1

(T) dependence as
a result of grain boundary relaxation: in the metals with average
values of (Au, Cd), it is assumed that the dislocations move by
a combined mechanism consisting of slip and climb at the grain
boundaries. This is also in agreement with the activation of the
enthalpy of the process whose value is between the values for dif-
fusion at the grain boundaries and in the volume of the metal.
In single crystal aluminum, the Q
1

(T) dependence shows an
internal friction peak at a temperature of 365C and a frequency of
~ 1 Hz. This peak is the result of the process of climb of the split
dislocations under the effect of stress [243]. Other relaxation phe-
nomena, associated with the polygonisation process in aluminium
and diluted AlCu solid solutions, have been published in Ref. 244
and 245.
Good correlation has been found between the formation of the
peak on the Q
1

(T) dependence at 265C and the changes of the mi-
crohardness of aluminium. This can be used as an additional method
for the indirect evaluation of the hardness of materials. The spec-
trum of the peaks on the Q
1

(T) dependence for complicated sys-
tems, such as fibre-reinforced composite materials, is not a single
superimposition of the phenomena taking place in the components of
the composite at the fibrematrix interface. The phenomena associ-
ated with relaxation at the grain boundaries or sub-boundaries can
wt.%
wt.%
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.5.14. .5.14. .5.14. .5.14. .5.14. Dependence of the degree of relaxation (a) and activation enthalpy (b)
on the content of interstitial elements in alpha iron.
2 1 9
also be detected when the size of grains all subgrains is smaller than
the spacing between the fibres [246].
5.4 ANALYTICAL PROCESSING OF THE RESULTS OF
MEASUREMENTS
The discussed mechanisms of anelasticity in metallic materials and
the analysis of the mechanisms indicate that the internal friction
measurements can be used efficiently in quantification of a large
number of specific relationships in metals and alloys. Some exam-
ples are given in the following part of the book.
5.4.1 Solubility boundaries
The solid interstitials solutions of metals with the bcc lattice are
characterised by the linear relationship between the height of the
Snoek peak Q
1
max
(if the background of internal friction is sub-
tracted) and the concentration of interstitial atoms n (wt.%) in the
form
1
max
, n pQ
(5.24)
Here p is the coefficient of proportionality whose values is deter-
mined by the type of atoms forming the solid solutions and depends
on the grain size, texture and other factors [66]. The value of p for
different interstitial atoms is not a quantity changing in a simple
manner (for example, for C in polycrystalline -iron p 1.28 1.3,
and for N p 1.26 1.3). In fact, it is not necessary to know the
value of p when determining of the solubility boundaries.
A suitable example is the analysis of the FeC system. Specimens
with different carbon content (to 0.02 wt.%) should be annealed at
different temperatures, followed by rapid cooling and measurements
of the Q
1

(T) dependence. After evaluating the height of the peak
and subtracting the internal friction background, with determination
of the activation enthalpy of the peak, it is possible to plot the de-
pendence shown in Fig. 5.15. The graph summarises the results of
measurements of the solubility of carbon in ferrite obtained by the
method of depleting the solid solution in carbon [247] with the val-
ues obtained from the height of the Snoek peak of the specimens
containing 0.04 wt.% C, grain size > 1 mm [248]. At p = 0.9, the
solubility values are in agreement. If the temperature of the speci-
mens with the C content lower than the solubility limit is increased,
2 2 0
the value of Q
1
max

rapidly decreases (Fig. 5.15b). The authors of Ref.
247 and 248 assume that the concentration of C in the areas of
grain boundary segregation is close to the eutectoid concentration
and austenitic layering forms at subcritical temperature. This the de-
creases the C content in the lattice of residual -iron. In the speci-
mens with 0.4 wt.% C, cooling from temperatures higher than A
c1
decreases the value of Q
1
max
as a result of dissolution of carbon in
austenite.
Consequently, it is possible to determine the limiting concentra-
tion of the solubility of carbon in -iron [249], the solubility lim-
its in ternary and more complicated systems (for example, FeCr
C) and also evaluate the vacancyinterstitial atom complexes. Simi-
lar measurements by the internal friction method can also be taken
at low temperatures (to 150C) when the solubility of carbon in -
iron is very low.
The possibility of evaluating the content and solubility limit of
interstitial atoms in the interstitial solutions in the metals and al-
loys with fcc and hcp lattices is based on the Finkelstein and Rozin
principles. The values of n and Q
1
max
are linked by the equation
1
0 max
, n n K Q

(5.25)
here n
0
is the critical concentration of the interstitial atoms (at
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.5.15. .5.15. .5.15. .5.15. .5.15. Dependence of the height of Snoek peak (Q
S
1
= Q
40
1
, f 1 Hz) and carbon
concentration in ferrite (a), dependence of the height of the Snoek peak on temperature
(b) for the carbon contents in wt.%. 1) 0.003, 2) 0.010, 3) 0.040, 4) 0.400.
wt.%
2 2 1
n < n
0
the dependence of Q
1
on n is quadratic), K is a coefficient
which takes into account the structure of the alloy. The deviation
from the linear dependence (equation 5.25) is utilised when deter-
mining the solubility limit.
The substitutional solid solutions are characterised by Zeener re-
laxation. The following equation is valid for many specific systems
2 1
max
, n mQ
(5.26)
where m is the structure-sensitive coefficient of the alloy. This
method has been used successfully for evaluating the solubility
curves of AgAl, InTl, etc. alloys [26].
5.4.2 Activation energy and diffusion coefficient
The condition for the formation of a relaxation peak in the form
0
exp (H/kT) = 1 enables several methods to be selected for de-
termination of the activation enthalpy. By changing the loading fre-
quency, it is possible to determine H from equation (5.1). The ac-
curacy in determination of H can be increased by constructing the
dependence Q
1
x
= Q
1
/Q
1
max
on T
1
, in which the internal friction
background is subtracted from the internal friction peak so that it
is possible to decide whether the spectrum has activation energy or
not. If the change of the frequency of external loading causes no
change of the form of the Q
1
x
T
1
curve, the process is character-
ised by a single relaxation time. Otherwise, the spectrum has acti-
vation enthalpy H. In most cases, the value of H is determined us-
ing the method based on the determination of the shift of the tem-
perature at which the peak is recorded on the Q
1

(T) dependence,
utilising the equation derived by Wert and Marx (equation 5.3), tak-
ing into account the fact that the contribution T S changes only
slightly the value of H. Consequently, we can use the equation in
the following form
max
max
max
ln ,
kT
H RT
h
(5.27)
where
max
is the frequency of external loading at the temperature
at which the peak appears. The approach proposed by Wert and
Marx is limited to the relaxation processes induced by the thermal
activation of atom migration under the effect of external stress so
2 2 2
that the relaxation mechanism must be known in advance.
The value of H is determined from the angle of inclination of the
low- and high-temperature part of the peak of the Q
1

(T) depend-
ence in the coordinates ln Q
1
vs 1/T. This method is suitable only
for very narrow peaks of the Q
1

(T) dependence.
The value of H can also be determined from the width of the
peak on the Q
1

(T) dependence measured at the height 1/2 Q
1
max
. The
results are satisfactory when the relaxation process is characterised
by a single relaxation time. Since the peak is formed by a spectrum
of relaxations, the value of H will be lower than the physically sub-
stantiated value of H.
The determination of the bulk diffusion coefficient by internal
friction measurements is based on linking the relaxation time with
the diffusion coefficient D (equation 5.4). The method was described
in details when discussing the interpretation of the Snoek peak. It
should be noted that the actual displacement of the point defect (the
frequency of jumps) is f times smaller than the corresponding val-
ues obtained within the framework of the model of random experi-
ments. The value of the correlation factor depends on the type of
lattice and the diffusion mechanism [2,26]. For example, for self
diffusion with the vacancy mechanism, the value of f changes from
0.78 (for fcc lattice) to 0.5 (for rhombic lattice). If the value of fac-
tor f is available, it is possible to calculate more accurately the ac-
tual diffusion coefficients from the change of the relaxation time.
Internal friction measurements also make it possible to determine
the pipe diffusion coefficient, from the change of the temperature of
formation of the peak on the Q
1

(T) dependence and also from the
time dependence of internal friction. The utilisation of the thermal-
fluctuation peaks (TF relaxation) for the evaluation of the activa-
tion parameters of diffusion of solute atoms along the dislocations
is discussed in section 5.2.4.
The coefficient of diffusion of the solute atoms along the core of
t he edge di sl ocat i on can be det ermi ned by measuri ng t he t i me
dependence of internal friction in accordance with Ref. 249. The
phenomenon of time dependence of Q
1

(T) is determined by the mi-
gration of solute atoms along the dislocations under the effect of ex-
ternal stress in the areas of strong pinning which changes continu-
ously the distribution of dislocations segments and results in the
formation of large adsorbed atoms of the solutes, free from dislo-
cations segments. When the stress
k
is higher than some critical
value
c
, the value of Q
1

becomes time-dependent. If is reduced
in such a manner that <
c
, the Q
1

(T) dependence is character-
2 2 3
ised by a single relaxation time. Consequently, we obtain the de-
pendence of on the pipe diffusion coefficient D
d
in the form
2
2
,
c
d
l
D
(5.28)
Relaxation time is determined by transformation of the experi-
mental data to suitable coordinates, for example
( )
1 1
1 1
0
ln ,
T
Q Q
st
Q Q

where Q
1
0
and Q
1
are the values obtained under the effect of and

in its absence, t is time, and the values of l
c
are determined by an
independent method (for example, from the curves of the Q
1

(T)
dependence). The method is described in detailed in Ref. 2.
5.4.3 Breakdown of the solid solution
The kinetics of precipitation of a phase in alloys is characterised by
the exponent n in the equation proposed by Wert and Zeener [250]
according to which the fraction of the particles precipitated from the
solid solution q is determined by the equation
1 exp ,
n
t
q
j \

, (
( ,
(5.29)
where t is time, is the characteristic process time. The value of
n depends on the mechanism of the precipitation process. The effi-
ciency of this approach can be seen in, for example, Ref. 251.
When evaluating the precipitation of carbon or nitrogen from the
solid solution during the thermal and deformation breakdown of the
solid solution of -iron, the Snoek maximum can be described by
the following equation:
1 1
max0 max
1 1
max0 max
1 ,
t
Q Q
q
Q Q

(5.30)
2 2 4
where Q
1
max t
and Q
1
max 0
are the heights of the Snoek peak at time t
and t = 0, with Q
1
max
being the same, but at t . The transfor-
mation of the results to the coordinates log ln (1/1 q) vs ln t can
be utilised when determining the precipitation factor n which char-
acterises the breakdown mechanism. At the same time, it is possi-
ble to calculate the activation enthalpy and the rate of the process
of breakdown of the solid solution [252]. The carbon content of
structural steels is higher than the concentration associated with the
saturation of the solid solution. In principle, 'reversible' dissolution
of the phases, containing carbon and nitrogen, in ageing can be
evaluated from reversible dissolution during time-limited heating
of the alloy to high-temperature.
Another example is from the area of the evaluation of the devel-
opment of low-temperature brittleness observed at 475C. From the
kinetic parameters of the change of the height of the Snoek maxi-
mum and from the splitting of the peak in the breakdown stage, it
is possible to plot the diagram of breakdown of ferrite with a high
chromium content (Fig. 5.16), as described in Ref. 254. In the case
of short-term ageing, the height of the Snoek peak rapidly decreased
and carbon and nitrogen precipitated at the dislocations (n = 0.5
0.7). In this stage, 5070% of interstitial atoms in ferrite precipi-
tates from the solid solution (region A, Fig. 5.16). In continuing
ageing of quenched Kh25 steel (the concentration of C and N is
0. 010. 2 wt. %) in a narrow temperature range (450525C) the
Snoek peak is split as a result of the formation of microregions
(si complexes) with different content of chromium and interstitial
atoms into regions in later stages of the process; this is verified by
another, objective method (region C).
It is also possible to examine the processes of distribution of the
interstitial elements during isothermal annealing of supercooled
austenite in the steel on the basis of the Finkelstein and Rozin
peaks (FR) which follow the redistribution caused by quenching to
the formation of the Snoek maximum and Snoek and Kster maxi-
mum [255].
5.4.4 Intercrystalline adsorption
The peak on the Q
1

(T) dependence, associated with grain bound-
ary relaxation, is sensitive to intercrystalline absorption also at a
low solute content.
Piguzov and Glikman [256] observed a case of intercrystalline
adsorption of phosphorus in steel. The peak on the Q
1

(T) depend-
ence at 300C (f 1 Hz) is caused by the presence of hundredths
2 2 5
of a percent of P in alloyed iron and low-alloy steels. Temper brit-
tleness is the result of adsorption enrichment of the grain bounda-
ries with phosphorus. Investigations were also carried out on an iron
alloy alloyed with Ni and Cr where the enrichment of the regions
in the vicinity of the grain boundaries cannot develop by the non-
adsorption mechanism [257].
The development of temper brittleness was evaluated by the au-
thors by measuring the notch toughness of specimens fractured at
196C and al so on t he basi s of t he et chabi l i t y of t he grai n
boundaries in the saturated aqueous solution of zirconic acid.
The kinetics of the changes of plasticity at low temperature (Fig.
5.17a) and of the size of the area below the peak belonging to phos-
phorus (Fig. 5.17b) in relation to the embrittling time of alloyed
iron, containing 0.032 and 0.005 wt.% P, is shown in Fig. 5.17. For
the alloy with 0.95 wt.% Si, 0.7 wt.% Ni and 0.032 wt.% P, the
peak initially increases and reaches the maximum value Q
1
gb max

(the
concentration at the grain boundary c
gb
= 0.5) and then decreases,
and after tempering for 2 hours completely disappears (c
gb
= 1). The
changes of plasticity at low temperature and of the etchability of the
grain boundaries indicate that the phosphorus concentration at the
grain the boundaries increases during the first two hours at 500C
and then shows no significant changes. In the alloy with 0.95 wt.%
Si, 0.7 wt.% Ni and 0.005 wt.% P, examination showed only the
increasing section of the dependence on tempering time; this is as-
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.5.16. .5.16. .5.16. .5.16. .5.16. Regions of breakdown of ferrite with high Cr content: A) breakdown
of the interstitial solid solution (complete 1), to HV
max
(2), to 50% breakdown
(4); B) formation of s-i complexes at the total C + N content of 0.2 wt.% (1),
0.04 wt.% (2) and 0.02 wt.% (3); C) formation of Cr-enriched zones.
2 2 6
sociated with slight embrittlement and decrease of the etchability of
the grain boundaries [257].
The increase of the carbon content in iron with Ni and Cr results
in the phenomenon in which the concentration of phosphorus at the
grai n boundari es and t he suscept i bi l i t y t o t emper bri t t l eness
decrease. At a constant content of carbon and phosphorus, the phos-
phorus concentration at the grain boundaries and the susceptibility
to temper brittleness in iron, containing manganese, is higher than
in iron with Ni and Si in cases in which the alloying elements not
forming carbides result in the enrichment of the zones in the vicinity
of the grain boundaries in carbon thus impairing intercrystalline
adsorption of phosphorus and reducing the rate of embrittlement.
The change of the c
gb
vs t ratio during intercrystalline adsorption
of P for five alloys with different phosphorus and carbon content
can be described by the equation
0
2 2
0
4 2
exp ,
gbt gb
gb gb z z
c c
Dt Dt
erfc
c c d d
j \

, (

( ,
(5.31)
where c
gb 0
is the initial concentration at the grain boundaries, c
gb t
is the concentration after tempering for time t, c
gb
is the equilib-
rium concentration at a specific tempering temperature, is the
c
gb
/c
gb 0
ratio, D is the diffusion coefficient.
The experimental points for different alloys are distributed on the
same curve. Analysis of the results indicates that of the possible
mechanisms, the mechanism with the highest rate is the controlling
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.5.17. .5.17. .5.17. .5.17. .5.17. Change of the reduction in area determined at 196C (a), the height
of the P addition peak of internal friction (b) in relation to tempering time at
500 C of alloyed iron with 0.032 wt.% P (solid circles) and the internal friction
peak (broken lines).
2 2 7
one. According to the authors of [258], the mechanism of inter-crys-
talline adsorption is associated with bulk diffusion to the nearest
sub-boundary, i.e. dislocations, and is then transferred at a high rate
along the sub-boundaries to the grain boundaries.
Table 5.7 gives, for several alloys, the experimentally determined
data of the concentration at saturation and the temperature at which
the peak caused by the atoms forms, and also the data on the bind-
ing energy of the solute atoms with the grain boundaries.
5.4.5 Transition of the material from ductile to brittle state
In a specific temperature range T
t
, the strain rate or hydrostatic
pressure P
t
, the material may show a change from the nature of fail-
ure from ductile to brittle.
The aim of several investigations was to determine whether it is
possible to find a correlation between the changes of internal fric-
tion and the transition of the material from the ductile to brittle
state (DB transition), for example, [259, 260]. Measurements of the
Q
1

(T) dependence were taken, for example, at strain amplitudes of
10
7
, frequencies of f = 10
7
, 10
5
, 10
3
, and 1 Hz, and also at
= 10
7
to 10
5
at frequencies of f = 10
5
, 10
3
and 1 Hz, and also
at = 10
5
to 10
4
at a frequency of 1 Hz. The investigations were
carried out using brittle polycrystalline metals with different tran-
sition temperatures T
t
(50 to 200C) and pressures P
t
(1 10
8
7 10
8
N m
2
): Zn, Bi, Mo, Cr, steel 09G2, steel 35KhGSA and,
for comparison, also single crystals of Zn, Bi, Mo, fine-grained Zn,
polycrystalline aluminium and iron which are ductile in the exam-
ined temperature range. It was expected that the selected non-cubic
brittle polycrystalline materials Zn and Bi would show, in the range
T
t
and P
t
, two phenomena: the DB transition and plastic deformation
caused by the anisotropy of expansion and compression. Only the
DB transition was expected in the case of the cubic metals. The
change of the T
t
by (10 40)C was obtained by annealing, de-
formation and alloying of the material.
The brittle materials in the range of T
t
and P
p
show a peak on
the Q
1

(T) curve. No peak is recorded in the ductile materials. In
order to be able to explain the nature of the peak, it is necessary
to know in detail the measurement conditions characterised by the
frequency of oscillations and strain amplitude. For example, the
peak at 10
7
is recorded at a frequency of 10
7
Hz in the range
T
t
(Zn, Mo) and P
t
(Zn, Bi, Mo, Cr). At a frequency of 10
5
Hz, the
peak is recorded only in individual cases in the expected range of
T
t
(Zn). At a st rai n ampl i t ude of 3 10
7
t he peak on t he
2 2 8
-
e
t
u
l
o
S
n
o
i
t
i
d
d
a
m
e
t
s
y
s
f
o
e
c
n
e
d
n
e
p
e
D
y
r
a
m
i
r
p
f
o
t
h
g
i
e
h
n
o
k
a
e
p
n
o
i
t
a
r
t
n
e
c
n
o
c
Q
1
)
c
(
t
a
e
r
u
t
a
r
e
p
m
e
T
t
a
s
i
k
a
e
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h
c
i
h
w
r
o
t
n
i
o
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m
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i
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m
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v
r
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c
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o
i
t
a
r
u
t
a
s
Q
r
p
1
)
c
(
)
K
(
n
o
i
t
a
r
t
n
e
c
n
o
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c
t
a
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a
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f
o
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i
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c
b
g
=
n
o
i
t
a
r
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t
a
s
r
o
5
.
0
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b
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f
o
1
=
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c
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e
d
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e
p
e
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r
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1
)
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(
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n
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A
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r
u
t
a
r
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0
)
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(
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0
1
J
(
9
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)
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N
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2 2 9
Q
1

(T) dependence is recorded at a frequency of 10
5
10
3
Hz in the
expected range of T
t
and P
t
(Zn). At a frequency of approximately
1 Hz in the expected range of T
t
the peak is not recorded (Zn) and
is recorded at T
t
(Zn, Mo, W, steels 09G2 and 35KhGSA) only in
a specific range of strain amplitude, = 1 10
5
to 1 10
4
for
Zn. No peak is recorded at lower or higher strain amplitude.
With the change of temperature or at high hydrostatic pressure,
the peaks of Q
1

are recorded in different ranges. At low strain am-
plitudes in materials with a cubic lattice, there is no hysteresis and
in the materials with a non-cubic lattice hysteresis is evident also
at 10
7
.
The peaks on the Q
1

(T) dependence, recorded at different val-
ues of f and , can be found in the same temperature and pressure
range corresponding to T
t
and P
t
. On the other hand, after a specific
increase of , resulting in significant changes in the substructural
the material, changes are recorded in the position of the peak on the
Q
1

(T) dependence, denoted by 1 and 2, and the height of the peak
also changes (in Zn).
The change of the initial structure of the material results in the
shift of the peak after annealing to higher temperatures (Zn, Mo, W)
and pressures, after prior deformation results in the shift to lower
temperatures and pressures (Zn), and after alloying to high or low
temperatures, or no effect is recorded. The height of the peak does
not change. Internal friction peaks can be recorded at lower tem-
peratures in comparison with the range of changes of microhardness
and toughness, by approximately 1040C (Fig. 5.18).
The application of internal friction measurements in quantifica-
tion of the temperature of the DB transition has certain general
characteristics.
In brittle polycrystalline materials with cubic and noncubic lat-
tices, the range of the values of T
t
and P
t
maybe characterised by
the formation of an internal friction peak under certain measurement
conditions. As the oscillation frequency increases, the strain ampli-
tude decreases. This indicates changes of the dislocation substruc-
ture at T
t
and P
t
. Plastic deformation affects the height and position
of the internal friction peak. Consequently, an internal friction peak
can also be recorded after plastic deformation, after prior deforma-
tion at low strains.
The height of the internal friction peak is determined by various
reasons which depend on the type of material, the frequency of os-
cillations, amplitude of the material, etc. The internal friction peak,
recorded at high loading frequency in the materials with a cubic lat-
2 3 0
tice, is associated with the DB transition. The phenomenological
model proposed in Ref. 261 explains this conclusion by the relaxa-
tion of the density of mobile dislocations. The position of the peak
is determined by T
t
and P
t
and its height depends on the frequency
of oscillations. The internal friction peak, determined at a high load-
ing frequency of materials with a non-cubic lattice, may be associ-
ated with the DB transition and the peak determined at a low load-
i ng frequency and hi gh val ues of may be associ at ed wi t h
microplastic deformation taking place during the DB transition.
The temperature or pressure position of the peaks in the range of
the values of T
t
and P
t
is associated, according to the authors of
Ref. 261, with the start of the development of the DB transition (T
tx
,
P
tx
). The value T
max tx
depends on the structure of the material, like
T
t
.
To conclude this section, it should the added that the value of T
t
can be obtained from the results of the notch toughness test, the
dynamic tensile test, the torsion test, etc. [262]. Every method gives
different values of T
t
. It is evident that it is necessary to carry out
extensive experiments to determine the correlation of mechanical
measurements and internal friction measurements, especially for the
correct physical interpretation of the observed dependence with spe-
cial attention given to the fact that the DB transition is character-
istic of the bcc materials with additional interstitial atoms [262].
5.4.6 Relaxation movement of microcracks
Armco iron, subjected to thermomechanical and thermomagnetic
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 5. 18. . 5. 18. . 5. 18. . 5. 18. . 5. 18. Effect of temperature on the properties of zinc at the DB transition
(Q
1
measured at ~1 Hz).
2 3 1
treatment, shows another internal friction peak at 50C and a fre-
quency of ~1 Hz [263]. Measurements taken on 20GS2 high-strength
steel at ~1 Hz, subjected to long-term strength tests, after different
holding periods in corrosive media, also showed a similar peak (Fig.
5.19) [264] in the range 2050C under the effect of tensile stresses
(0.50.8) R
p
0.2. The activation energy of the relaxation peak, meas-
ured at a loading frequency change, was ~57 kJmol
1
. The peak on
the Q
1

(T) dependence was recorded at a specific test time. The time
to the appearance of the peak and the rate of its development (in-
crease of the height of the peak) depend on the acting stress, for
example, when = 0.5R
p
0.2 the peak is detected at the time t > 0.5
h, whereas at higher stresses this time is significantly shorter.
Specially organised experiments showed that the formation of the
peak is not typical of strengthened steel in the condition in which
microcracks can form [264]. For example, after tensile loading the
specimens of 20GS2 strengthened steel up to the formation of a neck
in the central part where the microcracks appear, the height of the
peak is almost doubled. The relaxation peak, associated with the
formation of microcracks, was described in Ref. 275. Measurements,
taken on grey cast iron, show that T
max
50C at 0.83 kHz and the
activation enthalpy is 69 + 5 kJmol
1
. Differences in the mobility
of the front of the areas containing graphite are the result of dif-
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.5.19. .5.19. .5.19. .5.19. .5.19. Temperature dependence of internal friction (a) of 20GS2 steel after
tensile loading without necking (1), after necking (2), after long-term strength
test at = 0. 6 R
m
after 0. 25 h (3), 1 h (4) and 2 h (5) loading and the time
dependence of internal friction (b) under the effect of : 6) 0.5 R
m
, 7) 0.6 R
m
,
8) 0.7 R
m
, 9) 0.8 R
m
for 20GS2 steel.
2 3 2
ferent curvature of the front of these microcracks. This results in
the broadening of the peak on the side of the internal friction which
depends on higher temperature. Tests of Cr18Ni9 steel in a solution
160 g CuSO
4
5H
2
O, 100 ml H
2
SO
4
and 1 l of water showed always
an anomalous increase of Q
1

at temperatures of approximately 80C
(f 0.9 kHz), which corresponds to the formation of submicroscopic
cracks in the material.
The formation of the peak on the Q
1

(T) dependence corresponds
to the time to the formation of mobile microcracks and also the
build-up of other structural defects, for example, dislocation clus-
ters, cavities, etc. After recording the maximum peak of internal
friction, it can be seen that the surface of the specimens contains
networks of visible cracks, and the modulus of elasticity decreases
by up to 30% of its initial value.
The interaction of external stress at the front of the moving
microcracks and around clusters of dislocations at the front of the
propagation results in the formation of suitable conditions for the
acts of opening and closure of microcracks and scattering of me-
chani cal energy by rel axat i on. The process of mi grat i on of
microcracks under the effect of stress can be divided on the basis
of the ductility of the material. In the case of brittle material and
at a high stress cracking takes place by the disruption of cohesion
bonds at the front of the crack up to complete failure, or until the
crack encounters a barrier (grain boundary, including, particles of
other phases, etc.). In ductile materials, crack migration is a gradual
process of merger of many microcracks into a main crack.
The plastic relaxation at the tip of the cracks results in intersec-
tion of planar dislocation clusters (Fig. 5.20). When individual dis-
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.5.20. .5.20. .5.20. .5.20. .5.20. Interaction of the crack with planar dislocation clusters (a) and thermal
fluctuation formation of the microcrack (b).
2 3 3
locations approach each other, they merge and form a microcrack
(Cottrell mechanism for the fcc metals). The microcracks can form
by the thermal fluctuation mechanism also in the absence of exter-
nal stress, for example, in planar clusters at the crack tip [266].
The equilibrium depth of thermal fluctuation microcracks, even in
the case of a large number of dislocations in a planar cluster, is the
value equal to several multiples of the Burgers vector, so that the
merger of the microcrack with the main crack may or may not take
place. In the case of cyclic loading, the process of formation of
microcracks is interpreted as the emission of a bow of the disloca-
tions to the side and subsequent joining of the parallel parts. The
process of crack closure can be interpreted as the movement of the
bow back to the original dislocation. The energy for opening of the
crack under the effect of the stress, generated at the tip of the main
crack, is several times lower than the energy required for emission
of the bow.
234
6
CYCLIC MICROPLASTICITY
Taking into account the promising nature and prospects of the prac-
tical application of the results, and taking into account chapter 3.3,
it is useful to pay special attention to the effect of the strain am-
plitude on the internal friction of the materials and the defect of the
elasticity (Young) modulus in the range characterised by the exten-
sive generation, movement and interaction of the dislocations, i.e.
in the region of cyclic microplastic response of the materials.
Mott [267] assumed that in the presence of randomly distributed
dislocations situated at certain distances from each other, the ran-
dom distribution of the stress exerts an effect
1/ 2
.
i
Gb

The formation of new dislocations requires the critical stress

kr
=
i
+ Gb/l. If a new dislocation, generated by a source, moves by the
distance d and the number of these dislocations is n, the strain in-
creases by the value nbd. It is assumed that the sources generate
dislocations in an avalanche like manner and that only some sources
operate. The avalanchelike nature of generation of the dislocations
is determined by the fact that the activity of the sources depends on
the sum Gb/l and the local value of
i
and not on their means value.
Local stress fluctuations generate the avalanchelike formation of
dislocations whose intensity increases with the increase of the de-
gree of nonuniformity of distribution of stress in the volume. Un-
der the effect of the stress with the reverse orientation, new sources
operate and generate the dislocations of the opposite sign.
Golovin [268] determined the internal friction in the microplastic
region in the form
235
Cyclic Microplasticity
( )
2
2
1 a
p
m
t
nb d
Q
q
(6.1)
where
a
is the density of active sources of dislocations, q is the
distance between the slip planes, m, B are constants depending on
the dispersion of the stress distribution curve,
t
is the strain at
which microplasticity appears.
The actual conditions of dispersion of the energy in the material
are complicated by the fact that the dislocation overcomes obstacles
during its movement.
It is assumed that
0
is the number of dislocations with the length
L
n
. During displacement, the dislocation changes its shape, for ex-
ample, in accordance with Fig. 6.1. The probability of the jump
from the position M to position N is described by the equation
( )
0
exp
i
U bdl
kT
, ]
, ]
]
(6.2)
Consequently, internal friction is
( )
4
01 1 0 0
2
0 0
1
exp ,
i
n D
p
bdl
r L b G U U
Q
kT kT l C

j \

, (

( ,
(6.3)
Here r 0.50.75,
i
is the internal stress caused by the presence
of point defects, U
D
= W
M
for nonconcentrated solutions, and U
0
~
0.5W
M
for concentrated solutions. The value of l/b changes from
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 6.1. . 6.1. . 6.1. . 6.1. . 6.1. Diagram of displacement of dislocations in the stress field.
236
( )
1/ 3
0 0
2
i
G
C
j \
, (
, (

( ,
for the nonconcentrated solutions to
1/3
3
2
0
2
M
Gb
W C
j \
, (
( ,
for concentrated solutions.
Davidenkov [269] used the structural heterogeneity of the mate-
rial as the basis for scattering of energy in the material. In repeated
loading, some subgrains and grains are subjected to microplastic
deformation. From many equations, some of the equations are used
for the numerical description of the hysteresis loop in the form
0
0
,
n
E af
j \

, (
( ,
(6.4)
where f(/
0
) is the function describing the shape of the hysteresis
loop.
This approach was developed further by Pisarenko [270] who
introduced the stress distribution function in the grains and assumed
that the specimens, loaded to a level lower than the yield limit in
the grains, will differ and some of the specimens may show stresses
higher than the yield limit.
The amount of energy scattered in the unit volume of the mate-
rial during a single loading cycle is
( ) 2 ,
x
s
W NK P d

(6.5)
whereN is the number of grains in the unit volume of the material,
K
s
is the mean value of the capacity for absorption of energy in the
microvolume. The integral in equation (6.5) is the quantity that de-
termines the number of plastically deformed grains in the unit vol-
237
ume of the material at a specific mean which depends on the yield
limit of the grain, the mean stress distribution in the grains and on
the shape of the size distribution curve of the grains. The stress dis-
tribution in the grains has the form of a Gaussian dependence. Con-
sequently
0
2 ,
m
s
s
k
W NK A B
, ]
j \
, ] +
, (
, ]
( ,
]
%
(6.6)
where m, B, A are constants whose value depends on the dispersion
of the stress distribution in the grains. After further transformations,
the following equation is obtained for the determination of internal
friction
1 2
,
m s
p
m
k
ENK B
Q

%
(6.7)
where
k
is the yield limit. The equation describes satisfactorily the
distribution of internal friction in relation to stress amplitude .
The problem of the effect of the magnitude of the stress ampli-
tude on internal friction and the defect of the modulus of elastic-
ity at higher values of the repeated loading is directly linked with
the problems of cyclic microplastic deformation and quantification
of the cyclic plastic response of materials.
Taking into account the attempts for the quantification of the re-
lationship between the values of the strain amplitude of the inten-
si t y of changes of Q
1
, i n rel at i on t o st rai n ampl i t ude ( =
d log Q
1
/d log
ac
) and the change of the response of the material
to loading, it is useful to introduce a convention in the designation
of the critical amplitudes (
kr
) and the intensity of changes of char-
acteristics ().
6.1 CRITICAL STRAIN AMPLITUDES AND INTENSITY OF
CHANGES OF CHARACTERISTICS
According to Pukr [24] and the latest experimental results, the
dependence Q
1

or can be conventionally divided into four
sections (Fig. 6.2).
238
Under the effect of strain amplitudes with the value to
kr1
(the
first critical strain amplitudes), the increase of
ac
is accompanied
by internal friction independent of the strain amplitudes. This is the
background of internal friction Q
1
0
(section I, where the intensity
of changes of Q
1

is
0
= 0). Under the effect of strain amplitude
higher than
kr1
but lower than another critical value
ac
, there is a
slight increase of the magnitude of internal friction, and with the in-
crease of
ac
recording shows a large increase of internal friction,
which is the manifestation of cyclic microplasticity. This region is
characterised by the occurrence of plastic internal friction Q
1
p
(sec-
tion III, where
2
>
1
). With a further increase of the strain am-
plitude it is possible to reach
kr3
(third critical strain amplitude),
and at values above this amplitude

internal friction depends strongly
not only on the strain amplitude but also the loading time Q
t
1
(sec-
tion IV, where
3
>
2
).
This convention and the occurrence of all or several strain criti-
cal amplitudes

and the intensity of the changes of the characteris-
tics are typical of many materials and different test and measure-
ment conditions, and in most cases, some manifestations of the
changes of the dependence Q
1

are not recorded. This may be
caused by the low sensitivity of measurements but in most cases by
the fact that the acting physical mechanisms in heterogeneous ma-
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 6.2. . 6.2. . 6.2. . 6.2. . 6.2. Changes of internal friction with the change of strain amplitudes indicating
critical strain amplitude and intensity of changes of the characteristics.
239
terials operate do not operate in different subgrains, grains and
phases under the effect of different strain amplitudes.
Therefore, in detailed investigations in this area, in addition to
determining the dependences Q
1

or E/E , it is useful to de-
termine reproducible values of Q
1
,
kr1
,
kr2
,
kr3
, but also
1
,
2
and
3
. The interpretation of the intensity of the changes of the char-
acteristics () is only in the initial state of its development. Usu-
ally, it is necessary to use two groups of methods, based on analysis
of the shape or temperature at which the relaxation maxima occur.
6.1.1 Physical nature of the critical strain amplitude
The main problem in the interpretation of internal friction that de-
pends on the strain amplitude is the behaviour of dislocations. It
was assumed for a long period of time that the dislocations move
in a reversible way in accordance with external alternating loading.
The difference in the nature of the interaction of dislocations with
the lattice and lattice defects is restricted by the second critical
strain
kr2
. Consequently, in the models used for explaining the ef-
fect of the strain amplitude on internal friction it was assumed that
in the range
ac
<
cr2
the dislocations structure does not change and
that no displacement of the dislocations will be recorded after
unstressing. The mechanical hysteresis loop will be closed. This type
of the dependence of internal friction on strain amplitude is referred
to as hysteresis internal friction Q
1
r
().
Under the effect of strain amplitude higher than
kr2
the increase
of internal friction is associated with the irreversible movement of
the dislocations, accompanied by the change of the characteristics
of the dislocation structure. Since residual deformation is recorded
in the material after the effect of strain amplitudes higher than
kr2
,
attention was given to the value of
kr2
which was regarded as the
boundary indicating the start of microplasticity, and the internal
friction in this range of the strain amplitude was referred to as plas-
tic internal friction Q
1
p
.
The division of the internal friction curve in relation to strain
amplitude into the hysteresis and microplastic region is conven-
tional. Examination by transmission electron microscopy and inter-
nal friction measurements, simultaneous evaluation of the depend-
ences Q
1
() and the curves of microdeformation in single crystals
and polycrystalline materials such as Cu, Al, Ni [271] and also Cu
Al, CuSi, CuSn and FeCo alloys [272] showed that the multi-
plication and irreversible movement of the dislocations already take
place at amplitudes lower than
kr2
.
240
Initially, the processes of microplastic deformation and internal
friction were studied theoretically and experimentally in separate in-
vestigations and the physical mechanisms proposed for these proc-
esses were differentiated. The dependence Q
1
() was interpreted as
the result of reversible movement of the dislocations around the
initial positions which do not change during measurements. The
process of microplasticity is associated with the generation and sub-
sequent displacement of the dislocations. After finding that in a
certain region of the dependence Q
1
() some materials showed the
generation and irreversible movement of the dislocations, studies ap-
peared in which both mechanisms were combined into a single
mechanism [273]. The linear section of the curves Q
1
() was de-
noted as the first stage of microplasticity caused by the slip of dis-
locations in the individual grains. The second, parabolic stage of
microplasticity was associated with the occurrence of plastic inter-
nal fri ct i on. The boundary, separat i ng t he l i near and parabol i c
stages of microplasticity, is close to the value of the second criti-
cal strain amplitude.
The mechanisms of release of the initial dislocations, blocked by
the atoms of the solute elements, and of the generation of disloca-
tions have different physical nature. In the former case, the proc-
ess is associated with overcoming the segments of dislocations of the
shortrange stress fields formed by the atoms of the solute elements.
As a resul t of t he rapi d decrease of t he forces of di sl ocat i on
solute interaction, the distance between the equilibrium positions,
corresponding to the blocked and unblocked states, is equal to sev-
eral lattice spacings. The time required by the moving dislocation
to travel this distance is comparable with the duration of existence
of the thermal fluctuation increase of the energy of the dislocation
saolute atom complex so that the release of the dislocation from the
atmosphere of the solutes is a thermally activated process. The
enthalpy of activation of the processes close to the value of H
B
and
the activation volume is V
*
a
L
p
b
2
.
The activity of the dislocation sources is accompanied by the dis-
placement of dislocations to large distances L
n
. The external stress
overcomes the interaction forces of the dislocations with the atoms
of the solute elements, and the reversible force of the linear stretch-
ing of the dislocations and of the loadrange field acting over a
large distance where the wavelength is comparable with the length
of the dislocation segments. In this case, the process of thermal ac-
tivation is of lesser importance and the activation volume increases
several tens of times in comparison with value V
*
a
. These differences
241
are even larger when the dislocations generate grain boundaries
where fresh dislocations form as a result of movement of special ob-
jects dislocations in the active part of the grain boundaries. In
a real material subjected to repeated loading, the mechanisms of
hysteresis and plastic internal friction operate simultaneously.
The magnitude of internal friction, independent of strain ampli-
tude Q
1
0
, can be interpreted using one or several of the already men-
tioned mechanisms (section 2.2.3). The strain (stress) amplitude is
too low to enable dislocations segments to vibrate (Fig. 2.30a) and
scatter the mechanical energy.
Under the effect of stress amplitude with the value from
kr1
to
kr2
where Q
m
1
is recorded, the latter can be expressed by the equa-
tion proposed by Granato and Lcke [28]
1
,
B
m
A
Q e
(6.8)
here is the strain amplitude
3
1
2
,
n
d
p
L
A k
L

(6.9)
1
,
4
F
k
s aE
(6.10)
2
.
p
a
B k
L

(6.11)
In these equations,
d
is the dislocation density, is the orien-
tation factor, s is the factor of shear stress in the slip plane, E is
the Young modulus, k
2
is the constant of proportionality, and is
t he di fference of t he at om si zes of t he mai n met al and t he
solutes. The value of F can be determined from the stress corre-
sponding to the amplitude causing bending of the dislocation seg-
ment, i.e.
kr1
. The increase of internal friction in this part of the
Q
1
dependence is interpreted by the nonelastic interaction of
the dislocation segments with energy barriers. The dislocation seg-
242
ments vibrate in a quasiviscous environment formed by the point
defects (in steels, these are the atoms of C and N).
The critical strain
kr2
corresponds to the stress causing the gen-
eration of dislocations, i.e.
kr2
= Gb/L
n
, where b is the Burgers vec-
tor of the dislocations. Therefore,
2
.
kr
n
b
L

(6.12)
Processing of the results of measurements of internal friction that
depends slightly on the stress amplitude, using these equations,
givesthe quantitative data on the dislocation structure of the mate-
rial.
The binding energy between the dislocation and the solute atoms
(r) is expressed by the equation [274]
1
3
kr
rc
b E

(6.13)
where c is the concentration of solute atoms around the dislocation.
For temperatures other than T = 0 K, for which the equation (6.13)
was derived, it is necessary to take into account the temperature de-
pendence of the solute concentration in the region of the dislocation
[275]
0
,
G
kT
c c e
(6.14)
where G is the difference of free enthalpies, k is the Boltzmann
constant, T is absolute temperature. Therefore,
1 0
3
,
S r
k kT
kr
r T S
c e e
b E

(6.15)
where S is the change of entropy, and c
0
is the average composi-
tion of the alloy, in at.%.
The entropy change can be determined using the following equa-
tions [69]
243

S
H
T

1
,
(6.16)
0
,
E
E
S n H
T
j \
, (
( ,

(6.17)
where
0
0
,
E
E
T
T
j \
, (
( ,

j \
, (
( ,
E and E
0
are the elasticity moduli at experimental temperature and
at absolute zero, H is the activation energy of self diffusion. The
quantity (E/E
0
) and coefficient are determined from the tempera-
ture dependence of the square of frequency (f
2
) of the vibrations.
The activation entropy can be determined by processing the experi-
mental results and using the above equations. Coefficient n must be
determined by evaluating the entropy of self diffusion and sublima-
tion temperature (n = 0.50.6).
From experimental measurements, taken on Armco iron (0.03
wt.%C + N) after different heat treatments and deformation () and
on Mo (99.98 wt.%), using a torsion pendulum with determination
of
kr1
and
kr2
and other characteristics, the authors of Ref. 276
obtained the experimental data presented in Table 6.1. The increase
of strain is accompanied by increase of the dislocation density and
the length of the dislocation segments decreases.
The interpretation of the results of the GranatoLcke theory,
taking into account the atomic structure of the crystal and thermally
activated unpinning of the dislocations from the pinning points,
makes it possible to take into account the data on bows on dislo-
cation lines [277].
Under the effect of strain amplitude higher than
kr2
(section III
in Fig. 6.2) we determined the internal friction Q
1
p
which depends
strongly on the strain amplitude. For the case in which dislocations
244
T TT TTa aa aab bb bble 6.1 le 6.1 le 6.1 le 6.1 le 6.1 Change of critical amplitudes, parameters of dislocation structure and
binding energy of the dislocations with solute atoms for materials subjected to
different treatment
t n e m t a e r t d n a l a i r e t a M
T
] C [

1 r k

2 r k
L
p
] m m [
L
p
] m m [

r
0 1 J [
9 1
]
m [
2
]
n o r i o c m r A
h 1 / C 0 3 9 t a d e l a e n n a
r e t f a e % 8 . 2 =
r e t f a e % 0 . 7 =
r e t f a e % 2 . 1 1 =
C 0 5 9 m o r f d e h c n e u q
m u n e d b y l o M
r e t f a e % 0 6 =
t a n o i t a s i l l a t s y r c e r r e t f a
h 4 / C 0 0 2 1
0 0 1
0 0 1
0 0 1
0 0 1
0 0 1
0 5 3
0 5 3
0 1 8
5
0 1
4
0 1 2
4
0 1 4 . 2
4
0 1
4
0 1 1 . 1
4
0 1 8 . 7
5
0 1 2 . 3
4
0 1 1 . 6
4
0 1 0 . 8
4
0 1
3
0 1 9 . 5
4
0 1 2
3
0 1 6
4
0 1
3
0 1 5 . 4
4
0 1 5 . 3
4
0 1 8 . 2
4
0 1 7 . 4
4
0 1 8 . 1
4
0 1 0 . 5
4
0 1 8 . 9
5
0 1 7 . 6
5
0 1 0 . 6
5
0 1 4 . 5
5
0 1 0 . 8
5
0 1 7 . 1
4
0 1 8 . 2
4
4 1 0 4 . 0
3 6 2 4 . 0
1 1 5 4 . 0
2 1 7 4 . 0
0 6 3 4 . 0
5 5 . 0
5 5 5 . 0
8 8 2 . 0
4 9 2 . 0
6 3 3 . 0
2 6 3 . 0
0 2 3 . 0
6 1 4 . 0
6 1 4 . 0
0 1 2
1 1
0 1 1
2 1
0 1 7
2 1
0 1 3
3 1
0 1 4
2 1
0 1 1
5 1
0 1 6
3 1
overcome obstacles by a thermally activated process [278], plastic
internal friction is characterised by the equation
( )
1 1
1
,
D
p
C
Q e
h

(6.18)
where
1
2
and .
Q
kT
b VG
C e D
f kT
In the equations, h is a constant with the value 0.51 [278], is the

strain amplitude,
i
is the strain amplitude required for overcoming
barriers [278], is the frequency of oscillations of the dislocations,
v is the area occupied by the dislocation during a oscillation, f is
the frequency of changes of loading, Q is the activation energy,
is the orientation factor (~0.5), V is the activation volume, G is the
shear modulus of elasticity.
Another interpretation [279] assumes that at
ac
>
kr2
dislocation
sources start to generate dislocations. In the range from
kr2
to 2
kr2
unstable dislocation loops interact together and with a dislocation
forrest, but they do not manage to move to the barriers of the type
of grain boundaries. The movement of dislocations to the grain
boundaries is possible only at
ac
2
kr2
and dislocation clusters
form in the vicinity of the obstacles. When this boundary is ex-
245
ceeded, plastic internal friction, determined by the equation
1
,
m
p
Q X
(6.19)
takes place, where X and m are the material and experimental con-
stants.
Therefore, when
kr2
or 2
kr2
is exceeded, microplastic deforma-
tion takes place. This microplastic deformation is of saturation na-
ture, i.e. after a specific number of repeated loading cycles, Q
1
p
sta-
bilises at a certain value and it is assumed that the density and dis-
tribution of dislocations no longer changes significantly. The rep-
etition of the strain amplitudes higher than
kr3
(region IV in Fig.
6.2) results in the process of fatigue damage cumulation, i.e. inter-
nal friction Q
1
p
is a function of the number of load cycles. Depend-
ing on the value of , fatigue failure of the component is recorded
after a certain number of load cycles. The experimental data and in-
terpretation of these data for describing region IV have been pub-
lished only in a small number of cases, also owing o the fact that
the method of measuring internal friction in evaluation of the fatigue
process is being supplemented by other procedures. The form of the
Q
1
dependence, Fig. 6.2, is a function of many substructural and
structural factors, the type and composition of the material, and the
method of processing the material. Depending on the sensitivity of
measurement of Q
1
and overlapping of different partial mechanisms
of scattering of mechanical energy, all three critical strain amplitude
may or may not be recorded.
Therefore, the dependence of internal friction on strain amplitude
can be characterised by the equation
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 1
0
, , , , ,
m b p p t p
Q Q Q Q Q N

+ + +
(6.20)
where
b
is the density of pinned (stationary) dislocations with
b

0
, where
0
is the density of dislocations in the annealed ma-
terial, and
p
is the density of mobile dislocations, N is the number
of load cycles.
6.1.2 Methods of evaluating critical amplitudes
In the evaluation and classification of the processes, taking place in
the material during its loading in the region in which the internal
friction depends strongly on strain amplitude, it is necessary to use
246
reproducible and substantiated (from the viewpoint of physical met-
allurgy) procedures of determination of critical strain amplitudes.
Despite the significance of
kr1
and
kr3
, in determination of these
amplitude there are a number of disputes and unexplained features.
Several methods and procedures are still used for the determination
of the second critical strain amplitude.
The value
kr2
is determined as the strain amplitude which causes
rapid rising of the Q
1
curve [280] procedure I, and as the strain
amplitude which causes the Q
1
/ dependence change from a
curve to a straight line [2] procedure II. Other studies indicate
that
kr2
can also be determined using other methods in which the
effect of
kr2
and higher strain amplitude results in a sharp increase
of the effect of the Young modulus (in the E/E dependence),
i.e. procedure III [281]. The large increase of E/E above
kr2
is
caused by the increase of the density of mobile dislocations. This
is a typical sign of plastic deformation.
The experimental studies, concerned with the evaluation of the ef-
fect of the prior strain amplitude
d
on the extent of the change of
background Q
1
0
and the magnitude of the second critical strain am-
plitude, Fig. 6.3, show [281] that the evaluation of results of the
measurements taken using the procedures I, II and III, gives differ-
ent values of
kr2
. In a specific range of
d
, the procedures II and
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 6. 3. . 6. 3. . 6. 3. . 6. 3. . 6. 3. Dependence of the first and second critical strain amplitude (solid
lines) and internal friction background (broken line).
247
III give similar values when determining
kr2
, whereas procedure I
proved to be unreliable, because in comparison with the data pub-
lished in Ref. 2 and 282, it gives physically unjustified low values
of
kr2
.
In addition to these methods, there are also methods which de-
termine
kr2
as the strain amplitude whose effect results in the for-
mation of the first slip lines on the surface of the specimen [273],
or as the strain amplitude resulting in irreversible changes of the
internal friction background [2, 283]. The principle of the second
method is based on determining the background Q
1
0
at
0
<
kr1
. This
is followed by loading with a strain amplitude higher than
kr1
and
by repeated measurements of the background Q
1
0
at
0
. With gradual
increase of and measurement of Q
1
, after exceeding a certain
value of , the recorded internal friction is already higher than
Q
1
0
. This value then belongs to the second critical strain amplitude.
Experiments with the automated measurements of internal friction
carried out in equipment VTPA (VSDS) showed the possibility of
determination of
kr2
by another procedure [284]. Automatic record-
ing of the dependence of internal friction on the loading time and
of the defect of the Young modulus on loading time at 710
7

510
4
at every experimental point, i.e. under the effect of the
selected values of , showed that the form of the Q
1
t depend-
ence is complicated and is at present very difficult to interpret.
However, the E/E t dependences are of two shapes. The first
shape, at low values of , shows a decrease of E/E with increas-
ing loading time, and the decrease of E/E with increasing loading
time becomes smaller with increasing strain amplitude up to the
state in which it no longer changes with time under the effect of a
specific value of . The second shape, at the values close to
kr2
and
higher than
kr2
, E/E increases with increasing loading time. This
shape no longer changes at high values of . Since at values higher
than
kr2
the E/E t curves are characterised by the saturation
nature of the changes E/E, which is a manifestation of the genera-
t i on of di sl ocat i ons, i t may be assumed t hat
ac
at whi ch t he
E/E t dependence changes from decreasing to increasing has the
value
kr2
.
It is useful to note that different materials are characterised by
different form of the Q
1
dependences and, consequently, in ex-
perimental investigations, it is efficient to select the methods for
determining
kr2
as the important characteristic of microplasticity of
the material. Some other physically substantiated method for deter-
mination of
kr2
are presented in section 6.2.
248
6.2 CYCLIC MICROPLASTIC RESPONSE OF MATERIALS
The above results show that the Q
1
, /E dependences and
also Q
1
t or E/E t dependences at certain strain amplitudes,
provide, in addition to the specific values of the critical strain am-
plitude and their sensitivity to the history of manufacture and load-
ing, a large number of valuable physicalmetallurgical and engineer-
ing data. A number of specific examples of the measurement and ap-
plication of these dependences will be discussed later.
6.2.1 Dislocation density and the activation volume of
microplasticity
The plastic strain rate is a function of the speed of dislocations v
and the density of mobile dislocations
p
, with the Burgers vector
b, in accordance with the equation
p
=
p
vb; it is well known that
the total dislocation density =
0
+
p
, where zero is the initial
density of the dislocations, and
p
= A
n
p
, where A, n are material
characteristics. In experiments with the materials having the struc-
ture of fcc substitutional solid solutions at the microplastic strain
(
p
< 0.1), where the flow stress and plastic strain
p
are linked by
a parabolic relationship, n = 12. The value of n for the initial
stage of microplastic deformation (
p
<< 0.1) is not available.
It is difficult to determine
p
in the process of continuing defor-
mation because all experimental methods for evaluating the dislo-
cation density are basically static, or the dislocation density is de-
termined by indirect methods on the basis of certain assumptions,
or it is assumed that
p
in this range of microplasticity is a vari-
able quantity. The experiments show that dislocations in, for exam-
ple, annealed material (
0
) do not contribute to microplastic defor-
mation and also that the forest of these dislocations is not a source
of new dislocations. Fresh dislocations generate on the surface of
the specimens, at the boundaries of grains and twins, at the second
phase particles and in areas with heterogenities in the structure of
the material.
Measurements and analysis of the internal friction mechanisms
Q
1
with the change of the strain amplitude
ac
provide a large
amount of information on the dynamics of changes of the disloca-
tions structure of the material.
No quantitative relationships have been determined for describ-
ing the changes of
p
in the strain range 10
6
10
4
. Measurements
and analysis of the internal friction mechanisms, such as the dy-
namic method, can provide valuable information assuming we use
a suitable model which would take into account the type of dislo-
249
cations sources, the nature and dynamics of movement of the fresh
dislocations and also the nature of dislocations structures, examined
by transmission electron microscopy. CuAl alloys are highly suit-
able from this viewpoint; the generation of dislocations in these al-
loys takes place in sources at the grain boundaries and the dislo-
cations structure after microdeformation has the nature of planar
rows of the dislocations with the same sign [285].
For CuAl alloy with an aluminium content of 9.2 and 13.8 at%
after annealing at 600C for 1 hour measurements were taken of the
Q
1
() curve on each specimens (diameter 1 mm, length 100 mm,
pressure 0.5 Pa, frequency 22.5 Hz in equipment RKMTPI) ini-
tially with the value of gradually increasing from = 0 to =
m
,
where
m
>
kr2
. The curve was obtained from 25 measurements
taken on new specimens and denoted by Q
1
() (Fig.6.4). After
obtaining the selected values of
m
, we immediately measured the
internal friction for the gradually decreasing value of
ac
, i.e. from
ac
=
m
to
ac
=
0
, and the curve was denoted Q
1
(). The experi-
ments show that at a specific value of
ac
Q
1
() > Q
1
() [286].
The difference Q
1
() Q
1
() was denoted by Q
1
. This is the
contribution of the scattering power of the material by mobile dis-
locations with the density
p
which formed as a result of loading the
material with the selected value of
m
. The phenomenon in which
Q
1
() Q
1
() at a specific value of is universal. It does not
depend on the loading method (tensioncompression, torsion, bend-
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 6.4. . 6.4. . 6.4. . 6.4. . 6.4. Diagram for deriving the increment of internal friction as a result of
increasing dislocation density.
kr1

kr2
250
ing) nor on loading frequency (for example, 1 Hz or 23 kHz) as
shown in other investigations [282, 287].
Analysis of the measurement results shows [282] that with in-
creasing value , when >
kr2
, the density of mobile dislocations
p
in the material increases. With decreasing value from the se-
lected value
m
the density of mobile dislocations remain unchanged
but with increase of it may increase in the microplasticity range
by several orders of magnitude but the measurable change of the to-
tal dislocation density is recorded only after exceeding the stress
corresponding to the cyclic yield limit of the material. For example,
in Cu +13.8 at.% Al alloy, the relative increase of dislocation den-
sity
( )
0
0
,

is 0.1 only when

m

0.2% [289]. Therefore, when evaluating the
changes of the dislocation density during microplastic deformation,
i.e. when
m
< 710
4
, it can be assumed that the total dislocation
density and also
n
(the density of stationary dislocations) do not
change. This shows that in the examined range (to 710
4
) the
value of Q
1
is an inversed function of strain. Consequently,
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1
, , , .
m p p m p p
Q Q Q

, ] , ]
] ]
(6.21)
Generally, the magnitude of Q
1
depends on the time required to
reach
m
, with the gradually increasing amplitude
ac
. The time de-
pendence of Q
1
is important for pure metals, but in the CuAl
alloys with an aluminium content of 117.3 at.% it is not evident,
because the curves Q
1
() and the subsequently plotted curves
Q
1
(), when
ac
<
kr2
, are more or less identical.
Golovin and Levin [290] quantified microplastic internal friction
for the case in which the following conditions are fulfilled: a) only
di sl ocat i on sources at t he grai n boundari es operat e duri ng
microplastic deformation and deformation is accompanied by the
formation of planar rows of dislocations with the same sign; b) the
dynamics of movement of the dislocations is controlled by the forces
of Newtonian viscous friction. The first condition is fulfilled in the
case of copperaluminium alloys. The second condition requires a
251
comment. The materials examined were homogeneous solid solutions
with short-range ordering. The movement of the first dislocation of
the planar row of the dislocations is associated with overcoming the
resistance of the lattice whose value in the slip plane is influenced
by the short-range ordering of the solid solution. However, after
movement of several dislocations in the slip plane, the solid solu-
tion is no longer ordered and the movement of further dislocations
of the planar row is controlled by the viscous friction mechanisms.
After the arrest of the first moving dislocation in front of an obsta-
cle of the type of subboundaries, dislocation clusters, etc., a pla-
nar row of dislocations with length 2L starts to form behind the
dislocation. Alternating loading does not change this arrangement of
the dislocations, because the latter do not return to the sources.
Local vibrations of the segments of the moving dislocations in the
planar row of the dislocations then contribute to microplastic inter-
nal friction.
This model shows that
( ) ( )
( )
2
1 1
2
1.24
, ,
p
p p
B L L
Q Q
G

, ]
]
(6.22)
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
1 1
2 2
, 1.178 1 ... ,
24
p p m
p p m
m m
B L L
Q Q
G

, ]
, ] +
, ]
]

]
(6.23)
where G is the shear modulus of elasticity, is the frequency of
external loading, B is the viscous factor of movement of the dislo-
cations. The low values of made it possible to simplify the form
of equations, because at /
m
<< 1; this is fulfilled under the given
conditions. The series on the righthand side of equation (6.23) can
be replaced with sufficient accuracy by its first term. Consequently,
at low strain amplitudes
( )
2
1
2
3
.
8
p m
m
B L
Q
G
(6.24)
Equation (6.24) makes it possible to characterised the function
p
(
m
). Taking into account the given model, it can be seen that the
experimental points are distributed on straight lines whose tangent
252
is approximately 3. This shows that
3
,
p m
A (6.25)
which indicates that the density of moving dislocations in the ini-
tial stage of microplasticity of the CuAl alloys increases with the
cube of the plastic strain. The intensity of generation of dislocations
during the microplasticity phenomena has two values n in the equa-
tion
p
= A
n
p
. In the first part of the deformation curve, where the
strain is a linear function of stress, the plastic strain
p
is propor-
tional to the maximum strain
m
so that the density of moving dis-
locations is expressed by the equation
p
= C
n
p
, where n = 3. In
the second part of the deformation curve, where strain is a para-
bolic function of stress,
p
~
0.5
m
. Consequently,
p
= D
1. 5
p
, where
n = 3/2.
These data should be included in the information on the behav-
iour of an ensemble of the dislocations, on the annihilation of dis-
locations of the same time with the reverse sign and on the estab-
lishment of the saturated value of dislocation density [24, 291].
Analysis of the dependences Q
1
() makes it possible to quantify
certain characteristics of the dislocation network, the stress condi-
tions of the start of microplasticity, the dynamics of changes of the
mi crost ruct ure, di fferent i at e t he mechani sms of scat t eri ng of
mechanical energy in the material or also determine, for example,
the size of the activation volume of microplastic deformation.
In t he range
kr1
<
kr2
, t he scat t eri ng of t he mechani cal
energy in the material can be interpreted by the spring model in
accordance with Granato and Lcke [28], using equation (6.8).
Interpretation of the factors A, B makes it possible to quantify
certain parameters of the dislocations structure and also the char-
acteristics of the interaction of dislocations with point defects, es-
pecially interstitial atoms. Therefore, it can be expected that in this
range of we obtain straight lines when the experimental data are
plotted in the coordinates ln Q
1
m
vs
1
with the straight lines hav-
ing the slope B.
Several models have been proposed for the range
kr2

kr3
.
Peguin, Perez and Gobin [278] assumed that the dislocations over-
come obstacles in their movement by a thermally activated process.
The appropriate activation energy depends on the level of acting
mechani cal st ress. Consequent l y, pl ast i c i nt ernal fri ct i on
253
Q
1
p
(= Q
1
Q
2
1
, where Q
1
1
or Q
1
2
is internal friction at >
kr2
, or
at =
kr2
) is determined by equation (6.18).
Burdett [280] assumed that the activation volume depends on the
level of acting stress in accordance with the equation
( )
,
x
i
F
V
(6.26)
where F and x are constants. According to Spitzig [292], x = 0.5.
After substituting and transforming equation (6.18), where the given
model is realistic, it may be expected that in the range of cyclic
microplasticity in the coordinates ln (Q
1
) vs. (
i
)
1/2
, the experi-
mentally determined points will fit straight lines with the slope cor-
responding to D.
Jon, Mason and Beshers [279] derived equation (6.19). If this
modelling assumption is valid, we can expect linearisation of the ex-
perimental measurements, when the results are plotted in the coor-
dinates log Q
1
log .
These hypotheses have been verified in Ref. 293.
In t he fi rst part of t he experi ment s, t he aut hors used pure
copper (99.994 wt.%), denoted Cu, iron with 0.03 wt.% C, denoted
Fe, and an alloy of iron with titanium (0.043 wt.% Fe, 0.03 wt.%
Ti), denoted FeTi. The internal friction of Cu, Fe and FeTi in re-
lation to the strain amplitude was measured in lowfrequency (ap-
proximately 1 Hz) vacuum equipment using RKMTPI torsion pen-
dulum, on specimens of Fe and FeTi in the presence of a magnetic
field with an intensity of 1.910
4
Am
1
, at a temperature of 23C.
In the second part, the experiments are carried out on iron with
0.03 wt.% C (Fe) and on CSN 412013 steel (0.07 wt.% C, 0.27
wt.% Mn, 0.03 wt.% Si, 0.013 wt.% P, 0.08 wt.% S, 0.07 wt.% Cr,
and 0.006 wt.% N) after heat treatment; the ferrite grain size of Fe
was 0.032 mm, that of the steel 0.022 mm. Experiments were car-
ried out in RKMTPI equipment in the presence of a magnetic field
and at the same temperature as in the first part of the experiments.
Measurements were taken at a frequency of 1 Hz in the laboratory
of the Tula Polytechnic Institute, Russia.
The ferrite grain size of CSN 412013 steel after heat treatment
was d
1
= 0.022 + 0.004 mm, d
2
= 0.29 + 0.045 mm, d
3
= 0.620 +
0.085 mm. The specimens of CSN 412013 steel, diameter 3 mm,
were subjected to stabilisation annealing at 220C for 0.5 hour and
254
chemically polished. The dependence of internal friction on the
strain amplitude in tensioncompression loading was measured in a
modified Mason system at a loading frequency of 23 kHz in the
presence of a magnetic field with an intensity of 1.910 Am
1
, at
a temperature of 23C. The experiments were carried out at the
laboratories of VSDS Technical University in Zilina, Slovak Repub-
lic.
The first modelling assumption, characterised by equation (6.18),
brings linearisation only if we use Burdetts interpretation. For other
materials (Cu, Fe Ti), the ln Q
1
p
vs. (
i
)
1/2
dependence is
characterised by curves, which may indicate that this model does not
characterise efficiently the interaction of materials with repeated
mechanical loading. Appropriate atmospheres of C and N formed in
iron with 0.03 wt.% C t temperatures lower than the condensation
temperature of the atmospheres of solute elements. In the FeTi al-
loy, the dislocations are freed from C and N atoms and only very
weak interaction of the solute substitutional atoms with the dislo-
cations is observed in copper.
The second modelling assumption, characterised by equation
(6. 19) resul t s i n l i neari sat i on i n t he case of copper when
> 6.310
5
, or Fe Ti, when > 1.610
4
. The authors of the
modelling assumptions [279] prepared this model for materials such
as bronze, copper, etc., i.e. the materials characterised by a very
weak effect of the substitutional solute atoms of the dislocations.
The first part of the experiments showed that in the case of the
materials characterised by highintensity interaction of the solutes
with the dislocations, it is convenient to use Burdetts approxima-
tion [280] also for the quantification of other parameters of the
activation of cyclic microplasticity.
The results of measurements of the internal friction of materials
with highintensity interaction of the solutes with the dislocations
in relation to the strain amplitude at a frequency of 1 Hz and 23
kHz are shown in Fig. 6.5, where each curve is the average of 5
measurements. The magnitude of the first critical strain amplitude,
determined by the method presented in Ref. 281 for the examined
materials, is shown in Table 6.2, and if we use equation (6.8), the
results can be plotted in Fig. 6.6 and the graph can be used to de-
termine the values of
i
, presented in Table 6.2.
The processing of the results of measurements in accordance with
the first model [278], supplemented by Burdett [280], again con-
firms the linearisation of ln Q
1
p
vs (
i
)
1/2
for the region of cy-
clic microplasticity (Fig. 6.7). This enables the equations for cal-
255
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 6.5. . 6.5. . 6.5. . 6.5. . 6.5. Dependence of internal friction on strain amplitude for different materials
loaded with a frequency of 1 Hz and 23 kHz.
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.6.6. .6.6. .6.6. .6.6. .6.6. Results of measurements for the case of validity of equation (6.8) and
different materials loaded with a frequency of 1 Hz and 23 kHz
256
T TT TTa aa aab bb bble 6.2 le 6.2 le 6.2 le 6.2 le 6.2 Activation parameters of cyclic microplasticity (b is Burgers vector)
l a i r e t a M
e z i s n i a r G
] m m [
g n i d a o L
y c n e u q e r f

1
0 1
4
i
0 1
4
V m m [
3
] V/b
3
3 0 . 0 + e F
C % . t w
3 1 0 2 1
2 3 0 . 0
2 2 0 . 0
z H 1
z H 1
4 . 1
0 . 2
0 . 4
4 . 4
0 1 5 2 . 1
8 1
3 5
3 1 0 2 1
3 1 0 2 1
3 1 0 2 1
2 2 0 . 0
0 9 2 . 0
0 2 6 . 0
z H k 3 2
z H k 3 2
z H k 3 2
3 . 1
0 . 1
7 . 0
2 . 2
9 . 1
3 . 1
0 1 5 1 . 9
9 1
9 3
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.6.7. .6.7. .6.7. .6.7. .6.7. Results of measurements in Fig.6.7 for the case of validity of modified
equation (6.18) and different materials loaded with a frequency of 1 Hz and 23
kHz
culating D
1
(6.18) and (6.26) to be used for the determination of the
activation volume of the microplasticity process.
For the selected value (
i
) = 14.7 Nmm
2
, the activation
volume at a frequency of 1 Hz is 1.2510
18
mm
3
, and at a fre-
quency of 23 kHz it is 9.1510
19
mm
3
.
In Ref. 292, the activation volume under the effect of the same
effective stress (
i
) = 15 Nmm
2
) and at a frequency of ap-
proximately 1 Hz was 1.210
18
mm
3
. For iron with a grain size of
0.048; 0.057 and 0.076 mm, the activation volume according to
Burdett [280] is 1.310
18
mm
3
.
The difference in the activation volume of the valid materials at
257
a loading frequency of 1 Hz and 23 kHz is relatively small, Table
6.2.
The experi ment s showed t hat t he act i vat i on vol ume of t he
microplasticity of the examined steels at a temperature of 23C and
an effective stress of 14.7 Nmm
2
is approximately 10
18
mm
3
.
The results of the experiments indicate that in the case of the ma-
terials with significant interaction of the solute atoms with the dis-
locations in the range of cyclic microplasticity it is possible to use
the interpretation proposed by Peguin, Perez and Gobin [278], af-
ter supplementing the approximation according to Burdett [280].
The mechanism of cyclic microplasticity is determined by the in-
tensity of the interaction of the atoms of the solutes with the dis-
locations and is not influenced by the frequency of loading changes.
The importance of measurements of internal friction and the
Young modulus defect with the change of strain amplitude will be
shown on other examples.
6.2.2 Condensation temperature of the atmospheres of
solute elements
The transition from lowdensity (Maxwell) to dense (Cottrell) at-
mospheres of the solute interstitial elements on the dislocations con-
trols the microplastic behaviour of the material also under repeated
loading. Reproducible values of condensation temperature T
c
can be
determined by internal friction measurements under different ther-
mal and amplitude conditions [294].
Lowcarbon unalloyed steel with composition: 0.07% C, 0.27%
mn, 0. 03% Si , 0. 013% P, 0. 018% Cr, 0. 07% Cr and 0. 006% N
(CSN 412013) was annealed during the measurements of internal
pressure (dependent on temperature and strain amplitude), using the
method of the torsional pendulum [92] with a vibrational frequency
of ~1 Hz in the strain amplitude range from 510
6
to 710
4
.
Some of the measurements were taken under the effect of a constant
magnetic field with the intensity H = 1.710
7
A m
1
, and other
measurements were taken at H = 0. The experiments were carried
out at the laboratories of the Tula Polytechnic Institute in Tula,
Russia.
Bars wi t h a di amet er of 20 mm were al so used t o produce
testpieces similar to tensile bars with a diameter in the central part
of 3 mm [281]. Internal friction Q
1
and E/E at a frequency of 23
kHz were measured by the method described by Mason [282]. The
specimens welded with symmetric tensioncompression at a tempera-
258
ture of 23C in the strain rate range from 1.510
6
to 610
4
.
Some of the measurements were taken under the effect of a constant
magnetic field with the intensity H = 1.910
4
Am
1
, or at H = 0.
The experiments were conducted at the laboratories of the VSDS
Technical University in Zilina.
Prior to the measurements, the specimens in both experiments
were initially annealed at 720C for 0.5 hr and cooled at a rate of
100C/h in a furnace; this was followed by chemical etching of the
surface of the specimens. The ferrite grain size of the specimens
was 0.022 0.004 mm in both cases.
The measurements of internal friction at a loading frequency of
~1 Hz in the temperature range 20 440C on specimens of the
lowcarbon unalloyed steel after annealing (Fig. 6.8, curve 2) and
also after rapid cooling from 725C (Fig. 6.8, curve 1) show that
in both conditions of the material, the maximum on the Q
1
T
curve is recorded at 40C (Snoek maximum). The cabin content of
the solid solution of -iron, calculated from the Snoek maximum,
was 0. 003 wt. %% after annealing and 0. 014 wt. %% after rapid
cooling from 725C. The activation energy of the maximum on the
Q
1
T curve, determined from the WertMarx equation, was ~80.8
kJ mol
1
, which corresponds to the activation energy of carbon dif-
fusion in the solid solution of iron.
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 6.8. . 6.8. . 6.8. . 6.8. . 6.8. Temperature dependence of internal friction for mild steel after rapid
cooling from 725C (curve 1) and after annealing (curve 2) at a loading frequency
of ~ ~~ ~~1 Hz.
259
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 6.9. . 6.9. . 6.9. . 6.9. . 6.9. Dependence of internal friction on strain amplitude for different temperatures
at a loading frequency of ~1 Hz (arrows indicate the magnitude of
kr1
).
Figure 6.8 shows that the low value of the internal friction of the
annual material does not change when temperature is increased from
100 to 400C. When 400C is exceeded, the characteristic increases.
Measurements were taken at 510
6
and under the effect of a
magnetic field with intensity H = 1.710
4
Am
1
.
The data on the unstable pinning of the dislocations by the at-
mospheres of the interstitial elements at higher temperatures confirm
the results of internal friction measurements (internal friction de-
pends on strain amplitude), at different temperatures in the range
from 20 to 550C, as indicated in Fig. 6.9.
Int ernal fri ct i on measurement s at di fferent st rai n ampl i t ude
changing with a frequency of ~1 Hz, under the effect of a magnetic
field with an intensity of 1.710
4
Am
1
, show that the form of the
Q
1
dependence in the temperature range 100 400C does not
change greatly. The strain amplitude indicating the start of internal
friction, dependent on the strain amplitude, is denoted
kr1
and its
value is ~710
5
. At temperatures of 425C and higher tempera-
tures, the authors detected a significant increase of the magnitude
of internal friction, and a large decrease of the strain amplitude am-
plitude the start of the region of internal friction, dependent on
strain amplitude (
kr1
), was recorded. At >
kr1
, the magnitude of
260
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 6.10. . 6.10. . 6.10. . 6.10. . 6.10. Temperature dependence of the first critical strain amplitude during
loading with a frequency of ~1 Hz.
increase of internal friction per unit increase of the strain amplitude
also changes.
Figure 6.10 shows that up to 400C
kr1
710
5
, and with in-
crease of temperature this value decreases exponentially so that at
550C
kr1
= 10
5
.
The experimental dependences of the internal friction on the
strain amplitude, determined on specimens of mild steel with the
same structure at a frequency of ~1 Hz and 23 kHz under the ef-
fect of a constant magnetic field or in its absence (Fig. 6.11 and
6.12) indicate that regardless of the different nature of loading and
the accuracy of the methods used, the curves Q
1
and Q
1

are similar.
The Q
1
curves, plotted at a loading frequency of 23 kHz
(Fig. 6.12) and <

kr1
shows the strain amplitude . Consequently,
in the range from to
kr1
we can see a slightly higher value of in-
ternal friction in comparison with that obtained at a loading fre-
quency of ~1 Hz and the corresponding method of determination of
internal friction in this region. The value was reproducible and ex-
ceeded the extent of scatter of internal friction values.
At >
kr1
or >

kr1
(
kr1
= 210
5
or
kr1
= 1.210
5
for a load-
ing frequency of ~1 Hz or 23 kHz at H = 0 and
kr1
= 710
5
, or
kr1
= 6. 410
5
at a l oadi ng frequency of ~1 Hz or 23 kHz at
H = 1.710
4
or 1.910
4
Am
1
) the curves show a strong depend-
ence of internal friction on strain amplitude. The position of the
261
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 6.11. . 6.11. . 6.11. . 6.11. . 6.11. Q
1
dependence at a loading frequency of ~1 Hz without the effect
of the magnetic field (solid lines) and with the effect of the field (broken fields)
indicating the Q
1
dependence and also changes of the internal friction background
at the second critical amplitude.
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 6.12. . 6.12. . 6.12. . 6.12. . 6.12. The Q
1
and E/E dependences at a loading frequency of 23
kHz without (solid lines) and with the effect of the magnetic field (broken lines).
kr1
can be recorded quite efficiently by the
measurements of E/E at a loading frequency of 23 kHz, because
the first values of E/E with a gradually increasing strain ampli-
tude are obtained at
kr1
.
262
The modified methods of internal friction measurements in the
range of the dependence of internal friction on strain amplitude (af-
ter determining the value of internal friction at we determined in-
ternal friction at = 510
6
, and this was followed by internal fric-
tion measurements at
x1

kr1
and again by internal friction meas-
urements at = 510
6
, etc.), we determined the strain amplitude at
which the internal friction background (Q
1
0
) increases irreversibly.
These strain amplitudes were denoted
kr2
or
kr2
; they represent the
strain amplitudes in the material. At a loading frequency of ~1 Hz
or 23 kHz,
kr2
= 3.410
4
at H = 1.710
4
, or 1.910
4
Am
1
.
The critical strain amplitude
kr2
was inspected at a loading fre-
quency of up of 1 Hz also by the method of zero shift on the scale
of the measuring device. Another method was applied at a loading
frequency of ~1 Hz as well as at 23 Hz Q
1
/ using Golovins
procedure. The results are in the top righthand corner of Fig.6.11.
At a loading frequency of 23 kHz the investigations were supple-
mented by microscopic examination of the specimens. The results
show that at >
kr2
the first slip lines appear on the surface of the
specimens [282]. These methods, characterising the second critical
strain amplitude, give, at both frequencies, the values in the range
from 210
4
to 310
4
.
The application of a sufficiently strong magnetic field to suppress
t he magnet omechani cal component of i nt ernal fri ct i on i n t he
ferromagnetic material for both loading frequencies decreases the
internal friction background, increases the critical strain amplitude
kr1
or
kr1
, decreases the width of the range between
kr1
and
kr2
, or
kr1
or
kr2
, and increases the value of
kr2
or
kr2
. The position of the
critical amplitude characterising the microplastic strain
kr2
or
kr2
can be efficiently recorded by all the given methods with the appli-
cation of the magnetic field to the loaded material.
In the independent experiments with the measurements of inter-
nal friction in mild steel, the authors of Ref. 249 determined the cy-
clic strain amplitude range characterised by the operation of differ-
ent energy scattering mechanisms at a frequency of ~1 Hz and 23
kHz, and showed that the evaluation criteria for the results are com-
parable.
Several methods were used to determine the cyclic strain ampli-
tudes at which microplastic deformation starts. On the basis of the
agreement of results it can be concluded that in cyclic loading of
mild steel in the annealed condition, without the magnetic field, the
cyclic strain amplitude is (3.56)10
4
.
263
The condensation temperature of the atmospheres of the solute el-
ements in the evaluated steel is ~425C.
The activation energy of occurrence of
kr1
or
kr2
at a loading
frequency of ~1 Hz is 24.1 or 16.7 kJmol
1
, and the activation en-
ergy of occurrence of
kr1
or
kr2
at a loading frequency of 23 kHz
is 16.2 or 13.6 kJmol
1
. The differences in the activation energies
of the occurrence of the critical amplitudes were interpreted by the
authors from the viewpoint of the differences in the shape and mo-
bility of the dislocation segments at the given loading frequencies.
The cycl i c pl ast i c response of t he mat eri al s i s si gni fi cant l y
influenced by many factors of the history of the specimens, espe-
cially by prior cyclic plastic deformation. Its effects can be effi-
ciently evaluated by measuring the internal friction and the defect
of the Young modulus [295].
6.2.3 Deformation history
In order to investigate the effect of prior cyclic microplastic defor-
mation on internal friction and changes of the dislocation density,
t he aut hor of t hi s book carri ed out [281] experi ment s on mi l d
unalloyed steel (0.07 wt.% C, 0.006 wt.% N, 0.27 wt.% Mn, 0.03
wt.% Si, 0.013 wt.% P, 0.018 wt.% S, 0.07 wt.% Cr), the ferrite
grain size was 0.022 0.004 mm.
In the preparation of the specimens with a diameter of 3 mm in
the central part, the specimens were annealed for 30 minutes at
200C in a shielding atmosphere. This was followed by chemical
polishing of the surface of the specimens. Symmetric cyclic load-
ing with a frequency of 23 kHz of the pullpush type with the strain
amplitude in the central part of specimens of 1 10
6
7 10
4
was carried out for 45 seconds, i.e. 110
6
load cycles. This was
accompanied by the measurements of internal friction Q
1
and rela-
tive changes of the Young modulus, the socalled defect of the
Young modulus E/E. The experiments were carried out at a tem-
perature of 21C, using a constant magnetic field with a strength of
1.910 Am
1
to eliminate the magnetomechanical component of the
internal friction in the ferromagnetic material. At a gradually in-
creasi ng st rai n ampl i t ude i n a seri es of speci mens, t he mai n
dependences Q
1
or E/E (Fig. 6.13, curves 1) were initially
determined. After evaluating the critical strain amplitudes, other
batches of the specimens were initially loaded with strain amplitudes
of
d
= 2.610,
d
= 3.510
4
,
d
5.110
4
,
d
= 6.510
4
for 120
seconds, representing 2.810
6
cycles; this was followed immediately
by gradual loading of the specimens from a strain amplitude of
264
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 6.13. . 6.13. . 6.13. . 6.13. . 6.13. Dependence of Q
1
for prestrained steel: 1)
d
= 0; 2) 2.6 10
4
, 3)
3.5 10
4
; 4) 5.1 10
4
; 5) 6.5 10
4
. The arrows pointing upwards indicate
kr2
and those downwards
kr2
, where
kr1
and
kr2
were determined from the occurrence
and changes of E/E in relation to .
110
6
to 710
4
, with simultaneous measurements of Q
1
, E/E, al-
ways for 45 seconds. This gave the corresponding dependences
Q
1
or E/E (Fig. 6.13, curves 2, 3, 4, 5).
The dependence of internal friction on strain amplitude for the
specimen series subjected to different cyclic prior deformation (Fig.
6.13) indicates that the form of the curves 14 is identical in a wide
strain amplitude range and the magnitude of prior cyclic deforma-
tion changes the rate of increase of Q
1
only at 1 5 10
4
.
Significantly different Q
1
dependences were obtained for the
specimens subjected to prior deformation at
d
= 6.5 10
4
(curve
5). The main value of internal friction slightly increases with in-
creasing
d
, but after the application of
d
= 6.5 10
4
the increase
of Q
1
0
i s si gni fi cant . Val uabl e i nformat i on on t he act i vat i on of
microplastic processes is provided by the measurements of the
defect of the Young modulus E/E. The first reproducibly deter-
mined values of E/E were obtained at relatively low values of
kr1
.
With the increase of the defect of the Young modulus slowly in-
creases, and after the application of certain strain amplitudes and
the increase of these amplitudes there was a significant increase of
E/E. Recording of the first values of E/E detects the strain am-
plitude at which the dislocation segments start to oscillate in the
265
stress field around the equilibrium positions (the first critical strain
amplitude
kr1
). The absolute values of internal friction and the
defect of the Young modulus are higher for the specimens subjected
to preliminary cyclic deformation at a higher strain amplitude.
In the case of mild steel in accordance with the experimental re-
sults [283] we can use the modelling assumptions of the vibration
of a spring for the vibration of dislocation segments around their
equilibrium positions in the quasiviscous environment. In this mod-
elling assumption, the ratio of the square of the defect of the Young
modulus and internal friction determines the instantaneous disloca-
tion density in the material using the equation [296]
2
1
,
E
E
k
Q
j \
, (
( ,

(6.27)
where k is a proportionality factor. In accordance with a large
number of experimental results, it is assumed that in lowcarbon
unalloyed steel after annealing = 10
12
m
2
. Cyclic prior deforma-
tion changes the dislocation density only when
d
>
kr2
. The incre-
ment of the strain amplitude =
kr2
in the microplastic region
of cyclic loading results in the increase of the dislocation density
by the value =
2
, where are the values of the strain am-
plitude and the dislocation density in the range >
kr2
, or >
2
,
and the values
kr2
,
2
are the second critical strain amplitude and
the initial dislocation density in the material. In the coordinates
log log the results were plotted in the form of straight lines
which can be described by the equation
,
m
a
(6.28)
and the values of the exponent m are also a function of the mag-
nitude of prior cyclic deformation of the material. The validity of
equation (6.28) indicates the process of irreversible changes in the
structure of the steel by the increase of dislocation density with
increasing strain amplitude.
In the range of the start of microplasticity ( >
kr2
) the increase
of is accompanied by an increase of the dislocation density and
of the magnitude of plastic internal friction Q
1
p
, indicating the
266
elasticplastic interaction of mechanical loading with structural
changes of the material, i.e. the existence and effect of the plastic
strain amplitude
p
. To a first approximation, it will be assumed that
2
.
p kr

(6.29)
The cyclic strain curve, stress amplitude
a
vs. the plastic strain
amplitude
p
, characterising the plastic response of the material to
cyclic loading, has the form
,
n
a p
(6.30)
where is a constant of the material that is sensitive to the struc-
ture and experimental conditions, and n is the cyclic strain harden-
ing exponent.
Using the equations (6. 28), (6. 29) and (6. 30), at >
kr2
, we
obtain the relationship between the stress amplitude and the increase
of the dislocation density in the form
,
n
m
a

(6.31)
where = a
(n/m)
. Subst i t ut i ng equat i on (6. 27) i nt o equat i on
(6.31), using the given symbols, we obtain the relationship between
stress amplitude
a
, the value of the effect of the Young modulus
E/E and the magnitude of internal friction Q
1
.
These equations and the values of exponent m, determined from
the experiments at the same value of the exponent n for mild steel
[297], with the change of the amplitude of prior strain
d
, yield
some qualitative and also quantitative relationships characterising
the cyclic plastic response of the material. At the selected value of
, the increase of the dislocation density
d
is more marked (equa-
tion 6.31, values m). These qualitative relationships indicate the
soft eni ng effect of cycl i c mi cropl ast i c deformat i on wi t h st rai n
amplitudes from 2.6 10
4
to 6.5 10
4
in the case of mild steel
in the region of the start of microplasticity; this has also been con-
firmed indirectly by other studies [279, 296].
The experimentally determined values of Q
1
(and also Q
1
0
, Q
1
p
),
E/E,
kr1
and
kr2
with the increase of the strain amplitude, after
prior cyclic loading of the steel, are the results of more or less ex-
267
tensive release of the dislocation segments from the area of weak
pinning by the atmospheres of C and N at the given prior strain am-
plitude. The processes taking place under the effect of
kr2
can
be interpreted in the sense of extensive microplastic deformation on
the basis of statistical considerations regarding the structural het-
erogeneity of the material.
The cyclic strain curve and its parameters are important for the
quantification of the cyclic plastic response of materials [298].
Measurements of internal friction and the defect of Young modulus
with the change of the strain amplitude also provide important in-
format i on i n t hi s area.
6.2.4 Cyclic strain curve
It has been shown in many studies that the plastic strain amplitude
is the controlling factor of fatigue damage and the formation and
propagation of static cracks. This amplitude can be characterised as
half width of the hysteresis loop of the material. In loading with
frequencies of up to 300 Hz the hysteresis loops are recorded by the
t est i ng machi ne, but at ul t rasound frequenci es (for exampl e,
approximately 20 kHz) direct measurements and recording is not
possible at the current state of measuring devices. Since the meas-
urement of internal friction and of the defect of the Young modu-
l us provi des i nformat i on on t he i nt egral represent at i on of t he
microplasticity process, these measurements can also be utilised in
the quantification of the plastic strain amplitude at ultrasound load-
ing frequencies.
Lowcarbon, unalloyed steel CSN 412013 (0.07 wt.% C, 0.27
wt.% Mn, 0.03 wt.% Si, 0.013 wt.% P, 0.08 wt.% S, 0.07 wt.% Cr
and 0.006 wt.% N) after annealing at 720C 20 hours for 4.25
and 108 hours with slow cooling in the furnace was characterised
by t he ferri t e grai n si ze of d
z1
= 0. 022 0. 044 mm or d
z2
=
0.29 0.045 mm, or d
z3
= 0.620 0.085 mm. After completion of
heat treatment, in order to carry out measurements in VTP equip-
ment, the specimens were annealed in Ar at 200C for 330 min. and
cooled in the furnace at a rate of 100C/h and, in the final stage,
subjected to chemical polishing.
Symmetric cyclic pullpush loading with a frequency of 23 kHz
in the central part of the specimens was applied by a resonant sys-
tem described in a previous study [282]. Equipment makes it pos-
sible to generate the total strain amplitude
ac
in the evaluated cross
section of the specimen in the range from 610
6
to 410
4
, with a
reproducibility better than 1.510
7
. The total strain amplitude
ac
268
was measured with strain gauges fixed to the essential part of the
specimens and evaluated using a Wheatstone bridge with a selective
nanovoltmeter. The calibration of the proportionality factor of the
strain gauges was measured by the deviation of the free end of the
system with an accuracy of 1 m, using TW5/2A sensors and
Vibrometer AG equipment with a frequency range from 0 to 100
kHz. The proportionality factor of the strain gauges at a loading
frequency of 23 kHz was 1.8 2%, whereas at the usual frequencies
the proportionality factor is 1.95 + 2%.
The stress amplitude in the central part of the specimen was
evaluated by approximation in accordance with Fig. 6.14. In the
elastic loading range = E
a
, and the value E (= tan ) is related
with the main resonance frequency fr. In the elasticplastic region
of loading (for example, point x in Fig. 6.14)
ax
= E
x
(
aex
+
apx
)
= E
x
acx
, and the value E
x
(= tan
x
) corresponds to the resonance
frequency of the system fr
x
. Consequently, E
x
= E E
x
, where E
x
is the change of the Young modulus associated with the microplastic
deformation of the specimen. These considerations show that the
stress amplitude, for example, at point x
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 6.14. . 6.14. . 6.14. . 6.14. . 6.14. Determination of relationship between stress and strain.
269
( )
1
x
ax acx x acx
E
E E E
E
j \

, (
( ,
(6.32)
and the amplitude of the plastic component of strain
.
ax x
apx acx acx acx acx
E
E E

(6.33)
The advantage of experimental equipment is that it makes it pos-
sible, at the selected value
ac
, to measure not only the magnitude
of internal friction Q
1
but also evaluate fr
x
and, in accordance with
Mason [299], determine directly
2
,
x x
E M fr fr
E M fr
(6.34)
where M and M
v
the effective mass of the entire system and of the
specimen. The measuring equipment and corrections made it possible
to evaluate
ac
with the accuracy of 110
6
and the changes of
ac
with a scatter of 1. 5 10
7
, the relative change of the Young
modulus with the accuracy of 6 10
4
and the changes are also
made by connecting strain gauges to the reduced section of the ti-
tanium attachment of the system at the distance of /4 from the end
of the attachment, in which no microplastic deformation took place
up to
ac
= 4 10
3
[299]. After evaluating the changes of the value
of the amplification factor in the central part of the specimens, the
author found that the agreement of the results determined by this ap-
proximation and by the direct measurement of the stress amplitude
is better than 98%.
The experiments were carried out at a temperature of 21C un-
der the effect of a constant magnetic field with an intensity of 1.9
10
4
A m
1
, parallel with the axis of the specimen. Series of the
specimens with the grain sizes of d
z1
, d
z2
, and d
z3
, were loaded
gradually with increasing strain amplitudes
ac
. At every selected
value of
ac
, the author determined internal friction Q
1
, the relative
change of the Young modulus E/E and, using equations (6.32) and
(6.33), also the stress amplitude
a
and plastic strain amplitude
ap
.
In calibration, it was observed that the loading of the specimens
for 1 hour wi t h
ac
= 6 10
4
does not cause any measurabl e
changes of the temperature of the specimen so that there cannot be
270
any changes of the Young modulus of the evaluated material as a
result of the change of the temperature of the specimen.
Measurement of every experimental point at
ac
= const was car-
ried out over a period of 100 s, which represents 2.30 10
6
of
loading, sufficient for the stabilisation of the changes of the prop-
erties of the material in the evaluated strain amplitude range.
The characteristic course of the changes of internal friction in re-
lation to the total strain amplitude (Fig. 6.15) showed the effect of
the ferrite grain size on the internal friction background, determined
at a low value
ac
, and the differences in the form of the Q
1

ac
dependence in the region of the dependence of Q
1
on strain ampli-
tude.
The relative change of the Young modulus E/E is recorded af-
ter obtaining certain values of
ac
, and rapidly increases with in-
crease of the total strain amplitude of the specimen. Conventionally,
the value
ac
resulting in a sharp increase of E/E, can be denoted
as the second critical strain amplitude
kr2
[294]. The values of
kr2
are the function of the size of the ferrite grain, i.e. the critical strain
amplitude decreases with increasing grain size (Table 6.3).
The intensity of the changes of E/E in relation to
ac
in the
range
ac
>
kr2
is higher in the case of steels with larger ferrite
grains. In the coordinates log E/E log
ac
, Fig. 6.15, the experi-
mental points fit straight lines so that the experimentally obtained
points can be expressed by the equation
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.6.15. .6.15. .6.15. .6.15. .6.15. Q
1
(solid lines) and E/E dependences (broken lines) for different
grain sizes: 1,1' ) 0.022 mm; 2,2' ) 0.290 mm; 3,3' ) 0.620 mm.
271
,
a
ac
E
A
E

(6.35)
where A is the constant that depends on the structure and experi-
mental conditions, a is the exponent with the values given in Table
6.3, with both factors dependent on the ferrite grain size.
The experimentally determined dependence of stress amplitude
a
on the total strain amplitude
ac
(Fig. 6.16) shows that the devia-
tion of the dependence from the straight line, determined by the
equation = E
ac
, starts in the case of specimens with different
ferrite grain sizes at different values of
ac
. The stress amplitude
vs. plastic strain amplitude cyclic curves, shown in Fig. 6.16, in-
dicate that the ferrite grain size has a significant effect on the form
of these dependences. The cyclic strain curves can be characterised
by equation (6. 30). Figure 6. 17 shows that the equation of the
cyclic strain curve is also fulfilled for a loading frequency of 23
kHz, with the values of the factor , given in Table 6.3. With the
increase of the ferrite grain size, the value of decreases from 0.41
to 0.32, with a simultaneous decrease of the value of the factor
from 9700 to 2700 MPa. The relationship between the stress ampli-
tude and the total strain amplitude has the form
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.6.16. .6.16. .6.16. .6.16. .6.16.
a

ac
(solid lines) and
a

ap
(broken lines) dependences for steels
with different ferrite grain size: 1, 1' ) 0. 022 mm; 2, 2' ) 0. 290 mm; 3, 3' ) 0. 620
mm.
272
T TT TTa aa aab bb bble 6.3 le 6.3 le 6.3 le 6.3 le 6.3 Experimentally determined exponents and factors of microplastic response
of steel with different ferrite grain size
l a i r e t a M
e z i s n i a r G
] m m [

r c 2
a
=
p a
n
n ] a P M [
h d c b a
l e e t S
3 1 0 2 1
2 0 . 0
9 2 . 0
2 6 . 0
0 1 3 . 1
4
0 1 0 . 1
4
0 1 3 . 7
5
0 0 7 9 0 1 4 . 0
0 0 4 4 7 5 3 . 0
0 0 7 2 0 2 3 . 0
0 6 2 . 3 2 9 0 . 1 0 3 . 2 3 1 3 . 1
0 1 6 . 3 0 9 7 . 0 0 6 . 2 5 9 . 0 1 6 6 . 1
7 1 9 . 3 2 3 7 . 0 7 9 . 2 7 6 9 . 1
i T
o M
b N
0 1 1 . 1
3
0 1 3 . 5
4
0 1 8 . 7
4
0 0 7 5 7 5 2 . 0
0 0 6 5 2 8 0 3 . 0
0 0 8 1 9 4 2 . 0
9 1 . 8 3 4 2 . 1 2 0 . 3 6 0 1 . 3
9 6 . 4 1 7 7 . 0 6 0 . 3 3 6 0 . 2
4 7 . 5 8 4 7 . 0 8 6 . 3 3 0 9 . 1
,
b
a ac
B
(6.36)
where B (= A
n
), b [= (a +1)n] are constants that depend on struc-
ture and experimental conditions, the value of n is the same for all
ferrite grain sizes examined (Table 6.3). The validity of equation
(6.36) is shown in Fig. 6.17.
The plastic strain amplitude in the range
ac
>
kr2
can be deter-
,
c
ap ac
C (6.37)
where C = (B/)
1/n
, c = b/n, or C = A, c = a + 1. The values C, c
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 6.17. . 6.17. . 6.17. . 6.17. . 6.17. Experimentally determined dependences of the microplasticity characteristics,
determined at a frequency of 23 kHZ for steel with different ferrite grain size:
solid lines 0.022 mm, broken lines 0.290 mm, dot-and-dash lines 0.620 mm.
273
are constants depend on the structure and experimental conditions,
and the values of exponent c are presented in Table 6.3. To a first
approximation, the reciprocal value of exponent c is comparable
with the value of the coefficient of cyclic strain hardening for the
evaluated ferrites grain sizes. The validity of equation (6.37) is
confirmed in Fig. 6.17, which also shows that the application the
selected value of
ac
results in a higher plastic strain amplitude in
a material with larger ferrite grains.
Int ernal fri ct i on i n t he st rai n ampl i t ude range resul t i ng i n
microplastic deformation (
ac
>
kr2
), referred to as plastic internal
friction Q
1
p
= Q
1
c
Q
1
k
, where Q
1
c
is the internal friction at the
selected value of
ac
, Q is the internal friction under the effect of
the critical strain amplitude, depends on
ap
(Fig. 6.17) in accord-
ance with the equation
1
,
d
p ap
Q D
(6.38)
where the values of the factors D, d depend on the ferrite grain size,
and the values of the exponent n are presented in Table 6.3. The re-
sultant dependences indicate the strong sensitivity of Q
1
p
on the fer-
rite grain size, because the same value of
ap
results in more exten-
sive scattering of mechanical energy in the material with a larger
ferrite grain. This scattering is associated with the movement and
generation of the dislocations.
Internal friction Q
1
p
can be expressed as the ratio of the energy,
scattered in a single load cycle W = F
ap
[300] (where F is the
characteristic of the shape of the hysteresis loop), to the total sup-
ply of energy W = 1/2 E
2
ac
. Consequently
1
2
,
2
p a ap
p
ac
F
W
Q
W E

(6.39)
where
p
is the friction decrement. If the equation for the cyclic
strain curve is substituted into equation (6.39], the plastic compo-
nent of the total strain can also be expressed by the equation in the
form
1
1
1
1
1
2 2
.
n
n
p p
ap ac ac
Q E E
F F
+
+ , ]

, ]

, ]
, ]

] , ]
]
(6.40)
274
In equation (6.40), the values Q
1
p
,
p
, F, , or depend on the
magnitude of
ac
and, consequently, on
ap
.
If t he equat i ons (6. 32), (6. 33) are subst i t ut ed i nt o equat i on
(6.39), by measurements of plastic internal friction and the relative
change of the Young modulus it is possible to determine, for the
selected values of
ac
, the factor characterising the shape of the hys-
teresis loop by the equation
1
2
2
.
p
Q
F
E E
E E
j \

, (
( ,
(6.41)
The area of the hysteresis loop in cyclic loading increases with
increasing total strain amplitude
ac
, i.e., with increasing
ap
. If we
use equation W = F
p
and equation (6.35), (6.37), we can ob-
tain the equation
,
h
ac
W H
(6.42)
where the values of the factors H, h increase with increase of the
ferrite grain size, as indicated in Table 6.3 using the value of the
exponent h as an example. The validity of equation (6.42) is illus-
t rat ed i n Fi g. 6. 17. The equat i on show t hat H = FA
n+1
, h =
(a + 1) (n + 1). If in derivation of equation (6.42) we use the equa-
tion (6.36), then H = F
1/n
B
(n+1)/n
, h = b(1 + 1/n).
Detailed evaluation of the experimental results show that none of
the factors and exponents in these equations changes its magnitude
in accordance with the HallPetch equation, i.e. in the region of
cyclic microplasticity of mild steel it is not possible to obtain the
linear dependence of any of these quantities on d
z
1/2
.
The increase of the main value of internal friction with increas-
ing grain size of the material in a wide range of strain amplitude
was also detected and interpreted by several authors [279, 280], like
the decrease of the values of the critical strain amplitude with in-
crease of the grain size. The activation of oscillations of the dis-
location segments, release of the dislocations from pinning areas,
and the generation of new dislocations and their movement after
exceeding the value
ac
>
kr2
require lower values of
ac
for the
specimens with larger ferrite grains. In the evaluated range of the
275
cyclic strain amplitude there is no largescale movement of the dis-
locations to the grain boundaries, and this is reflected in the fact
that none of the factors, characterising the microplastic response of
the material to cyclic loading with a frequency of 23 kHz, fulfils
the HallPetch equation. The validity of this equation is confirmed
in the majority of processes characterised by higher plastic strains,
for example, in the static tensile test or in fatigue test where the
specimens are loaded with stress amplitudes close to or higher than
the fatigue limit.
For identical steel loaded at a frequency of 70 Hz, = 835 MPa,
n = 0.156 [297]; these values are lower than those obtained at a
loading frequency of 23 kHz. The values of the microplastic strain
differ at the high loading frequency. The experimentally determined
and derived analytical dependences are exponential which increases
the importance of the amplitude of plastic strain
ap
in the fatigue
damage cumulation process.
When loading a material with a high frequency (for example, 23
kHz), the maximum value of
ap
is 3.5%
ac
in the evaluated strain
amplitude range. This is also consistent with the results of experi-
ments carried out on copper at a loading frequency of 21 kHz [301].
At usual loading frequencies, for example, 70 Hz [297], the frac-
tion of
ap
in the value
ac
is considerably higher, which means that
the same total strain amplitude
ac
results in far more intensive
microplastic processes in the material that in loading at a high load-
ing frequency.
The difference in the fraction of
ap
in the value of
ac
may be
associated with the greatly restricted time available for the move-
ment of dislocations over larger distances under the effect of the
given stress amplitude, with the fact that the stress field cannot be
relaxed by movement of dislocations over large distances, and with
the significant localisation of microplastic strains in loading the
material with a high frequency [281].
Equat i on (6. 40) forms a l i nk bet ween t he hi ghl y sensi t i ve
microplastic characteristic Q
1
p
or
p
, the shape of the hysteresis loop
F and the value of the ratio
ap
/
2
ac
, or the significant characteris-
tic of the material in cycling loading (n), which is included in the
general equation for the determination of the fatigue life of mate-
rials.
The results obtained in Ref. 302 indicate that the given approxi-
mation (equations 6.32, 6.33) provides the appropriate factors of cy-
clic microplasticity also for titanium (0.39 wt.% Al, 0.04 wt.% Fe,
0.04 wt.% Si and 0.0 wt.% Cr), molybdenum (0.09 wt.% Fe, 0.03
276
wt.% Si and trace amounts of Cu, Nb, Ni, Ca, Mg) and also for
niobium (0.25 wt.% Mg, 0.18 wt.% Ca, 0.07 wt.% Fe, 0.04 wt.%
Si and trace amounts of Ba, Mn), as presented in Table 6.3.
The cyclic strain curve and hardening of materials under repeated
loading are significantly influenced by temperature.
6.2.5 Temperature and cyclic microplasticity
Measurements of internal friction and the effect of the Young modu-
lus with the increase of strain amplitude provide important informa-
tion on the change of the response of the material to increasing tem-
perature, as shown in Ref. 303 by Pukr and Letko using a tita-
nium alloy.
Titanium alloy VT 31 (according to Russian standard GOST) is
a twophase creepresisting martensitic alloy with the following
chemical composition (in wt.%): 6.49 Al, 2.36 Mo, 1.47 Cr, 0.42
Fe, 0.24 Si, 0.03 C, balance titanium. Artificial ageing was carried
out at a temperature of 550C for 5 hours. After removing from the
furnace, the specimens were cooled in air. The microstructure con-
sisted of the grains of the phase and phase at a surface area
ratio of 1:1 in the form of equiaxed of globular formations, with-
out any distinctive boundaries of the initial phase. After this
treatment, the properties of the material at 20C were: R
m
= 1200
MPa, R
p
0.2 = 12 000 MPa, A
5
= 14.2%, Z = 52.3%.
Internal friction Q
1
and effect of the Young modulus E/E of the
VT 31 alloy were determined in equipment VTP, described in de-
tail in Ref. 304. For the experiments, equipment was fitted with a
furnace and facilities for supplying power to the furnace, and for
measuring and recording temperature. The VTP equipment operates
on the resonance principle; therefore, cylindrical specimens with two
heads and the cylindrical central part must also fulfil the resonance
condition. The measurements were taken at temperatures of 20, 200,
300, 400 and 550C, with a scatter of 1%. A change of the tem-
perature of the VT31 alloy results in the change of the velocity of
propagation of sound (v) and also the dynamic Young modulus (E
d
)
at a loading frequency of 23 kHz (Table 6.4). Therefore, the length
of the specimens was changed, whilst maintaining the given shape
of the specimens.
Experimental equipment VTP makes it possible to measure inter-
nal friction and the defects of the Young modulus in the total strain
amplitude range
ac
from 5 10
7
to 3 10
3
, also at elevated tem-
peratures, where the dimensions of the specimens are adapted in re-
lation to the resonance condition.
277
T TT TTa aa aab bb bble 6.4 le 6.4 le 6.4 le 6.4 le 6.4 Experimental values of VT3-1 alloy at 23 kHz and different test temperatures
In the measurements, the experiments were carried out with the
lowest suitable value of
ac
to higher values in such a manner that
measurements at every experimental point was carried out within 50
seconds, i.e. 1.15 10
6
load cycles.
The results of the measurements show that the characteristics of
the functional dependence Q
1
vs.
ac
do not change with increasing
temperature, Fig. 6. 18. The curves in the range of
ac
from 3
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.6.18. .6.18. .6.18. .6.18. .6.18. Dependence of internal friction on the strain amplitude of VT3-1 alloy
at 23 kHz and different temperatures.
y t i t n a u Q
C , e r u t a r e p m e T
0 2 0 0 2 0 0 3 0 0 4 0 5 5
v s m [
1
]
E
d
a P M ,
D
2
'
d'
D
2
A
a
] a P M [
R
8 6 0 5
0 1 4 1 . 1
5
0 1 9 0 . 1
3
7 3 1 . 0
0 1 3 5 3
3
7 4 . 3 4 2
7 7 7 . 1
0 1 6 5 . 1
4
0 6 3 . 0
5 0 9 4
0 1 7 0 . 1
5
0 1 4 6 . 1
3
0 8 1 . 0
0 1 2 . 5
3
5 0 . 0 3 4
2 6 7 . 1
0 1 7 1 . 1
4
1 6 3 . 0
0 5 7 4
0 1 1 0 . 1
5
0 1 9 3 . 2
3
6 9 1 . 0
0 1 6 2 4
3
6 6 . 9 3 7
9 7 7 . 1
0 1 4 . 9
3
0 6 3 . 0
0 4 6 4
0 1 5 9 . 0
5
0 1 5 0 . 1
3
3 6 0 . 0
0 1 3
3
0 0 . 2 5 8
3 9 7 . 1
0 1 2 . 8
3
6 5 3 . 0
0 4 4 4
0 1 7 8 . 0
5
0 1 8 4 9 . 0
3
7 7 0 . 0
0 1 4
3
1 9 . 2 3
4 1 2 . 1
0 1 7 . 1
3
8 4 4 . 0
278
10
5
to 2.5 10
3
show that the value Q
1
is independent of
ac
up
to
kr1
. This is the internal friction background Q
1
0
.
The values of
kr1
can be determined as the magnitude of
ac
at
which the defect of the Young modulus E/E is recorded for the
first time [304]. With the increase of
ac
to
kr1
and in further meas-
urements of Q
1
at
ac
<<
kr1
, for example at
ac
= 3 10
5
, the in-
ternal friction background does not change up to the value
ac
=
kr2
,
and then the value of Q
1
0
starts to change [281]. This method was
used to determine the values of
kr2
for all temperatures in the tests.
Between the values of
kr1
and
kr2
there is a slight dependence
of Q
1
on
ac
and at values above
kr2
the internal friction depends
in a significant manner on the value
ac
.
In the temperature range 20400C, the internal friction back-
ground of VT31 alloy gradually increases (Fig. 6.19), but at a tem-
perature of 550C there is an anomaly in the dependence of Q
1
on
T.
When test temperature is increased, the magnitude of the first
kr1
decreases (Fig. 6.19) in accordance with
the equation

kr x
J T
1 1
, (6.43)
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 6.19 . 6.19 . 6.19 . 6.19 . 6.19. Change of internal friction background and the first and second critical
strain amplitude in relation to temperature for VT3-1 alloy at 23 kHz.
279
where
4 7 1
1
4.1 10 , 4.23 10 C .
x
J

The increase of test temperature results in a faster decrease of
the second critical strain amplitude
kr2
than in the case of
kr1
(Fig.
6.19). The decrease of
kr2
with increasing temperature can be ex-
pressed by the equation
2 2
,
kr x
KT (6.44)
where
3 6 1
2
1.14 10 , 1.13 10 C .
x
K

Figures 6.18 and 6.19 show that increasing temperature decreases
the width of the range between
kr1
and
kr2
. At a test temperature
of 550C, the authors of Ref. 303 recorded anomalies in the tem-
perature dependence of
kr1
and
kr2
.
In the range of
ac
from
kr1
to
kr2
but also above
kr2
(to 2.5
10
3
), internal friction can be expressed analytically by the equation
1
2
,
d
ac
Q D

(6.45)
here D
2
, d' , or D
2
, d (for the range of
ac
from
kr1
to
kr2
, or
kr2
and higher) are the experimentally determined coefficients or expo-
nents, presented in Table 6.4.
With the increase of
ac
at a specific value of this amplitude, the
response of the material changes from elastic to elasticplastic,
reversible (
kr1
) up to the region of microplastic deformation (
kr2
).
This is reflected in the change of the resonance frequency of the
VTP system. After evaluating this change, it is possible to determine
the defect of the Young modulus of the experimental material E/
E [304] which reflects the integral cyclic microplasticity in the ex-
amined volume of the material.
The results of measurements of E/E with increasing
ac
at the
selected temperatures are presented in Fig. 6. 20. Measurements
made it possible to determine more accurately the value of
kr1
, be-
cause E/E is recorded only when this value is reached or exceeded.
The curves can be expressed analytically by equation (6.35). The
280
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 6.20. . 6.20. . 6.20. . 6.20. . 6.20. Change of the defect of the Young modulus on the total strain amplitude
of VT3-1 alloy at 23 kHz and different temperatures (arrows indicate the values
of
kr1
).
values of the factors of this equation are presented in Table 6.4.
Whilst in the temperature range from 20 to 400C, the value of a
is approximately 1.7, at a temperature of 550C it is already 1.2,
which reflects the anomaly in the behaviour of the initial material
at this temperature.
For every experimental point it is possible to determine
ac
and
E/E. Using equations (6.32) and (6.33), we can determine the val-
ues of stress amplitude
a
and the corresponding values of
ap
. The
results are shown graphically in Fig. 6.21. The cyclic strain curves
can be expressed in the form
a
=
n
ap
n
ap
, where or n is the
coefficient of proportionality of the exponent of the cyclic strain
curve. The values of these quantities for different temperatures are
presented in Table 6.4.
When the temperature is increased from 20 to 400C, the value
of decreases whereas n does not change, and at 550C the values
of and n greatly differ from their temperature dependence, ob-
tained in the given temperature range.
The results of the measurements show that increasing tempera-
281
ture results in a gradual increase of the internal friction background
of VT31 alloy in loading with a frequency of 23 kHz. The increase
of temperature during mechanical loading activates the process of
microplastic deformation also in the case of VT31 titanium alloy,
as indicated by the change of the values of
kr1
,
kr2
, which decrease
when the temperature is increased in the range 20400C.
The anomalous behaviour of the VT 31 alloy during tests at
550C is the result of changes of the microstructure of the alloy
which is stable up to 450C. After exposure of the alloy at 550C,
the structure shows a significant heterogeneity in the shape of the
and also phase. This is also associated with the fact that the
temperature of 550C is the processing temperature for the process
of ageing of this alloy and highintensity ultrasound greatly short-
ens the ageing nd coarsening time of the phases [305].
If we consider the accuracy of the measurements and interpreta-
tion of the results, Table 6.4 shows that the value of n does not
change when the temperature is increased in the range 20400C.
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 6.21 . 6.21 . 6.21 . 6.21 . 6.21. Cyclic strain curves of VT3-1 alloy at 23 kHz and different temperatures.
282
This is in agreement with the results which shows that at frequen-
cies of up to 300 Hz the increase of temperature in the range of
structural stability of the alloy results in no significant changes in
the shape and nature of the cyclic strain curve, but with the increase
of temperature the curve is displaced along the stress amplitude axis
[298].
The measurements of internal friction and the defect of the Young
modulus make it possible to evaluate the important microplastic
characteristics of the materials under different service conditions. It
is important to stress the fact that the results of measurements of
the microplasticity factors may be significantly influenced or even
overlapped by, for example, the magnetomechanical component of
internal friction when testing ferromagnetic materials.
6.2.6 Magnetic field and microplasticity parameters
Taki ng i nt o account sect i on 3. 6, i t may be not ed t hat t he
dislocational internal friction which depends on the strain amplitude,
being a frequencyindependent component, is the basis of a useful
indirect method used in many investigations for evaluating the
cycl i c pl ast i c response of t he mat eri al s, whereas t he second,
frequency-independent component, i.e. magnetomechanical damping,
in ferromagnetic materials may influence these results from both the
qualitative and quantitative viewpoint. Taking into account the link
between the extent of internal friction and the defect of the Young
modulus, it may be expected that magnetomechanical friction will
also influence the response of the material, characterised by the de-
fect of the Young modulus.
The magnet omechani cal component of i nt ernal fri ct i on i n
ferromagnetic materials can be suppressed by placing the component
or specimen in a unidirectional magnetic field with the intensity
causing the magnetically saturated state in the ferromagnetic mate-
rial. Consequently, the magnetomechanical component of internal
friction and the defect of the Young modulus can be separated from
the dislocational friction that depends on the strain amplitude. Tak-
ing into account different response of different alloys with differ-
ent fractions of the ferromagnetic phases, the minimum strength of
the external magnetic field required for obtaining magnetic satura-
tion differs.
Pukr [306] carried out a number of experiments to determine
experimentally the conditions for magnetic saturation and evaluate
the effect of the magnetic field on the extent of internal friction and
the defect of the modulus of elasticity of the CSN 412032.1 steel
283
in loading with a frequency of 22.9 kHz at different values of the
total strain amplitude.
Specimens of the shape and dimensions shown in Fig. 6.22, were
produced from 41 2032.1 steel with the following chemical compo-
sition, wt.%: 0.3 C, 1.2 Mn, 0.8 Cr, 0.15 V. The steel was in the
condition after normalizing annealing. After completing preparation,
the specimens were annealed at 500C, for 1 hour, in vacuum.
Internal friction Q
1
and the defect of the Young modulus E/
E in relation to the total strain amplitude
ac
, at
ac
= const, dur-
ing measurements at a specific point, were determined in automatic
equipment for internal friction measurements VTPA (VSDS Tech-
nical University), described in Ref. 155. The experiments were car-
ried out at a temperature of 22C. The specimens were loaded in
symmetric pullpush loading at a frequency of approximately 22.9
kHz.
In contrast to the measurements taken on non-ferromagnetic
materials, specimens of 12032.1 steel were placed in a coil with the
shape and dimensions shown in Fig. 6.22. The coil contained 1000
turns of copper wire, diameter 0.5 mm. When measuring the depend-
ence of the intensity of the magnetic field H of the coil in relation
to the intensity of direct current I
j
, the author used the Hall probe,
placed in the centre of a central circular hole in the coil, when the
specimen was not in the coil. The dependence of H on I
s
is shown
in Fig. 6.23. To determine the conditions of saturation of specimens
of 12032.1 steel, after placing the specimen in the hole in the coil,
the author used the circuit shown in Fig. 6.22. The stabilised source
of direct current Z with the possibility of regulating the intensity of
direct current (transformer 220 V/0.7 V) was used. The ohmic re-
sistance of 1 is characterised by a voltage loss, and the measur-
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 6.22. . 6.22. . 6.22. . 6.22. . 6.22. Circuit of connection of the coil, shape and dimensions of the specimens
and the shape and dimensions of the coil used in the experiments.
284
ing equipment gives the intensity of alternating current I
s
. Another
measuring equipment controls the intensity of alternating voltage U
s
.
The circuit makes it possible to determine the dependence of direct
current I
j
on the value of the ratio of alternating voltage U
s
and al-
ternating current I
s
. With the gradual increase of I
j
, the ratio U
s
/I
s
does not initially change. In a specific range of I
j
(from 0.2 A to
0. 5 A), t he rat i o decreases. At val ues hi gher t han I
j
0. 5 A,
increase of I
j
to 2 A no longer causes any changes in this ratio.
Measurements of the magnetic field show that I
j
> 0.5 A in the
given coil with the inserted ferromagnetic core of the given shape
and dimensions causes complete magnetic saturation (Fig. 6.23).
Therefore, for the given arrangement, I
j
0.5 A and H = 8 000
Am
1
is sufficient for the magnetic saturation of the specimens of
the given shape, dimensions and material.
The measurement procedure used in VTPA equipment is based
on the measurement of Q
1
and E/E at 30 different values of
ac
from the total strain amplitude range from 1.1 10
6
to 7 10
4
,
by applying, at each measurement point, the selected value of
ac
during 300 s, followed by selection of a higher value of
ac
. The
specimen was placed in the coil (Fig.6.22) through which the regu-
lated direct current I
j
passed; the intensity of the current was such
that the intensity of the magnetic field in the coil without the speci-
men was H = 0, 800, 1600, 2400, 3200, 4000, 4800, 6400, 9600,
12800, 16000 and 19200 Am
1
, at a temperature of 22C.
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 6.23. . 6.23. . 6.23. . 6.23. . 6.23. Saturation characteristic of the coil, determined by the dependence
U
s
/ I
s
(solid line) and the dependence of the intensity of the magnetic field H
on the intensity of direct current supplied to the coil I
j
(broken line).
U
S
/
I
S
I
J
, A
H
1
0
3
,

A

m
1
285
The results of measurements show that the internal friction back-
ground Q
1
0
changes only slightly with the change of the intensity of
the magnetic field H: increasing H decreases Q
1
0
(Fig. 6.24). At
ac
> 10
5
, the value of Q
1
at H = 0 rapidly increases. At
ac
=
2 10
4
and it reaches the maximum and then slowly decreases with
increasing
ac
. This qualitative description is similar for the values
of H of up to 6400 Am
1
. For higher intensities of the magnetic
field H (from 9600 to 19200 Am
1
), the form of the dependence
Q
1
vs
ac
is identical, i.e. the value of Q
1
continuously increases
with increasing
ac
. The slow decrease of Q
1
after reaching the
maximum value, in the loglog coordinates, is probably the indica-
tion that the tested ferromagnetic material is not examined in the
magnetically saturated condition.
The dependence of Q
1
on H (Fig. 6.25) shows that with increase
of H the value of Q
1
, determined at different values of
ac
, initially
decreases, and the magnitude of the decrease is a function of the
value of
ac
. At H 9600 Am
1
, the value of Q
1
no longer changes
and, consequently, this phenomenon is independent of the value of
ac
. The results show that the contribution of magnetomechanical
friction to the total value of internal friction depends on the total
strain amplitude and increases with increasing
ac
. The experimen-
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 6.24. . 6.24. . 6.24. . 6.24. . 6.24. Dependence Q
1
of 12 032. 1 steel under the effect of magnetic
field of different intensity.
286
tal results also show that the component of magnetomechanical fric-
tion can be suppressed in cases in which the intensity of the mag-
netic field in the coil with the given characteristics is H = 9600
Am
1
, for the specimens of the given shape and dimensions and
made of 12032.1 steel. For practical purposes, the value almost
100% higher is used, i.e. the value of H of approximately 20 000
Am
1
.
Figure 6.26 shows that the defect of the Young modulus is the
function of not only the total strain amplitude but also of the inten-
sity of the magnetic field. With increasing H 9600 A m
1
, the
increase of the intensity of the magnetic field has no longer any
effect on this dependence.
In a number of investigations, the criterion for the determination
of the second critical strain amplitude
kr2
is represented by the
value
ac
at which the dependence E/E vs.
ac
rapidly increases
[302]. For the purposes of this chapter of the book, this character-
i st i c wi l l be denot ed by
2
, because i n measurement s on
ferromagnetic materials this characteristic is not exclusively asso-
ci at ed wi t h cycl i c mi cropl ast i c deformat i on but al so wi t h t he
magnetomechanical response of the material. This conclusion results
from the comparison which shows that the value of "
2
" increases
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 6.25. . 6.25. . 6.25. . 6.25. . 6.25. Dependence of internal friction on the intensity of the magnetic field
of 12 032.1 steel at different total strain amplitudes.
287
with the increase of the intensity of the magnetic field H up to H
= 9600 Am
1
, and from the values of H 9600 Am
1
the increase
of H has no longer any effect of the value of "
2
", Table 6.5.
The E/E H dependence, Fig. 6.26, indicates that the value of
the defect of the Young modulus at a specific value of H is higher
at higher values of
ac
. With increasing H the value of E/E initially
decreases, until H reaches approximately 9600 Am
1
. With a fur-
ther increase of H the value of E/E no longer changes, in the en-
tire range of 0 current of the defect of the Young modulus.
In the loglog representation, using the intensity of the magnetic
field lower than H = 9600 A m
1
, the experimental dependences
E/E
ac
have the form of curves, but at H 9600 Am
1
, the
straight lines overlap (Fig. 6.26). If it is assumed that the curves
E/E
ac
at H < 9600 Am
1
are replaced by the straight lines, the
experimental dependences can be expressed by the equation (6.35).
The determined characteristics a, presented in Table 6.5, show
that with increase of the intensity of the magnetic field the value of
a increases up to H 9600 Am
1
, and it then remains constant. The
comment on the conventional notation "
2
" also relates to the val-
ues of A, a, with the exception of the case in which the steel is al-
ready i n t he magnet i cal l y sat urat ed condi t i on, i . e. H 9600
Am
1
.
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 6.26 . 6.26 . 6.26 . 6.26 . 6.26. Dependence of the defect of the Young modulus on the intensity of
the magnetic field for 12 032.1 steel under the effect of the magnetic field of
different intensity H 10
3
(A m
1
).
288
T TT TTa aa aab bb bble 6.5 le 6.5 le 6.5 le 6.5 le 6.5 Change of characteristics of 12 032.1 steel with change of the intensity
of the magnetic field
In accordance with the approximation for the determination of the
pl ast i c st rai n ampl i t ude
ac
and st ress ampl i t ude
a
i n hi gh
frequency loading [302], these quantities can be quantified by the
equations (6.32) and (6.33). The cyclic strain curve is defined by
equation (6.30). Comparison of the experimental data gives the val-
ues of , n (Table 6.5). It can be seen that the increase of the in-
tensity of the magnetic field H results in a decrease of the value of
n from 0.60 for H = 0 to 0.3 at H 9600 Am
1
, and the value of
also decreases.
Figure 6.23 and also 6.24 and 6.26 show that magnetic satura-
tion of the given specimen of 12032.1 steel in the coil, used in the
investigations, takes place up to the intensity of passing direct cur-
rent I
j
= 0.5 A, which corresponds to H = 8 000 Am
1
in the coil
without the ferromagnetic core. The form of the curves in Fig. 6.25
and 6.27 shows that at H > 9600 Am
1
the value of Q
1
or E/E
shows no longer any measurable changes with the increase of H at
different values of
ac
. The conventionally quoted intensity of the
magnetic field for suppressing the magnetomechanical component of
friction of 20000 Am
1
[2] is consequently a safe value of H for
obtaining guaranteed saturation in coils of different shapes, with dif-
ferent technically required air gaps, for the specimens with differ-
ent cross sections and dimensions, and also for steels with differ-
ent fractions of the ferromagnetic phases. When evaluating the
engineering properties of the materials with the ferromagnetic phase,
the intensity of internal friction is significantly higher than in the
case in which the magnetomechanical component is suppressed by
H 0 1
3
m . A (
1
)
"
2
" . A 0 1
3
a ) a P M ( n
0
8 . 0
6 . 1
4 . 2
2 . 3
0 . 4
8 . 4
4 . 6
8 . 2 1 ; 6 . 9
2 . 9 1 ; 6 1
0 1 7 . 3
6
0 1 3 . 5
6
0 1 3 . 1
5
0 1 1 . 2
5
0 1 5 0 . 3
5
0 1 0 . 4
5
0 1 8 . 5
5
0 1 1
4
0 1 4 . 2
4
3 1 5
4 9 0 2
0 3 2
9 0 2
2 4 4
0 1 2
4 2 2
0 1 2
2 1 2
4 6 3 7 . 0
1 8 5 7 . 0
6 8 1 8 . 0
1 5 5 8 . 0
7 5 8 8 . 0
5 9 0 9 . 0
1 4 4 9 . 0
0 0 0 0 . 2
3 5 0 1 . 2
3 7 8 3 8 3
1 6 3 1 2 3
5 5 8 7 0 2
8 8 6 2 4 1
0 5 0 7 0 1
1 2 5 0 8
2 2 8 7 5
7 6 6 6 4
9 7 6 0 1
9 3 0 6 . 0
9 8 8 5 . 0
6 9 4 5 . 0
0 0 2 5 . 0
2 6 9 4 . 0
4 4 7 4 . 0
6 6 4 4 . 0
6 6 1 4 . 0
6 8 1 4 . 0
289
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig. 6. 27. . 6. 27. . 6. 27. . 6. 27. . 6. 27. Dependence of the defect of the Young modulus on the intensity of
the magnetic field for 12 032.1 steel at different total strain amplitudes.
the external direct magnetic field. Consequently, it is then possible
to evaluate the cyclic plastic response of the material on the basis
of the component of dislocational friction which depends on the
strain amplitude. On the other side, heating of the material is pro-
portional to the area of the hysteresis loop, and its formation is
determined not only by the dislocational friction component, which
depends on the strain amplitude Q
1
, but also the component of

magnetomechanical friction Q
1
m
. The total internal friction is Q
1
c
=
Q
1
+ Q
m
1
. Measurements show [306] that Q
m
1
also depends on the
magnitude of
ac
and, consequently, it can significantly overlap the
values of Q
1
in a wide range of
ac
. The magnetomechanical com-
ponent of friction, associated with the direction of the orientation
of magnetisation in domains and with the movement of Bloch walls
under repeated loading of ferromagnetic materials, represents by its
contribution a significant part of the total internal friction of steel
Q
1
c
. For example, at
ac
= 3 10
4
, Q
c
1
= 1. 6 10
3
, but Q
1
=
4 10
4
, which means that the contribution from the magneto-
mechanical component of friction is Q
m
1
= 1.2 10
3
.
The measurements also show that the defect of the Young modu-
lus in ferromagnetic materials has two components, i.e. (E/E)
c
=
(E/E)

+ (E/E)
m
. One of these components is associated with the
magnetomechanical processes in the material (E/E)
m
and the other
290
one with the generation and interaction of the dislocations in the
material, i.e., with the cyclic microplastic deformation (E/E). Be-
low
ac
= 2.4 10
4
, the material shows mainly the component (E/
E)
m
and its value is approximately an exponential function of the
value of
ac
. The conventionally denoted characteristic "
2
" can be
regarded as t he t hreshol d st rai n ampl i t ude at whi ch t he
magnetomechanical mechanism of interaction of repeated loading
with the ferromagnetic material at different intensities of the exter-
nal magnetic field is activated (6.5).
Also, at
ac
> 2.4 10
4
, the (E/E)
m
component is significantly
higher than the component (E/E)
. For example, at
ac
> 3 10
4
the value of (E/E)
m
at H = 0 is 2.04 10
3
, and the value of (E/
E)
at H = 19200 Am
1
is 1.4 10
4
.
These considerations show that the determination of the actual
second critical strain amplitude
kr2
at which the process of cyclic
microplastic deformation starts, is determined by fulfilling the con-
dition of complete suppression of the magnetomechanical mechanism
of scattering of energy in the ferromagnetic material.
Using this comment in characterisation of the cyclic strain curve
(equations 6.32, 6.33 and 6.30) shows that after complete magnetic
saturation, i.e. when H 9600 Am
1
, n = 0.30 at a loading fre-
quency of 22.9 kHz. For steels with a similar content of carbon and
other elements, at a loading frequency of approximately 100 Hz,
n = 0.100.20 [307]. The results of our measurements and process-
ing of results should be critically reviewed especially from the view-
point of the time required to measure every experimental point,
because it is likely that changes of the properties in relation to the
loading time are of the saturation nature and loading for 300 s is
too short to stabilise the changes of the properties at a loading fre-
quency of approximately 2.9 kHz.
6.2.7 Saturation of cyclic microplasticity
Changes of the dislocation structure and mechanical properties of
the materials under repeated mechanical loading with stress ampli-
tude lower than the yield limit are of the saturation nature, which
means that after a certain number load cycles they no longer change
with their increase at a specific stress amplitude [298]. The satu-
ration characteristics, expressing a certain part of the cyclic plas-
tic response of the material in relation to the number load cycles,
at conventional loading frequencies are characterised in many stud-
ies [307], and it has been shown that they differ for different groups
of the materials [298, 307]. Measurements and evaluation of the
291
coefficient of cyclic strain hardening, present in the equation of the
cyclic strain curve, also depend on the assumption that the response
of the material will be evaluated only after stabilising the changes
of the properties in relation to the number of cycles.
These results can be verified by measurements of internal fric-
tion and the defect of the Young modulus in relation to the loading
time, as carried out in a study by Pukr [284].
Bars made of electrically conducting copper, purity 99. 98%,
R
p
0.2 = 37 MPa, R
m
= 220 MPa, were annealed at 600C/h, 850C/
h or 1050C/h in vacuum. The resultant grain size of the specimens
was z
1
= 0.062 mm, the dynamic modulus of elasticity E = 1.387
10
5
MPa, the grain size z
2
= 0.250 mm, E = 1.274 10
5
MPa,
or the grain size z
3
= 0.707 mm, E = 1.263 10
5
MPa.
Experiments were carried out using equipment for measuring in-
ternal friction and the defect of the Young modulus VTPA (VSDS
Technical University, Zilina) with completely automatic control,
measurements and processing of the measurement results [155].
Equipment loads the specimens with symmetric pullpush loading
with a frequency of approximately 22.9 kHz (R = 1), with the con-
trolled total strain amplitude
ac
which was 2 10
7
to 3 10
4
in
the given case. The advantage of completely automatic equipment is
that the measurement of a single point can be carried out in a very
short time of 6 s and, consequently, it is also possible to evaluate
the time dependence of the values of internal friction Q
1
and the
defect of the Young modulus E/E at the selected value
ac
. The ac-
curacy of measurement in this equipment at Q
1
= 10
3
is 10
2
per-
cent, and at E/E = 10
3
is 10
4
%.
The first critical strain amplitude
kr1
was determined as
ac
at
which the defect of the Young modulus of approximately 10
4
is
detected for the first time [302], since the high accuracy of meas-
urements gives nonsystematic changes of the quantity at E/E <
10
4
.
The value of the second critical stress amplitude
kr2
, which can
be determined by the currently available methods (see section 6.1.2),
was the determined by a new method described later, since the cur-
rently available methods are suitable in most cases for materials in
which the dislocations are strongly pinned by the solute atoms; this
is not typical of copper [293]. All the measurements were taken dur-
ing loading of the specimens in air at a temperature of 22 1C.
The experimental dependences, presented in Fig. 6.28, show that
the form of the curves Q
1

ac
and E/E
ac
for the given grain
size of copper is very similar. The internal friction background, i.e.
292
1
(solid lines) and E/E (broken lines) dependences for copper
with different grain sizes, where triangles refer to
kr1
and squares to
kr2
.
Q
1
at low values of
ac
, for example 2 10
7
, decreases with in-
creasing grain size of copper. The values of the first critical strain
amplitude
kr1
increase with increasing grain size of copper (Fig.
6.28 and Table 6.6). The second critical strain amplitude
kr2
(Fig.
6.28 and Table 6.6) also increases with increasing grain size of
copper. The form of the E/E
ac
curve indicates that the dynam-
ics of increase of E/E in relation to
ac
is steeper in the case of
the copper specimens with the larger grain size. The curves shown
in Fig. 6.28 were obtained after loading the specimens for 500 s,
which represents approximately 1.2 10
7
cycles, i.e. after the satu-
ration of the changes of the properties.
At every experimental point (1 11 in Fig. 6.29) we recorded the
dependence of Q
1
or E/E on loading time . The schematic rep-
resentation of these dependences in the graph, Fig. 6.29, shows that
the dependence of Q
1
on loading time (solid lines) is not system-
atic and, consequently, is difficult to interpret in this stage of in-
vestigations. The dependence of E/E on loading time (broken
lines), which is more important from the viewpoint of cyclic micro-
plasticity, is, up to a specific value of
ac
negative or decreases with
loading time.
However, from a specific value of
ac
the form of the E/E
293
1
(solid lines), E/E (broken lines), Q
1
and E/E dependences
(inserts 111) dependences for copper with a grain size of 0.250 mm in loading
with a frequency of 23 kHz.
curves is identical (from point 4 and higher) with the course of the
changes at the saturation of the characteristics. This amplitude of
the total strain is denoted as the second critical strain amplitude
kr2
.
The physical meaning of this characteristic is such that at
ac

kr2
the cyclic microplastic deformation of copper starts and the changes
of the mechanical characteristics (E/E) are saturated in the exam-
ined range.
The tangent to the origin of the saturation curve (dependence 5
in Fig. 6.29) intersects with the horizontal to the saturation value
E/E at the point which determines the time
1
. The triple value of
1
determines the saturation time
s
(analogy with magnetic satura-
tion). Consequently, for each value of
ac
>
kr2
we obtained a set
of data on the saturation time
s
, and, consequently, on the number
of cycles of loading in saturation N
s
(=
s
f, were f is the resonance
frequency in measurement of the selected point) determined at the
selected values of
ac
, and also the values (E/E )
z
at the beginning
of saturation ( = 8 s) and at the end of saturation (E/E)
k
. This
294
shows that it is possible to determine (E/E)
s
= (E/E)
k
(E/E)
z
.
Evaluation of the relationships between the change of the defect
of the Young modulus in the relationship between the change of the
defect of the Young modulus in relation to time of the number of
load cycles N at the selected values of
ac
can be expressed analyti-
cally by equation (6.5). Evaluation of the value of the parameter a
showed that its magnitude depends on the value of
ac
. The depend-
ence can described by the equation in the form
,
b
ac
a B
(6.46)
where B, b are the experimentally determined parameters. The val-
ues of parameter b are presented in Table 6.6. It can be seen that
the increase of the grain size increases the rate of increase of the
defect of the Young modulus in relation to the number of load cy-
cles. It can also be seen that the increase of the value of
ac
in-
creases the rate of increase of E/E in relation to the number of
load cycles.
The magnitude of the increase of the defect of the Young modulus
(E/E)
s
in relation to the number of load cycles at saturation N
s
at
ac
>
kr2
can be expressed in the form
,
C
s
s
E
C N
E
j \

, (
( ,
(6.47)
where the values of C, c for different grain size of copper are pre-
sented in Table 6.6. The increase of the defect of the Young modu-
lus increases with increasing number of load cycles at saturation.
The number of load cycles resulting in the saturation of the
changes of the properties of copper with different grain size N
s
de-
pends on the total strain amplitude. The analytical form of the de-
pendence is
3
,
d
s ac
N D
(6.48)
where D
3
, d are the characteristics presented in Table 6.6. The ex-
perimental results show that the increase of the total strain ampli-
tude increases the number of load cycles resulting in the saturation
of the changes of the properties of copper, and this increase be-
295
comes smaller with increasing grain size of copper.
From equations (6.47) and (6.48) we obtain a quantitative cor-
relation between the increase of the defect of the modulus of elas-
ticity during saturation and the total strain amplitude used in load-
ing. The equation has the following form
,
h
ac
s
E
H
E
j \

, (
( ,
(6.49)
where H = CD
c
and h = cd, with the values presented in Table 6.6.
From the approximation for the calculation of the stress ampli-
tude
a
and the plastic strain amplitude
ap
, which uses the results
of measurements of the defect of the Young modulus at specific
values of
ac
indicates that the equations (6.32) and (6.33) are valid
in this case.
The experimental measurements show that the values of E/E at
a certain value of
ac
differ at the start of the loading process (de-
noted by z) and after saturation of the changes of the properties (de-
noted by s).
Processing of the results of measurements using equations (6.32)
and (6.33) shows that as a result of the processes taking place dur-
ing saturation, the cyclic strain curves is displaced to the right, i.e.
to higher values of
ap
at a specific value of
a
. The dependence can
be expressed by the equation (6.30). The results show that the val-
T TT TTa aa aab bb bble 6.6 le 6.6 le 6.6 le 6.6 le 6.6 Characteristics of the cyclic microplasticity of copper with different
grain sizes
e z i s n i a r G
] m m [

r k 1

r k 2
b C c D
3
d
z
1
2 6 0 . 0 =
z
2
0 5 2 . 0 =
z
3
7 0 7 . 0 =
0 1 7 0 . 8
7
0 1 6 7 . 1
6
0 1 0 9 . 2
6
0 1 1 . 5
6
0 1 9 . 5
6
0 1 8 . 9
6
3 5 4 . 0
9 9 5 . 0
2 3 8 . 0
0 1 5 . 2
5 1
0 1 5 . 8
4 1
0 1 7 . 9
7 2
7 6 . 1
7 1 . 2
6 1 . 3
0 1 0 . 1
0 1
0 1 9 . 6
9
0 1 1 4 . 1
9
0 5 7 . 0
2 6 6 . 0
2 8 4 . 0
e z i s n i a r G
] m m [
h

z
] a P M [
n
z

s
] a P M [ n
s
z
1
2 6 0 . 0 =
z
2
0 5 2 . 0 =
z
3
7 0 7 . 0 =
0 1 5 5 . 4
4
0 1 2 . 2
8
5 . 3 2 3
2 5 2 . 1
6 3 4 . 1
3 2 5 . 1
0 5 4 3 5
0 5 7 6 3
0 9 8 4 2
4 9 5 . 0
7 6 5 . 0
4 5 5 . 0
0 2 6 3 5 4
5 2 3 9 2
0 2 6 2 2
6 8 5 . 0
6 5 5 . 0
9 4 5 . 0
296
ues of , n for the start of loading and after saturation differ (Ta-
ble 6.6). Increasing loading time decreases the cyclic strain hard-
ening coefficient. Copper with the larger grain size is characterised
by a lower value of the cyclic hardening coefficient, both at the
start of loading or at saturation of the changes of the properties.
In order to obtain saturation in the examined strain amplitude
range, the number of load cycles at a loading frequency of 22.9 kHz
is approximately 1 10
7
.
The process of cyclic microplastic deformation is not concen-
trated only at the grain boundaries but is also associated with the
generation and interaction of the dislocations inside the grain. This
explains why the values of
kr1
,
kr2
increase with increasing grain
size. The behaviour of the internal friction background is reversed;
this may be associated with the relaxation processes taking place at
the grain boundaries which contribute to the extent of internal fric-
tion. The dependence of the changes of the properties of the mate-
rial on the number of load cycles is the same as under conventional
loading frequencies [307], although the detailed examination and
analytical description provide new information. During saturation,
with increasing grain size of copper, i.e. with increasing space in
which dislocation interaction takes place, the change of the defect
of the Young modulus becomes larger with increasing number of
load cycles; this associated with the fact that the magnitude of
E/E is the manifestation of the integral cyclic microplasticity in
the elementary volumes of the material. The increase of the number
of load cycles with the saturation of the changes of the properties
results in increase of the difference between the value of the defect
of the Young modulus at the beginning and end of loading; this re-
lationship is associated with the result which shows that increas-
ing total strain amplitude requires a larger number of load cycles
for obtaining saturation.
The coefficient of cyclic strain hardening of copper is, accord-
ing to Ref. 308, the same at frequencies of 100 Hz and 20 kHz, i.e.
n = 0.205, and according to Ref. 309 it is n = 0.209, with the val-
ues of n determined at the stress amplitude higher than the fatigue
limit of copper. Our experiments and approximation indicate that n
z
or n
s
decreases with increasing grain size, and the values of n de-
crease with increase of the number of load cycles; it should also be
added that these characteristics were obtained at stress amplitudes
lower than the fatigue limit of copper.
The number of load cycles for obtaining the saturated state of the
changes of the properties in the examined strain amplitude range is
297
approximately 1 10
7
cycles which, at the usual loading frequen-
ci es, i s approxi mat el y 1 10
6
cycl es [307]. Thi s di fference i s
caused by the fact that the ratio
ap
/
ac
at the high loading frequency
is very low in comparison with loading at the conventional loading
frequencies and the damaging defect is exerted mainly by the plas-
tic strain amplitude.
6.3 FATIGUE DAMAGE CUMULATION
When processing the results obtained in this chapter, it can be as-
sumed that the measurement of internal friction and the defect of the
Young modulus with increasing total strain amplitude in the range
above
kr2
provide new possibilities for finding the relationship be-
tween the critical strain amplitude and the rate of changes of the
characteristics of the materials and their macroplastic behaviour
during fatigue loading.
6.3.1 Hypothesis on the relationship of Q
1
and

a
N
f
dependences
When examining the limiting state of the materials and components
[1], it is also useful to include a new concept. The degradation
process in the material or a component is a timedependent proc-
ess resulting in a change (often for the worse) of the applied prop-
ert i es of t he mat eri al as a resul t of t he occurrence of i nt ernal
changes and due to the effect of external factors or their synergic
effect [310]. A suitable example of the limiting state of the mate-
rial is fatigue of the material under mechanical loading, and a good
example of the degradation process is the internal response of the
material to external loading in the region of inelasticity and also
microplasticity in this region.
The inelastic behaviour of the material is associated with many
processes causi ng t hat Hookes l aw i s not ful fi l l ed i n t he
submicroscopic dimensions or in the entire volume of the solid, i.e.
the magnitude of deformation is not directly proportional to the
magnitude of acting stress. The quantification of the representation
of inelasticity under static and quasistatic loading, taking into ac-
count the fact that the relaxation time is short in comparison with
the loading time, is demanding from the experimental viewpoint but
can be accomplished by direct methods.
In cyclic or repeated loading, depending on the ratio of relaxa-
tion time to the loading time in the same direction, a situation may
arise in which direct examination is not yet possible. Consequently,
it is necessary to use indirect methods and also appropriate models
298
for the interpretation of the behaviour of the material.
For mild steel, Ivanova [311] proposed to divide the process of
fatigue damage cumulation up to fatigue failure in the highcycle
fatigue region to several stages. Pukr [24] included this proposal
in the general model for explaining the fatigue curve. Range a
(6.30b) characterises the incubation period of the fatigue process,
range b is the region of nucleation of submicroscopic cracks and
their propagation, range c is the range of propagation of the fatigue
crack, and range d the region of increase of the extent of the final
fracture of the specimen. The fatigue diagram also shows the lines
corresponding to the fatigue limit
C
, the limit of cyclic sensitivity
Cc
and the limit of cyclic elasticity
Ce
[311].
If the fatigue curve (Fig. 6.30b) is shown together with the de-
pendence of internal friction and the defect of the Young modulus
on the total strain amplitude (Fig. 6.30a), it is possible to determine
a certain phenomenological relationship between the values of the
critical strain amplitudes and the given fatigue characteristics.
The physical metallurgical similarity of the interpretation of the
ranges up to and above
kr1
,
kr2
,
kr3
and the ranges of , after con-
version of the values of
kr2
and
kr3
to
apkr2
and
apkr3
using equa-
tion (6.33), enabled the author of this book to formulate the hypoth-
esis on the mutual relationship of the characteristics using the fol-
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.6.30. .6.30. .6.30. .6.30. .6.30. Dependence of change of Q
1
, E/E on total strain amplitude (a) and
part of the Whler curve.
299
lowing equations:
1
,
Ce d ke
E (6.50)
2
,
n
Cc apkr
(6.51)
3
,
n
C apkr
(6.52)
where is the coefficient of proportionality in the equation for the
cyclic strain curve and n is the exponent of cyclic strain harden-
ing of the material (equation (6.30)). If it is assumed that the char-
acteristics of the cyclic deformation curve in loading below and at
the fatigue limit are the same, the values of and n in equations
(6.51) and (6.52) are the same. According to some approaches, in
loading below and at the fatigue limit the cyclic strain curves dif-
fer. Therefore, in equations (6.51) we have
1
, n
1
, and in equation
(6.52)
2
, n
2
, and
1
2
, n
1

n
2
. In equation (6.50) E
d
is the dy-
namic modulus of elasticity of the material.
The application of the experimental data, obtained on electrically
conducting copper (section 6.2.6) for different grain sizes, shows
that for the grain sizes of 0.962 mm, 0.250 mm and 0.707 mm the
limit of cyclic sensitivity
Cc
is 35.8; 33.5 and 30.0 MPa, whereas
the limit of cyclic elasticity
Ce
is 0.11; 0.22 and 0.35 MPa.
Further information can be obtained from the experiments carried
out on steel CSN 412032.1 (section 6.2.5), with the application of
a magnetic field with the intensity H = 19.2 10
3
Am
1
in meas-
urement of internal friction and the defect of the modulus of the
elasticity in relation to the total stress amplitude. The limit of cy-
clic sensitivity
Cc
is 198 MPa, and the limit of cyclic elasticity is
Ce
18.4 MPa.
The values of the third critical strain amplitude were not deter-
mined in the measurement of the dependences Q
1
vs. or E/E vs.
because of the experimental difficulties determined by the small
range of the applicable strain amplitudes in equipment VTPA
(VSDS). The fatigue limit of electrically conducting copper is, how-
ever, 80 MPa and the fatigue limit of steel 12032 is 225 MPa [307].
It can be assumed that for certain types of materials, differing
mainly in the type of structural lattice and also other morphologi-
cal features, the ratio of
kr2
/
kr3
will change in accordance with a
specific dependence. Whilst maintaining the internal and external
300
factors, affecting the fatigue limit, it is possible to determine the
approximate value of the fatigue limit by measurements of internal
friction and the defect of the Young modulus in relation to the to-
tal strain amplitude. This procedure can then represent a type of the
shortened fatigue test.
At present, the author of the book is carrying out extensive ex-
periment to verify this hypothesis.
6.3.2 Deformation and energy criterion of fatigue life
The evaluation of the conditions in which the material fails by fa-
tigue fracture is still the subject of discussions. Its solution, in ad-
dition to the considerable importance for deeper understanding of the
fatigue process, will also provide a basis for the development of
shortened fatigue tests. The main question is: what causes fatigue
failure at a specific number of load cycles: is it the the limiting
amplitude of plastic deformation, at the deformation criterion, or is
it the limiting value of the energy scattered irreversibly by the ma-
terial when using the energy criterion? [300,307,335].
For some materials some of these questions have already been
partially answered in tests carried out with the frequency of changes
of mechanical loading from 1 to 100 Hz, especially in the low
cycle fatigue range [300,307]. This was carried out using the veri-
fied methods of evaluating the plastic strain amplitude
ap
from the
total strain amplitude
ac
for the deformation criterion or the veri-
fied methods of determining the area of the hysteresis loop W for
the application of the energy criterion.
Despite the gradual increase of the number of investigations car-
ried out using high-frequency loading (approximately 20 kHz), no
investigations have as yet been carried out in which the applicability
of the deformation and energy criterion in the quantification of the
conditions of formation of fatigue fracture would have been evalu-
ated, as also indicated by the results of international conferences in
the USA in 1981 [312] and in the former USSR [313]. Problems are
caused mainly by the determination of
ap
or W at high frequen-
cies.
This problem was solved in Ref. 314 by Pukr and Durmis. The
investigated unalloyed steels differed in the carbon content: steel
CSN 412013 0.07 wt.% C, CSN 412040 0.37 wt.% C, CSN 412060
0.56 wt.% C.
The internal friction and the defect of the modulus of elasticity
of the evaluated materials were determined on three specimens for
every steel in the equipment described previously at a frequency of
301
7 10
6
2 10
3
in loading with symmetric tension and compres-
sion and at a frequency of 22 kHz at a temperature of 22C. The
measurement procedure was described in Ref. 315.
Fatigue tests were carried out in resonance equipment described
in Ref. 316 and 317 in loading with symmetric tension and compres-
sion at a frequency of 22 kHz, always on 25 specimens for every
steel. The temperature of the specimens during loading was main-
tained at 25C by spraying temperature-controlled water on the
specimens. On each of the three stress level the specimens were
loaded by a stress 10 MPa lower than the stress level at which the
specimens failed at a number of cycles to fracture (N
f
) of approxi-
mately 10
7
cycles.
Figure 6.31 shows the dependence of internal friction Q
1
and the
defect of the Young modulus E/E in relation to the total strain
amplitude
ac
. The first critical strain amplitude
kr2
is determined
as the value
ac
at which the measurable value of E/E is recorded
for the first time. The second critical strain amplitude
kr2
is deter-
mined as the value of
ac
at which there are irreversible changes of
the internal friction background, i.e. the value Q
0
1
is determined at
ac
10
5
. The specific values of
kr1
and
kr2
are presented in Ta-
ble 6.7.
As a result of processing the data obtained in measurements us-
ing equations (6.32), (6.33) and (6.35), the authors obtained the
data presented in Table 6.7. The fatigue curves of the examined
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.6.31. .6.31. .6.31. .6.31. .6.31. Internal friction (solid lines) and defect of the Young modulus (broken
lines) in relation to strain amplitude of the steel at a loading frequency of 22
kHz.
302
steels, Fig. 6.32, were plotted on the basis of the results of detailed
fatigue tests. The fatigue life curves can be described by the equa-
tion in the form
,
b
a f f
N
(6.53)
where
f
is the fatigue strength coefficient, b is the fatigue life ex-
ponent. Equation (6.53) is the stress criterion of fatigue life. The
specific values of
f
, a, b for the evaluated steels are presented in
Table 6.7, together with the fatigue limit values
c
determined at
a
conventional number of cycles 2 10
8
.
The ratio
a
/
f
(Table 6.7) shows that this ratio differs from the
value 1 for N
f
= 1, and
f
= F
f
/S
f
, where F
f
and S
f
are the values
of the force and the smallest cross section at the moment of frac-
ture in the static tensile test.
The transformation of the fatigue curves from the coordinates
a
N
f
to the coordinates
ap
N
f
was carried out using the cyclic
deformation curves of the evaluated materials (equation 6.30). The
values of , n are the material and experimental characteristics of
the materials presented in Table 6.7. The values of
ap
were calcu-
lated using equation (6.33).
The fatigue curves in the MansonCoffin representation (the
strain criterion of fatigue life) are presented in Fig. 6. 33. The
curves can be described by the equation in the form
c i t s i r e t c a r a h C 3 1 0 2 1 l e e t S 0 4 0 2 1 l e e t S 0 6 0 2 1 l e e t S
r c 1
r c 2
A
a
E 0 1
5 -
) a P M (
'
f
) a P M (
b
C
) a P M (
(
a
/ '
f
1 = N )
0 1
4 -
) a P M (
n
'
f
c
p a
/'
f
0 1 4 . 4
5
0 1 8 . 2
4
0 . 8 2 6
1 4 . 1
2 3 7 0 . 2
9 4 7
9 7 0 . 0
5 8 1
5 7 . 0
3 1 . 1
5 9 3 . 0
0 1 4 0 . 1
3
0 0 2 . 0
0 1 8
4
0 1 3 . 6
5
0 1 3 . 5
4
2 . 9 5
0 3 . 1
0 2 7 0 . 2
7 9 5
7 5 0 . 0
5 1 2
8 4 . 0
1 1 . 3
5 2 4 . 0
0 1 3 1 . 9
4
4 3 1 . 0
0 1 3 . 1
4
0 1 1 . 9
5
0 1 5 . 6
4
1 . 8
4 0 . 1
2 7 7 0 . 2
1 6 4
8 3 0 . 0
0 3 2
9 3 . 0
2 4 . 7
0 9 4 . 0
0 1 3 1 . 3
5
7 7 0 . 0
0 1 2 . 5
5
T TT TTa aa aab bb bble 6.7 le 6.7 le 6.7 le 6.7 le 6.7 Characteristics of carbon steels and factors in equations (6.30), (6.35)
and (6.54)
303
,
c
ap f f
N (6.54)
where
f
is the fatigue ductility coefficient and c is the exponent of
fatigue life with the values presented in Table 6.7.
The values presented in Table 6.7 indicate that the ratio
ap
/
f
,
where
f
is the true strain in the area of fracture in the static ten-
sile test, greatly differs for different materials.
In the strain amplitude range above
kr2
plastic internal friction
is recorded Q
p
1
= Q
1
Q
2
1
where Q
1
and Q
2
1
are the values of
internal friction at
ac
>
kr2
or at
ac
=
kr2
(Fig. 6.31, Table 6.7).
Using the equations (6.39) and (6.41), gives the equation in the
following form
1
2
.
p f f b c
f
Q
W N
E E
E E
+

j \
, (
( ,
(6.55)
The total energy consumed by the material up to the formation of
fracture (the energy criterion of fatigue life) is
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.6.32. .6.32. .6.32. .6.32. .6.32. Fatigue curves of examined steels at a loading frequency of 22 kHz.
304
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.6.33. .6.33. .6.33. .6.33. .6.33. Fatigue curves in Manson and Coffin representation for the examined
steels at a loading frequency of 22 kHz.
1
1
2
.
p f f b c
f f f
Q
W WN N
E E
E E
+ +

j \
, (
( ,
(6.56)
Using equation (6.53) and substituting into equation (6.32), we ob-
tain the equation
1
1 .
b
ac
f
f
E E
N
E
, ]

j \

, ]
, (

( ,
, ]
]
(6.57)
From the equations (6.56) and (6.57) we obtain the functional de-
pendence for the energy consumed by the material up to fracture in
the form
1 2 3
1
2
1
b
p f f
ac
f
f
Q
E E
W
E
E E
E E
+ +
, ]

j \

, ]
, (

( ,
, ] j \
]
, (
( ,
(6.58)
305
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.6.34. .6.34. .6.34. .6.34. .6.34. Dependence of the energy absorbed to fracture on stress amplitude for
the examined steels at a frequency of 22 kHz.
The experimental data processed using equation (6.58) are shown
in Fig.6.34. It appears possible to describe the resultant dependences
by the equation in the form
,
g
a f
GW (6.59)
here G, g are the factors with the values given in Table 6.8.
If the energy consumed by the material up to the formation of
fracture is expressed in relation to the number of load cycles to
fracture, using equations (6.53) and (6.59) we obtain the depend-
ence of the energy absorbed to fracture, Fig. 6.35. The curves can
be expressed by the equation in the form
,
h
f
W H N (6.60)
for the material listed in Table 6.8.
The experiments carried out in Ref. 314 indicate that the values
of the first and, in particular, second critical strain amplitude (Table
6.7) increased with increasing carbon content of the steel. This phe-
nomenon is be determined mainly by the braking and blocking de-
fect of the interphase boundaries which controlled the activity of the
mechanisms of cyclic microplasticity above
kr1
and
kr2
[294].
The fatigue life exponent b at a loading frequency of 22 kHz is
lower for the examined steels (Table 6.7) than for the steels of the
306
T TT TTa aa aab bb bble 6.8 le 6.8 le 6.8 le 6.8 le 6.8. Characteristics in equations (6.59) and (6.60) for the examined steels
l e e t S G g
H
] a P M [
h b + 1 ( / b+c)
3 1 0 2 1 4 N S C
0 4 0 2 1 4 N S C
0 6 0 2 1 4 N S C
1 7 6
1 6 4
1 9 3
0 6 1 . 0
8 6 0 . 0
5 4 0 . 0
7 5 3 . 0
2 2 2 . 0
5 2 0 . 0
5 4 7 . 0
9 4 8 . 0
8 4 8 . 0
9 0 1 . 0
0 7 0 . 0
3 4 0 . 0
average slope 0.81
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.6.35. .6.35. .6.35. .6.35. .6.35. Dependence of the energy absorbed to fracture on the number of cycles
to fracture for the examined steels at a loading frequency of 22 kHz.
grade 11, 13 and 15 (according to the former Czechoslovak stand-
ards) at a loading frequency of 7100 Hz [318].
The cyclic strain curves for the examined steels at a loading fre-
quency of 7100 Hz are characterised by the exponent of cyclic
strain hardening n with the values in the range from 0.06 to 0.15
[297], whereas for a loading frequency of 22 kHz the values are in
the range 0.3950.490 (Table 6.7), and the value of n at both load-
ing frequencies increases with increasing carbon content of the steel.
The fatigue curves in the MansonCoffin representation (equation
(6.54)) are characterised mainly by exponent c whose value at a fre-
quency of 22 kHz is significantly lower (Table 6.7) that the value
at a loading frequency of 7100 kHz, where c = 0. 75 (for the
steels CSN 412013 and CSN 412060), and at a loading frequency
of 22 kHz, the values of c decrease with increasing carbon content
in the steel.
When converting the fatigue stress limit
c
(Table 6.7) to the fa-
tigue strain limit
apC
using the cycling deformation curves, we ob-
tain
apC
= 3.02 10
5
,
apC
= 8.25 10
6
or
apC
= 7.56 10
6
for
the steels CSN 412013, CSN 412040, or CSN 412060. At a load-
307
ing frequency of 7100 Hz,
apC
= 4 10
5
for the examined steels
[318].
The total energy dissipated by the material up to the fatigue frac-
ture increases with increasing number of load cycles in the same
manner at a loading frequency of 7100 Hz as at 22 kHz.
For l ow-frequency l oadi ng wi t h a frequency of 70100 Hz,
1 + b + c = 0.35 [307], whereas for loading with a frequency of 22
kHz 1 + b + c = 0.81.
Comparison of the results obtained for the evaluated steels shows
that to induce fatigue fracture in CSN 412013 steel, the material
dissipates energy 34 times more than the steels 412040 and 41262.
Discussion of the pseudoelastic behaviour of the CSN 412013 steel
was published in Ref. 307.
For lowcycle fatigue at a frequency of 70100 Hz b/(1 + b +
c) = 0.25, whereas at a loading frequency of 22 kHz the average
value of the fraction is 0.0 72. Consequently, b = 0.971 and not
b = nc, as at a loading frequency of 7 100 Hz. Approximation of
the relationship between n, b, c at a loading frequency of 22 kHz
i s not as si mpl e as i n t he case of l oadi ng wi t h a frequency of
70100 Hz, as shown by our experiments. The mutual relationship
between the results obtained in a loading with a frequency of 22
kHz, using the deformation and energy criteria, is therefore very
complicated.
The evaluation of the fatigue process at a frequency of 22 kHz
can be discussed more efficiently on the basis of the deformation
criterion, as implicitly concluded in the studies carried out at a
loading frequency of 70100 Hz [300,307].
The applicability of the deformation and energy criteria of fatigue
life at elevated temperatures has been described by Pukr and
Letko [319]. They based their conclusions on the results which show
that mechanical loading at elevated temperatures, acting on the ma-
terial, are not in a simple addition correlation, which means that it
is not possible to carry out fatigue tests at, for example, 20C, and
take into account analytically the changes of the properties with in-
creasing temperature. The experiments were carried out with VT3
1 twophase titanium alloy (Russian GOST standards), with the fol-
lowing chemical composition, wt.%: 6.39 Al, 2.36 Mo, 1.47 Cr,
0.42 Fe, 0.24 Si, 0.03C, balancetitanium. The experiments carried
out in Ref. 319 where similar to those conducted in Ref. 303 which
means that the heat treatment of the material and the parameters of
its cyclic microplasticity were published in section 6.2.4.
The experimental results were processed using the procedure de-
308
scribed in Ref. 314 and 320.
The Whl er curves of quenched and t empered VT3-1 al l oy,
obtained at different temperatures, are presented in Fig. 6.36. At
20C,
C
= 650 MPa, at 400C
C
= 392 MPa, and at 550C
C
= 225 MPa, with the scatter of the experimental results of 7
MPa, with the reference number of load cycles being 2 10
8
.
Examination of the microstructure of the specimens, loaded with
a stress amplitude of
a
= 1.2
c
, shown that at 20C, there are no
significant changes in comparison with the initial condition. Simi-
lar agreement was also found in the case of the microstructure af-
ter exposure of the specimens to an appropriate stress amplitude at
a t emperat ure of 400C. The mi crost ruct ure of t he speci mens,
loaded at a temperature of 550C, is different. It is heterogeneous,
with signs of spheroidisation of phase.
Figure 6.36 shows that the experimental dependence
a
N
f
can
be described by equation (6.53), where
f
and b for different tem-
peratures are presented in Table 6.9.
In the MansonCoffin representation, Fig.6.37, the curves can be
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.6.36. .6.36. .6.36. .6.36. .6.36. Fatigue curves of VT3-1 alloy at different temperatures.
cycles
309
T TT TTa aa aab bb bble 6.9 le 6.9 le 6.9 le 6.9 le 6.9 Effect of temperature on the fatigue characteristics of quenched and
tempered VT3-1 alloy
T C ,
'
f
] a P M [
b '
f
0 1
4
c
0 1
3
] a P M [
n
H
] a P M [
h
0 2
0 0 4
0 5 5
5 4 . 2 5 0 1
2 3 . 2 0 7
4 9 . 3 2 5
7 2 0 . 0
1 3 0 . 0
0 5 0 . 0
1 3 . 5
5 . 5 1
4 9 . 3
2 7 0 . 0
4 1 1 . 0
9 0 1 . 0
0 6 . 7 1
7 1 . 4
0 8 . 8 1
4 7 3 . 0
7 2 . 0
7 5 4 . 0
4 1 5 . 0
3 0 0 . 0
5 2 0 . 0
8 8 . 0
7 8 . 0
6 8 . 0
described by equation (6.54), where the values of
f
and c are pre-
sented in Table 6.9.
The cyclic strain curves can be described by equation (6.30),
where n = b/c and = f/f
n
.
The derivation in [302] and measurements of plastic internal fric-
tion Q
p
1
for VT3-1 alloy at selected temperatures [321] indicate that
the amount of energy consumed by the specimen to fatigue fracture
can be described by equation (6.60).
The evaluation of the tests from the viewpoint of the energy cri-
terion using equation (6.56) gives the graphical dependence shown
in Fig.6.38. The dependences can be described by equation (6.60),
where H and h are the experimentally determined characteristics
with the values presented in Table 6.9.
The evaluation of the values of
ap
and
ac
at N
f
= 10
8
cycles for
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.6.37. .6.37. .6.37. .6.37. .6.37. MansonCoffin curves of quenched and tempered VT3-1 alloy at different
temperatures.
cycles
310
the experimental results show that at 20C
ap
= 0.022
ac
, at 400C
ap
= 0.046
ac
and at 550C
ap
= 0.024
ac
.
The val ues of t he fat i gue l i mi t , obt ai ned by t he aut hors of
Ref.319 at different temperatures and the reference number of cy-
cles of 2 10
8
, can be compared with the fatigue limit values ob-
tained in loading at a frequency of 100 Hz and a reference number
of cycles of 1 10
7
, where the microstructure of VT31 alloy was
similar to that used in this work. Kalachev et al. [322] carried out
tests at a temperature of 20C and the fatigue limit was in the range
550620 MPa, whereas in Ref. 323 it was 620 MPa. In fatigue
loading at a temperature 400C, the fatigue limit was 480500 MPa
[323], and in Ref. 324 it was 330 MPa. No values of the fatigue
limit have been published in the technical literature for a tempera-
ture of 550C. With increase of temperature from 20C to 400
550C, the strain fatigue limit decreases from 1.85 10
4
to 1.43
10
5
or even 6. 1 10
5
and is therefore close to the value of
10
5
, as generalised for different types of steel [297].
Evaluation of the microstructure prior to and after fatigue load-
ing at different temperatures indicate that in the temperature range
20400C the structure of the VT31 alloy is stable and, conse-
quently, the changes of the properties with increasing temperature
are controlled by the conventional mechanism. However, loading at
F FF FFig ig ig ig ig.6.38. .6.38. .6.38. .6.38. .6.38. Application of the energy criterion of fatigue life of VT3-1 alloy at
different temperatures.
cycles
311
550C resulted in significant changes in the microstructure, reflected
in the changes of the exponent c and n in relation to temperature
(Table 6.9). The values of and n, determined at a testing tempera-
ture of 20C and a loading frequency of 22.5 kHz for the VT31
alloy are in correlation with the similar characteristics and test con-
ditions for the low-alloyed titanium alloy [302].
Increasing temperature decreases the plastic deformation resist-
ance of the material. This general conclusion is also reflected in
fatigue loading at a high frequency where the exponent of the cy-
clic strain curve n decreases from 0.374 to 0.275, when the tem-
perature is increased from 20 to 400C. The change of the response
of the material to alternating loading with increasing temperature is
also evident from the
ap
/
ac
ratio which is more than doubled with
the temperature increasing from 20 to 400C, with the number of
load cycles to fracture being 10
8
.
However, if there are significant changes in the microstructure
during loading at 550C, the response of the material differs. The
values of and n of the material are higher than those expected in
the case of multiple changes of the properties with increasing tem-
perature.
The experimental results and evaluation show that in the analyti-
cal evaluation of the results it is possible to use the deformation and
energy criteria of fatigue life also at high loading frequencies and
elevated temperatures. The total amount of energy required for the
formation of fatigue fracture is indirectly proportional to tempera-
ture.
6.3.3 Effect of loading frequency on fatigue limit
Taking into account section 3.4, it is useful to note that the load-
ing frequency at high total stress amplitudes may have a significant
effect on the fatigue characteristics of materials [143].
The results of the experiments carried out by different authors
have resulted in a conclusion [325] according to which the fatigue
limit at high loading frequency (for example, 20 kHz) is 1.31.4
times higher than the fatigue limit determined at a loading frequency
of approximately 70 Hz, especially in the case of bcc metals. How-
ever, the results are loaded with large errors under the experimen-
tal conditions at the compared frequencies. Of special importance is
temperature because at a high loading frequency, depending on the
extent of internal friction and the rate of its increase with increas-
ing strain amplitude of different materials, the rate of heating of the
materials differs.
312
The strictly organised experiments carried out on CSN 415313
steel with strictly controlled identical characteristics of the material
in the fatigue tests at 2545 Hz and 20 kHz showed [326] that when
the fatigue limit at 20 kHz is determined for 2 10
8
cycles, its
value is 270 MPa, and when the fatigue limit is determined at
2545 Hz, at 10
7
cycles, it is 260 MPa. The increase of the load-
ing frequency from 2545 Hz to 20 kHz results in a significant shift
of the fatigue curve to the higher number of load cycles to fracture
N
f
, even though the time required to cause fracture at the high load-
ing frequency is significantly shorter [326].
Evaluation of the rate of fatigue crack propagation at a loading
frequency of 120 Hz and 20 kHz i ndi cat es t hat t he rat e (m
cycle
1
) at 20 kHz is up to 100 times lower than in loading at a fre-
quency of 120 Hz, whereas the rate of propagation of fatigue cracks
(ms
1
) at a loading frequency of 20 kHz is 20 times higher than
at 120 Hz. The basic threshold amplitude of the stress intensity
factor K
ath
at a loading frequency of 20 kHz is higher than at a
loading frequency of 120 Hz (4.56 MPam
1/2
, 3.8 MPam
1/2
).
These results and further experiments [327] show that the fatigue
process at high loading frequency is characterised by the same main
characteristics, stages and relationships in comparison with loading
at low frequency (for example, at 100 Hz). However, there are cer-
tain modifications affecting the physicalmetallurgical and engineer-
ing characteristics of the materials at the higher loading frequencies.
These modifications are the result of the effect of various factors
whose influence on the applied characteristics has not as yet been
quantified.
To understand the problem, it is possible to introduce conven-
tional symbols. The phenomenon increasing the cyclic deformation
resistance of the material will be denoted as the (+) phenomenon,
the phenomenon increasing this resistance will be denoted as the
() phenomenon and the phenomenon having a mixed effect in dif-
ferent stages of the process will be denoted by (). Loading at high
frequency is characterised by the preferential absorption of oscilla-
tions at lattice defects resulting in a local increase of temperature
around these defects (). The amplitude of the deviation of the dis-
location segment at a high loading frequency and a specific shear
stress amplitude, used at an arc loading frequency is lower be-
cause its faster bending is inhibited in a viscous manner by the sol-
ute atoms, especially interstitial elements (+). When loading at high
frequency, the time for the relaxation of stress concentration is in-
sufficient (+) and, at the same time, there are less suitable condi-
313
tions for the removal of heat from the area in which heat is gener-
ated in a single cycle (). The temperature difference may result in
a gradient of internal stresses (). The bcc metals with interstitial
elements significantly increase the deformation resistance with in-
creasing strain rate (+). At high loading frequency, the time avail-
able is insufficient for general corrosion processes (+) to take place.
The fraction of the plastic strain amplitude in the total strain am-
plitude at the selected value of the total strain amplitude and at the
high loading frequency is smaller than at the conventional loading
frequency (+). At high loading frequency, the slip lines are narrower
and are found in a smaller number of grains, with a smaller surface
relief in comparison with the conventional loading frequency (+).
The width of the plastic zone around the fatigue crack at the high
loading frequency is smaller than at the conventional loading fre-
quency (). The shift of the front of the fatigue crack into the ma-
terial at high frequency requires a significantly larger number of
load cycles than at the conventional loading frequency (+). The size
of the activation volume at high and conventional loading frequen-
cies is approximately the same.
Each of these reasons is characterised by different intensity of
the effect on the appropriate fatigue characteristic. Some of them
are mutually connected and other combinations mutually exclude
each other. For these reasons, all attempts for the analytical expres-
sion of the effect of frequency on the fatigue limit or K
ath
are of the
empirical nature with limited validity.
To conclude this chapter, it should be noted that important and
valuable information and interpretation can be found in the previ-
ously mentioned monographs and also in a compilation edited by
Gorczyca and Magalas [328].
314
315
References
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2. M.A. Krishtal and S.A. Golovin, Internal friction and structure of metals,
Metallurgiya, Moscow (1976).
3. F. Pisek, L. Jenicek and P. Rys, Materials Science I/3, Academia, Prague (1973).
4. A. Pukr, Physical, metallurgical and technological aspects of the application
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Index
A
activation energy of diffusion 86
activation enthalpy 78
activation volume 78
aerodynamic losses 171
allotropic transformations 22
amplitudefrequency spectrum 3
anelastic strain 84
anelasticity 1, 28
atomic density 12
atomic spacing 13
B
background of internal friction 79
Barkhausen jumps 129
BHR theory 210
Blair, Hutchison and Rogers
model 209
Bloch walls 46, 59, 128, 289
Boltzmann constant 56
Boltzmann distribution 86
Bordoni maxima 98
Bordoni peak 116
Bordoni phenomenon 58
Bordoni relaxation 105, 197
Bordonis maximum 100
Bordonis relaxation 98, 99
bowout of the dislocation 76
Bridgman equation 67
bulk self-diffusion 85
Burgers vector 74, 115
C
characteristic process time 49
circular resonance frequency 51
clustering 126
coefficient diffusion of point
defects 86
coefficient of absorption of sound 82
coefficient of anisotropy 10
compensation phase method 167
composite materials 37
condensation temperature 257
Cottrell atmospheres 97, 106, 197
Cottrell parameter 106
Coulomb 7
Coulomb forces 153
critical shear stress 86
crystallographic system 7
Curie temperature 19, 36, 68
cyclic microplasticity 79, 276
cyclic strain curve 267
cyclic strain hardening 296
D
d-electrons 22
damping capacity 133
damping decrement 156
damping factor 140
DB transition 230
Debye frequency 186
Debye maximum 90
Debye oscillations 93
Debye peak 208, 212
Debye shape 90
Debye temperature 11, 14
defect of the elasticity modulus 1
degree of dynamic relaxation 49
diffusibility of atoms 188
dilation coefficient 54
dimensional factor 22
dislocation anelasticity 69, 70
dislocation clusters 80
dislocation configuration 71
dislocation kernel 201
dislocation multiplication process 71
dislocation segment 99
dislocational strain 71
dispersion strengthening 38
326
dry friction mechanism 69
dynamic methods 142
E
-carbide 32, 34
effective energy of bonding 84
Einstein temperature 15
elasticviscous bond 69
elasticity 1
elasticity characteristics 1
elasticity constant 5
elasticity modulus 1
electron factor 19, 22, 27
electrostatic excitation 153
Elinvar 68
excitation force 138
F
fatigue stress limit 306
Fermi level 54
Finkelshtein and Rozin
phenomenon 95
FinkelshteinRozin relaxation 102
FinkelsteinRozin peak 97, 191, 192
FinkelsteinRozin peak 192
Frenkel 16
frequency-independent processes 59
friction factor 43
G
gas constant 16
GranatoLcke spring model 74, 105
GranatoLcke theory 60, 114
H
magnetostriction 68
HallPetch equation 273
Hertz frequency range 86
Hooke law 43, 44
hypersonic methods 167
hysteresis 1
hysteresis anelasticity 71
hysteresis loop 72
I
infrasound methods 144
inhomogeneous stress 53
instantaneous elastic strain 44
intercrystalline adsorption 226
internal friction background 84
interstitial atoms 193
Invar alloy 15
isotropic pressure 8
K
Khler distribution 105
Kurnakov temperature 29
L
lattice spacing 20
linear stretching of the dislocation
75
loading frequency 74
logarithmic decrement of vibrations
52
M
M dependence 77
magnetic hysteresis 76
magnetic moment 43
magnetomechanical phenomenon 76
magnetomechanical bond 68
magnetomechanical component 281
magnetomechanical phenomenon 59
magnetostriction 46
magnetostriction vibrator 162
MansonCoffin representation 305
Mason model 86
maximum of cold deformation 98
mechanical hysteresis 69
mechanical hysteresis loop 239
mechanical relaxation 88
microplastic anelasticity 77
microplasticity 76
microstrain 18
molar heat capacity 11
327
References
curve 71, 76
saturation of cyclic microplasticity
290
scattering of mechanical energy
1, 73
Schmidt trigger 148
Schoeck characteristic 84
Schoeck model 83
self-diffusion 16
self-diffusion coefficient 54
Shockley 115
Shoeck model 201
Snoek 55
Snoek and Kster maximum 224
Snoek and Kster phenomenon 205
Snoek and Kster relaxation 198
Snoek maximum
88, 90, 91, 103, 181, 186
Snoek peak 219
Snoek relaxation 184
Snoeks mechanism 95
solute atom 124
splitting 215
stacking fault energy 215
steady-state creep 16
strain amplitude 104
strain hardening coefficient 16
stress sensor 5
sublimation energy 84
sublimation temperature 11
substitutional solid solution 94
superlattice 36
T
tensors of the second order 6
tetragonality 58
Teutonico model 108, 109
thermal activation 77
thermalfluctuation relaxation peak
206
torsional pendulum 143
transmission method 165
triclinic 7
U
ultrasound methods 151
N
Nabarro barriers 86
natural frequency of vibrations 73
Newtonian viscous friction 250
non-complanar slip plane 76
O
orientation factor 71
P
paramagnetic state 68
Peierls barriers 86
Peierls potential energy 99
Peierls stress 115
PeierlsNabarro barrier 86
phase shift 49
pinning points 60
pipe diffusion coefficient 223
Plancks constant 92
Poisson number 7, 12, 43
pulse-phase method 166
pulsed methods 12
Q
quasi-inelastic strain 44
R
Rayleigh waves 135
relaxation maxima 88
relaxation mechanism 87
relaxation time 45, 48, 181
relaxed Young modulus 47
relaxons 87
resonance mechanism of
anelasticity 75
resonance methods 12, 142
resonance peak 51
Reynolds number 171
rigidity 1
RM peak 217
S
SK maximum 100, 101, 102
SK peak 200
SK relaxation 200
Index
328
unpinned dislocation 76
V
velocity of propagation 8
viscous friction 74
viscous friction coefficient 74
W
Weerts equation 10
Werners model 96
whisker crystals 81
Whler curve 297
Z
Zener 54
Zeener relaxation 95, 182, 195, 197

Internal Friction of Materials Anton Puskar

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i

INTERNAL FRICTION OF MATERIALS

- relaxation time at constant strain

is the time required to obtain

is the circular loading frequency and

In repeated loading with the stress =

F is the free energy of the ferromagnetic material

a, b are the coefficients in the Bridgman equation

For copper at room temperature, a frequency of 100 kHz and L

G is the shear modulus of elasticity, S is the tensile force in the

we obtain the value Q

are described by a stepped

where a is the lattice parameter.

changes its sense in accordance with the sense of applied stress.

(Fi g. 3. 16) has t he meani ng correspondi ng t o t he

Internal Friction of Materials

is the coefficient of proportionality. Equation (4.7) can be

where n is the number of harmonic vibrations, L is the length of the

The results show that the activation enthalpy H and quantity r

are the values obtained under the effect of and

The formation of new dislocations requires the critical stress

In the equations, h is a constant with the value 0.51 [278], is the

is 0.1 only when

, but also the component of

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