1

BASIC GEOTECHNICAL ANALYSIS

Jeen-Shang Lin
University of Pittsburgh
jslin@engrng.pitt.edu

Ching S. Chang
University of Massachusetts


(Last update March2004)
(Copyright material, no reproduction without written consent from authors.)



2
CHAPTER 5 One Dimensional Consolidation Analysis

5.1 Introduction

In this chapter, we will develop solutions for one dimensional consolidation problems. The
coverage includes nonlinear stratified soils, time-dependent loading, and sand drains.

Let us first clarify what is consolidation.

When a loading is applied on a saturated soil stratum, the incompressible pore water initially
supports this loading and no volume change takes place. This leads to a change in the spatial
distribution of total head. The pattern of change depends upon the loading configuration and the
variability of soil properties. As time goes by, water from locations with higher heads flows towards
locations with lower heads, and the excess pore water pressure dissipates. In this process, loading
that was originally supported by the water is transmitted to the soil grains. This results in the
increase of the effective stress of soils. As no holes is to develop in the ground, the volume of the
pore water that flows away equals to the volume reduction of soils, and the ground settles. Because
that the permeability of a cohesive soil is rather small, the process of excess pore water pressure
dissipation and the ground settlement takes time to develop. This time-dependent process is called
consolidation, or primary consolidation.

Secondary consolidation settlement is another time-dependent settlement which can not be
explained on the basis of excess pore water pressure dissipation. Computationally, it is often
considered to take place after primary consolidation is completed.

Our interest in this chapter is limited to one dimensional consolidation. If properly
employed, it does meet engineering needs for tackling a wide variety of practical problems.

What exactly is a one dimensional consolidation problem? Mathematically, one-dimensional
problems means that the dependent variable or variables are functions of only one spatial coordinate.
Consider a semi-infinite ground defined by a z-axis, one dimensional consolidation means the total
head of the pore water, at any time t, is a function of z only; namely,


and that

z) t h = z y x t h , ( ) , , , ( 1



3

To satisfy these conditions, it requires that the structural loading as well as the soil properties
be independent of x and y. In other words, if stipulates that a loading be uniform over a large area;
and that the ground has to be either homogeneous or stratified in horizontal layers.

Since consolidation settlement is time-dependent, one focal point of study is to determine
how does the settlement evolve over time. In a conventional practice, a two-step procedure is often
adopted: (1) determine the magnitude of the final consolidation settlement; (2) determine what
percentage of the final settlement has occurred at any given time. This is also known as a de-coupled
approach. This approach only works for simplified cases and a coupled approach is preferred.

In the case of one dimensional consolidation problem, the stress induced in the ground is not
affect by the consolidation process. Thus a coupled approach does not have to re-compute induced
stress. This is not true, however, for the two- or three-dimensional problems. In these latter cases,
stresses are constantly redistributed depending upon the spatial distribution of excess pore pressure.
Consequently, a coupled approach has to solve a set of simultaneous equations consisting of stress
distribution and pore pressure distribution equations.

5.2 Consolidation Settlement

The compressibility of a soil is affected by its stress history which is often characterized by
the magnitude of the maximum past pressure it has ever experienced. This pressure is usually found
using Casagrande procedure on a semi-log plot--the e-log
v
' curve. This maximum past pressure is
also referred to as the preconsolidation pressure in the literature. Overconsolidation ratio, OCR, is
defined as the ratio of the maximum past pressure,
vm
', to the present effective overburden pressure,

v0
', as follows,


A soil is normally consolidated if the current effective overburden pressure is the maximum
it has ever experienced, i.e., OCR=1. If the maximum took place in the past, the soil is
overconsolidated and OCR>1. On the other hand, for some soils such as those newly deposited on
the ocean floor, the soils may not have been fully consolidated, OCR may be smaller than 1, and the
soil is underconsolidated.

0 =
y
z y x t h
0 =
x
z y x t h

) , , , (
) , , , (
2

0 v
m v
= OCR

3



4

For the calculation of the final consolidation settlement, it is a common practice to divide a
clay deposit into thin layers. The vertical strain in the middle of a layer, i, can be found as,


where, e
oi
is the initial void ratio at the middle of the i-th layer. The settlement of the i-th layer, S
ci
, is
this strain times the corresponding layer thickness, H
i
,


The total settlement is the sum of contribution from individual layers as,



To facilitate the settlement calculation, we often summarize a e-log
10
v
'
plot in terms of two
slopes, C
c
for the virgin compression and C
r
for unloading-reloading part. They are denoted as the
coefficients of compression and recompression respectively. It generally is more preferable to use
the Compression Ratio, CR, and the Recompression Ratio, RR, in the settlement calculation. They
are simply the normalization of C
c
and C
r
with 1+e
0
. The procedure of settlement calculation and the
effects of stress history are summarized in Table 1.
v
'
is the stress that has been transmitted to the
soil grain at any time. For evaluating the final consolidation settlement just use
v v
= '


Some correlations equations that have been widely used are,
) 10 ( 009 . 0 = LL C
c
(Terzaghi and Peck, 1967)
where, LL is the liquid limit expressed in percentage.
370 / 74 / PI C PI C
s c
= = (Kulhaway and Mayne, 1990)
where, PI is the plasticity index in percentage.


e
+ 1
e
=
0i
i
vi

4

H
e
+ 1
e
=
S i
0i
i
ci

5

S
=
S ci c
6



5

Table 1 CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT

Case 1 Normally Consolidated Clay

0 v
v 0 v
10
0
c
c
+
e
+ 1
C
H =
S

log 7

Case 2 Overly Consolidated Clay
(a)
vm v vo
> + '

]
+
e
+ 1
C
+
e
+ 1
C
H[ =
S
m v
v 0 v
10
0
c
0 v
vm
10
0
r
c

log log 8

(b)
vm v vo
' ' +

0 v
v 0 v
10
0
r
c
+
e
+ 1
C
H =
S

log 9

Secondary consolidation settlement:
p
sc
t
t
H
e
C
S
10
0
log
1+
=





6

5.3 Degree of Consolidation

To describe the rate of consolidation, several terms are frequently used. "Degree of
consolidation", U(z,t), gives the percentage of the excess pore water pressure that has been
dissipated at a depth z up to time t,


where, u
e
(z,t) is the excess pore water pressure at time t, u
e
(z,0) is the initial excess pore water
pressure, also written as u
e
i
(z).

"Average Degree of Consolidation", U
ave
(t), refers to the percentage of the total excess pore
water pressure that has been dissipated within a whole deposit up to time t,



For the case of a strictly one-dimensional loading on a homogeneous stratum, the
consolidation settlement of the ground at time t, S
c
(t), equals,

where S
cf
is the final consolidation settlement.

It is important to note that the above equation does not always give good answers to cases
that involve more than one layers, or that OCR varies within a deposit. In these cases, one would
first find u
e
(z,t) through solving the consolidation equation, and thereby obtain
) , ( ' t z u
e
v v
= .
v
' at various depths so obtained are then used in finding the settlement at
time t. This is the approach implemented in the program. This is equivalent to a coupled approach
because
v
does not change as pore pressure dissipates in one dimensional case as stated
earlier.

5.4 The Governing Equation of Consolidation

For an infinitesimal soil element representing a point within the one dimensional flow region

(z,0)
u
t) (z,
u
- (z,0)
u
= t) U(z,
e
e e
10

(z)dz
u
t)]dz (z,
u
- (z)
u
[
= (t)
U
e
i
e e
i
ave

11
(t)
U S
= (t)
S ave cf c
12



7
as depicted in Fig. 1, the net water flows out of this cube per unit time in z-direction can be written
as,


where h is the total head of the pore water.

In the case of seepage flow through rigid porous medium as discussed in Chapter 2, the net
water flows out equals zero, Eq. (10) reduces to the one dimensional Laplace equation. But in the
present case of consolidation, we have non-zero net water flows out. In fact, this volume of the water
flows out equals to the volume reduction of soils. Upon this base, the consolidation equation is
derived.

5.4.1 Net Water Flows Out

The total head of pore water, h, at any time is equal to that of the steady state, h
s
, plus the
pressure head due to excess pore water pressure. It can be written as,


and, by definition h
s
satisfies Laplace equation, i.e.,


It therefore follows


5.4.2 Net Soil Volume Reduction

Soil volume changes because the effective stress changes. The volume change of soil due to
a variation in the vertical stress may be conveniently expressed by a volume compressibility
dz dy dx
z
h
k
- = out flows water net
2
2
z

13

h
+
u
= h
s
w
e

14
0 =
z
h
2
s 2

15

z
u k
- = out flows water net
2
e 2
w
z

16



8
coefficient, m
v
, defined as follows,


where, the negative sign is introduced because a reduction in volume, which is positive, introduces a
negative change in void ratio, e. If a soil is considered linear elastic, then m
v
is a constant.

Using this volume compressibility coefficient, volume reduction of soil due to change in the
effective vertical stress within a unit time can then be written as,


Moreover, from the effective stress principle, we also have


where u is the total pore water pressure which consists of two components: the excess pore water
pressure, u
e
, and the steady state pore water pressure, u
s
. Substituting u
s
+u
e
for u, and differentiating
the total stress with respect to time, we obtained after rearrangement


Notice that u
s
, being a steady state value, is independent of time, and its time derivative is therefore
zero.

Substituting Eq. (20) into Eq. (18), the volume reduction of soil within a unit time can be
found as,





'
v
0
v
e
+ 1
e -
=
m

17

t
m
v
v

'

18

u
+
u
+ = .
u + =
e s
v
v v
'
'

19

t
u
-
t
=
t
e
v v

'
20



9



5.4.3 Consolidation Equation

By equating Eq. (16) with Eq. (21), the consolidation equation is obtained as follows,


where, c
v
is called the coefficient of consolidation, which is defined as


v w
v
m
k
c

=


If the imposed loading does not change with time, i.e., 0 / = t
v
, Eq. (23) becomes,



This Terzaghi consolidation equation is commonly known as diffusion equation in the field
of heat transfer. The genius of Terzaghi is that he reformulated it for the flow of excess pore water
pressure and thus lead to the birth of soil mechanics.

The main assumptions in Terzaghi equation include,

A linear stress strain relationship;
Darcy's law holds;
the soil deposit is homogeneous;
pore fluid and soil particles are incompressible.

In the following discussion, unless otherwise noted, we will drop the superscript e and use
the notation u instead of u
e
for the excess pore water pressure.

m
]
t
u
-
t
[
v
e
v

21

z
u
c
=
t
-
t
u
2
e 2
v
v
e

22

z
u
c
=
t
u
2
e 2
v
e

23



10


5.5 Initial and Boundary Conditions

The solution to a consolidation problem requires the knowledge of not only the boundary
conditions, but also that of the initial excess pore water pressure distribution. The latter is known as
the initial conditions. For a typical one dimensional consolidation problem, the initial pore water
pressure is often uniform throughout the whole clay deposit and with its magnitude equals to the
applied pressure on the ground surface. For problems involving consolidation due to dewatering, the
initial excess pore water pressure distribution is, however, triangular.

Only two types of boundary conditions exist, namely, the pervious and the impervious
boundaries. Several typical situations are illustrated in Fig. 3. When a single pervious boundary
exits, the layer is referred to as singly drained. If both the top and the bottom boundaries are
pervious, the layer is doubly drained.

For a pervious boundary, immediately after a loading is applied, the excess pore water
pressure at the boundary will drop to zero. This is written as u(t>0,z
b
)=0. Whereas for an impervious
boundary, the boundary condition becomes that the gradient of the total head in z direction equals
zero, i.e,





5.6 Analytical Solution for a Homogeneous Clay Deposit

For a homogeneous clay deposit under 1-D loading, analytical solutions for Terzaghi's
consolidation equation can be obtained using the separation of variables technique.

The solutions in terms of u(z,t), U(z,t) and Uave(t) and their initial and boundary conditions
are summarized in Table 2.

A time factor, T
v
, is defined as,

where H
d
is the maximum drainage distance. For a deposit of thickness H, H
d
=H if it is singly
0 =
z
z t h
b

) , (
24

H
c
=
T
2
d
v
v
25



11
drained, and H
d
=H/2 if it is doubly drained.

Although this solution is expressed as a summation of an infinite series, it actually converges
very fast, and no more than ten terms are needed. It is noted here that when carry out numerical
integration for single drained situation, we extend u
i
(z), or u(z,0)beyond the soil stratum to 2H
d
, this
point is illustrated in the example given below.

Table 2 Classical Terzaghi Solutions

Initial Conditions: u
e
(z,0)=u
e
i
(z)
Boundary Conditions: u
e
(0,t>0)=0, u
e
(2H
d
,t>0)=0
General Solutions:
z] d )
H
d
z M
( ) z (
u
e
i
H
1
)[
T M
(- )
H
Mz
( = t) (z,
u
H 2
0
d
v
2
d
= m
m
e
d

=
sin exp sin
0

where 2 / m M = , T
v
=C
v
t/H
d
2
.


(z)
u
t) (z,
u
- (z)
u
= t) U(z,
i
e e
i
e


(z)dz
u
t)]dz (z,
u
- (z)
u
[
= (t)
U
e
i
H
0
e e
i
H
0
ave
t
t

Special solutions for u
e
i
(z)=constant=u
i
:

)
T M
(- )
H
Mz
(
M
u
2
= t) (z,
u v
2
d
i
= m
=0 m
e
exp sin

where 2 / ) 1 2 ( + = m M

)
T M
(- )
H
Mz
(
M
2
- 1 = t) U(z,
v
2
d
= m
=0 m
exp sin

12
)
T M
(-
M
2
- 1 = (t)
U v
2
2
= m
=0 m
ave
exp

5.6.1 Numerical evaluation of the Analytical solution

We used MathCAD to obtain numerical values of the analytical solution. The initial pore
pressure distribution, ) (z u
e
i
, and the thickness of the clay stratum need to be assigned first. A typical
worksheet for an initially uniform distributed pore pressure case is given below. Both double and
single drained cases are considered.

For single drained cases, it is easier to integrate the equation up to 2H
d
, or two times the
thickness of the clay stratum, 2H
t
. In this case, it requires an initial excess pore pressure beyond the
soil stratum which is a mirror image of the real one with respect to the bottom of the stratum. For
instance, a triangular initial excess pore pressure is extended to 2H
t
as follows,
u
i
z ( )
z
Ht
z Ht if
2 Ht z
Ht
otherwise
:=

an inverse triangular initial excess pore pressure is similarly done as,
u
i
z ( ) 1
z
Ht
z Ht if
z Ht ( )
Ht
otherwise
:=


The results from MathCAD computations for all cases are given below.




13
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
20
40
60
80
100
Uave v.s. Tv
Tv
U
a
v
e

(
%
)
u
i
z ( ) 1 := Intial pore pressure
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
u(z,t) for Tv=0.2, 0.4, 0.6
z/Hd
u
(
z
,
t
)
/
u
(
z
,
0
)
Hd 20 := Drainage Distance
Uniform Initial Excess Pore Pressure: Single Drained case
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
20
40
60
80
100
Uave v.s. Tv
Tv
U
a
v
e

(
%
)
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
u(z,t) for Tv=0.2, 0.4, 0.6
z/Hd
u
(
z
,
t
)
/
u
(
z
,
0
)
Tv 0 0.05 , 0.95 .. :=
z 0 0.5 , 20 .. :=
u
i
z ( ) 1 := Intial pore pressure Hd 10 := Drainage Distance
Uniform Initial Excess Pore Pressure: Double Drained case
H 20 := Clay thickness
Numerical Evaluation
Uave u
i
Tv , Hd , ( )
0
2 Hd
z u
i
z ( )

d
0
2 Hd
z u z Tv , u
i
, Hd , ( )

d
0
2 Hd
z u
i
z ( )

d
:=
u z Tv , u
i
, Hd , ( )
0
10
m
sin
m
2
z
Hd

\
|
.
exp
m
2
|

\
|
.
2
Tv

(
(

0
2 Hd
z'
u
i
z' ( )
Hd
sin
m
2
z'
Hd

\
|
.

(
(

=
:=
Analytical Solution




14
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
20
40
60
80
100
Uave v.s. Tv
Tv
U
a
v
e

(
%
)
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
u(z,t) for Tv=0.2, 0.4, 0.6
z/Hd
u
(
z
,
t
)
/
u
(
z
,
0
)
u
i
z ( )
z
Ht
z Ht if
2 Ht z
Ht
otherwise
:= Intial pore pressure
Hd 20 := Drainage Distance
Trianular Initial Excess Pore Pressure:Single Drained case
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
20
40
60
80
100
Uave v.s. Tv
Tv
U
a
v
e

(
%
)
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
u(z,t) for Tv=0.2, 0.4, 0.6
z/Hd
u
(
z
,
t
)
/
u
(
z
,
0
)
Tv 0 0.05 , 0.95 .. :=
z 0 0.5 , 20 .. :=
u
i
z ( )
z
Ht
:= Intial pore pressure Ht 20 := Hd 10 := Drainage Distance
Trianular Initial Excess Pore Pressure:Double Drained case




15
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
20
40
60
80
100
Uave v.s. Tv
Tv
U
a
v
e

(
%
)
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
u(z,t) for Tv=0.2, 0.4, 0.6
z/Hd
u
(
z
,
t
)
/
u
(
z
,
0
)
u
i
z ( ) 1
z
Ht
z Ht if
z Ht ( )
Ht
otherwise
:= Intial pore pressure
Ht 20 := Hd 20 := Drainage Distance
Inverse Trianular Initial Excess Pore Pressure:Single Drained case
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
20
40
60
80
100
Uave v.s. Tv
Tv
U
a
v
e

(
%
)
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
u(z,t) for Tv=0.2, 0.4, 0.6
z/Hd
u
(
z
,
t
)
/
u
(
z
,
0
)
Tv 0 0.05 , 0.95 .. :=
z 0 0.5 , 20 .. :=
u
i
z ( ) 1
z
Ht
:= Intial pore pressure Ht 20 := Hd 10 := Drainage Distance
Inverse Trianular Initial Excess Pore Pressure:Double Drained case


If a stratum is doubly drained, any linearly distributed initial excess pore pressure case gives
an identical average degree of consolidation curve. This is due to the fact that sum of any two
solutions to the equation is also a solution. However, if a stratum is singly drained, triangular and
inversely triangular initial pore pressure distribution give different average degree of consolidation
time curves. This can easily be appreciated viewing the distribution of pressure as over a depth of
2H
t
, which is symmetrical about H
t
, and thus not linear. The following MathCAD sheet generates
three corresponding time curves. It is important to make sure that boundary conditions are
compatible before attempting superposition in getting a new result.



16
Analytical Solution
u z Tv , u
i
, Hd , ( )
0
10
m
sin
m
2
z
Hd

\
|
.
exp
m
2
|

\
|
.
2
Tv

(
(

0
2 Hd
z'
u
i
z' ( )
Hd
sin
m
2
z'
Hd

\
|
.

(
(

=
:=
Uave u
i
Tv , Hd , ( )
0
2 Hd
z u
i
z ( )

d
0
2 Hd
z u z Tv , u
i
, Hd , ( )

d
0
2 Hd
z u
i
z ( )

d
:=
Three Curves for Linear u
i
Hd 1 :=
Ht Hd := z 0 0.05 , 2 Hd .. :=
Double Drained or uniform u
i

u
i
z ( ) 1 :=
Trangular and single drained
u
t
z ( )
z
Ht
z Ht if
2 Ht z
Ht
otherwise
:=
Inverse Triangular and Single Drained
u
it
z ( ) 1
z
Ht
z Ht if
z Ht
Ht
otherwise
:=
Tv 0.001 0.025 , 0.95 .. :=
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
20
40
60
80
100
Uave v.s Tv
Tv
U
a
v
e

(
%
)


Figure Average degree of consolidation curves for
initially linear pore pressure

We have written a package of programs for 1-D consolidation analysis. The first option includes
animation that provides a visualization of various scenarios. A screen shot is given below. One can



17
select different initial loading and boundary conditions, as well as C
v
values. Two versions are
provided, one is to pick a time t, the other t will be automatically incremented as animation
progresses.




Download and install the program Conso: 1) there are three files that should be placed in one
single folder first; 2) click setup.exe to install. The files are 1Dconso.cab, setup.exe, and setup.lst.
The best way to download is click the right mouse and use save the target option.



18

5.7 Finite Difference Solution

Analytical solutions apply only to problems involving a homogeneous soil deposit. One has
to resort to numerical solutions for more complicated problems such as inhomogeneous non-linear
soils. Finite difference approximation is an efficient way to solve 1-D consolidation problems.
Comparing with the seepage problem, the governing equation in consolidation has one additional
independent variable--time. As such, the discretization is required not only for space but also for
time.

Let us assume here that we have already obtain the solution of all the u(z,t) up to time t, and
is on the way to find the solution u(z,t+ t). An immediate question is--At what time should the
governing equation be posed? If we use the time t, we will be using the so-called explicit scheme.
In contrast, if time t+ t is used, we will be using an implicit scheme.

5.7.1 Explicit Scheme

All the solutions up to time t are found, and the governing equation is posed at time t, i.e.,



For the left side first order time derivative, the easiest finite difference approximation will be
the forward difference, whereas for the right side second order spatial derivative term, the central
difference approximation is the least involved. This is called a Forward Time and Central Space, or
FTCS, algorithm. The order of truncation error is O( t) and O( z
2
), which can be written as
O( t+h
2
). Substituting these approximations, Eq. (26) becomes,


Consequently, the solution at t+ t is found as,


where,

|
|
|

|
|
|

z
u
=
t
u
2
2
t t
26

z
t) z, - u(z + t) u(z, 2 - t) z, + [u(z
=
t
t)] u(z, - t) + t [u(z,
2

27
t)] z, - u(z + t) u(z, 2 - t) z, + [u(z + t) u(z, = t) + t u(z, 28



19

Eq. (28) is referred to as a explicit scheme because the unknown u(z,t+t) is expressed
explicitly as a function of known values. The solution is advanced without the necessity of equation
solving. One starts from t=0, for at that time u(z,0) at all z are given as the initial conditions.
Knowing the boundary conditions, u(z, t) are determined. By repeating this procedure, the solution
over time is found.

Let us now implement this solution. For a typical homogeneous clay deposit, we may start
by disretizing the soil into n layers with a total of n+1 nodes. Let us number these nodes from 1 to
N+1. Assuming that at time t, u at nodes from 1 to N+1 have already been found, and that their
values at time t+t are to be obtained. Let us re-write the equation using indices i=z
i
, j=t
j
,
i+1=z
i
+z, and j+1= t
j
+t. For any interior node, say node i, we therefore have



There are two boundary nodes node 1 and node N+1. Node 1 is at the top and often
represents a pervious boundary. In that case, for any t greater than 0, u
1
(t) will be 0. For node N+1,
consider for now that it is also pervious then u
N+1
(t)=0. Tthe simultaneous equations set up at any
time t=j for a doubly drained deposit can be written in a matrix form as,


The solution from one time step, j, multiplies with a coefficient matrix gives the solution for
the next time step, j+1. This process is easy, but one also pays a price for using an explicit scheme.
An explicit scheme has a major drawback that t has to be small, otherwise the solution may not be
stable, i.e., the solution may go wild, i.e., any error will be amplified to render a solution useless.
This may place a substantial burden in the calculation cost. In a one dimensional consolidation
analysis, however, this drawback does not constitute a significant setback. From stability

z
t
C
=
2
v

29

u
+
u
) 2 - (1 +
u
= .
]
u
+
u
2 -
u
[ +
u
=
u
j
1 + i
j
i
j
1 - i
j
1 + i
j
i
j
1 - i
j
i
1 + j
i


30

(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(
(

+
+
1
2
1
1
0
0
2
N
N
j
N
2
j
u
u
.
u
u
=
u
.
u
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
. . . . . . . . . .
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1


(31)



20
consideration, has to be kept no greater than 1/2. Scott has suggested that a choice of =1/6 may
give a satisfactory results. A discussion on stability consideration is given later.

If the bottom boundary is impervious, a no flow condition has to be imposed, which is
equivalent to employ a fictitious u at node N+1 with the constraint that u
N
=u
N+2
. Substituting this
result into the governing equation posed at node N+1 and eliminating the variables associated with
the imaginary node, we obtained at the impervious node N+1


The last row of Eq. (38) can be modified for an impervious node N+1 as follows

5.7.2 A Fully Implicit Scheme

Considering that all the solutions up to time t are obtained, but that the governing equation is
posed at the advanced time t+T as follows,


Applying the same order of the finite difference approximation as used previously except
that now the backward difference is used for the time derivative, and rearranging the equation, we
obtained


Using the same discretization procedure, this equation for an interior node i becomes,


Rearranging the equation by moving all the unknowns to the left, and knowns to the right, gives

]
u
2 -
u
2 [ +
u
=
u
j
1 + N
j
N
j
1 + N
1 + j
1 + N
(32)
]
u
][ 2 - 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 [0 = ]
u
[
j
1 + N
1 + j
1 + N
(33)

|
|
|

|
|
|

z
u
=
t
u
2
2
t + t t + t
(34)
t)] + t z, - u(z + t) + t 2u(z, - t) + t z, + [u(z + t) u(z, = t) + t u(z, (35)
| |
u
+
u
2 -
u
+
u
=
u
1 + j
1 + i
1 + j
i
1 + j
1 - i
j
i
1 + j
i
(36)



21

The simultaneous equations in a matrix form for a doubly drained deposit therefore is,


It is clear that this scheme requires solving all the unknowns at time j simultaneously, and
thus is called implicit scheme. It is computationally more involved because of the need to solve the
simultaneous equations. The gain of using an implicit scheme is that the solution is unconditionally
stable and a larger time step can be used. The time step is governed by the accuracy requirement.
The truncation error for the present formulation is still O( t+z
2
). Burnett (1987) has concluded
that this fully implicit scheme "although not always optimal from a computational efficiency
standpoint, it is nevertheless a reliable and robust algorithm and relatively easy to program. The
Thomas tridigonal algorithm can easily be implemented.

5.7.3 Other Implicit Schemes

The solution process as we have discussed so far is to obtain solution u(z,t+ t) based upon
u(z,t). We should be able to improve the solution by focus on how the variables should behave
within the time period from t to t+ t than either focus on the neighborhood of either t or on t+ t.
Various schemes have been proposed in the past along this line. We will discuss a general method
(Richtmyer and Morton, 1967) first. Basically, the method poses the governing equation at a certain
time t+ t as follows,


where, lies between 0 and 1.

If one further approximate that within this t time interval the unknown u to be linear, i.e.,

u
=
u
-
u
) 2 + (1 +
u
-
j
i
1 + j
1 + i
1 + j
i
1 + j
1 - i
(37)

(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(
(

0
u
.
u
0
=
u
u
.
u
u
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
- 2 + 1 - 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
. . . . . . . . . .
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 - 2 + 1 -
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
j
N
j
2
1 + j
1 + N
1 + j
N
1 + j
2
1 + j
1


(38)

|
|
|

|
|
|

z
u

C
=
t
u
2
2
t + t
v
t + t
(39)



22
The error of this approximation can be estimated usingTaylor series expansion. So is the resulting
error of the approximation that follows,
Substituting Eqs (40) and (41) into Eq. (39) gives


For an interior node i, the forward difference is used for the time derivative at t, and
backward difference at t+t, the method gives the following finite difference equation,


Again, rearranging Eq. (43) so that the knowns are on the right side of the equation, and the
unknowns on the left, we obtained


where,


For a doubly drained homogeneous deposit that has been divided into N layers, we can
readily write down the simultaneous equation as follows,

, , , u + u ) - (1 = u
t + t t t + t

(40)

t
u
-
u
t
u
t t + t
t + t

|
|
|

(41)

]
u
+
u
2 -
u
[
z
C
+ ]
u
+
u
2 -
u
[
z
) - (1
C
= .
z
u
+
u
2 -
u
=
t
u -
u
t + t
z + z
t + t
z
t + T
z - z
2
v t
z + z
t
z
t
z - z
2
v
2
t + t
z + z
t + t
z
t + t
z - z
t
z
t + t
z

(42)
)
u
+
u
2 -
u
( + )
u
+
u
2 -
u
( ) - (1 +
u
=
u
1 + j
1 - i
1 + j
i
1 + j
1 + i
j
1 - i
j
i
j
1 + i
j
i
1 + j
i
(43)

j
i
1 + j
1 + i
1 + j
i
1 + j
1 - i
=
u
-
u
) 2 + (1 +
u
- (44)
)
u
+
u
2 -
u
( ) - (1 +
u
=
j
1 - i
j
i
j
1 + i
j
i
j
i
(45)



23
The top and bottom rows can be removed from further consideration. If the bottom is an impervious
boundary instead, the no flow condition has to be implemented. Following the same consideration of
using an imaginary N+2 node, we obtain,


where,

The coefficient matrix remains tridiagonal.

The method becomes a fully implicit scheme if =1, and an explicit scheme if =0.
When =0.5, it becomes the well-known Crank-Nicolson method. Also when lies between 0.5
and 1, the scheme is unconditionally stable.

Since the time derivative for Crank-Nicolson method is evaluated at mid-span of a t, it is
actually a central difference approximation using a time interval of 1/2t. Therefore, Crank-
Nicolson scheme has a higher order of truncation error O( t
2
). Whereas for all other values, the
truncation error in time is still O( t). Crank-Nicolson method therefore gives a more accurate result
using the same t. But this unfortunately is only true if t is small enough. In general, if t is not
small enough, the numerical solution will oscillate, and Crank-Nicolson method is the most
oscillatory. t can not be small either, otherwise a false speed of pore pressure dissipation with
depth will also introduces some error.

Stability consideration can be obtained by requiring that pore pressure be monotonically
decreasing with time. By removing the top and bottom rows, we cast Eq. (46) in the following form
by taking 1 out of the diagonal as follows,


(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(
(

0
.
0
=
u
u
.
u
u
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
- 2 + 1 - 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
. . . . . . . . . .
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 - 2 + 1 -
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
N
2
j
1 + N
N
2
1
1 + j

j
1 + N
1 + j
1 + N
1 + j
N
=
u
) 2 + (1 +
u
2 - (47)
)
u
2 -
u
(2 ) - (1 +
u
=
j
1 + N
j
N
j
1 + N
j
1 + N
(48)



24
| | | |
(
(
(

(
(
(

+
u
u
=
u
u
N
j
N
1 + j
: ) 1 ( :
2 2
A I A I (49)
where, I is the identity matrix .By further taking out t out of from the A matrix, we have
(
(
(

(
(
(

u
u
t
=
u
u
t
N
j
N
1 + j
: ) 1 (
1
:
1
2 2
A I A I (50)
where,
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
2 2
2 2 2
2 2
2
. .
. . . .
0
2
0 0
2
z
C
z
C
z
C
z
C
z
C
z
C
z
C
v v
v v v
v v
A (51)
The eigenvalues of A
-
determine the character of the solutions. This can be seen from modal
decomposition. Let the eigenvalue for mode i be denoted as
i
, while its corresponding eigenvector
as
i
. Apply modal decomposition to the pore pressure at time i and i+1 as follows,

=
(
(
(

+
m
j
m
N
1 + j
u
u
m

1
2
: (52)

=
(
(
(

m
j
m
N
j
u
u
m
:
2


where,
1 + j
m
and
1 + j
m
are constants.
For normalized eigenvectors we have
i
T
=
i i
A , 1 =
i i

T
; and 0 =
i j
A
T
, 0 =
i j

T
if
j i. Pre-multiplying the equation with
T
i
after decomposition gives,
j
i i
j
i i
t t

|
.
|

\
|

=
|
.
|

\
|
+

+
) 1 (
1 1
1
(53)
or,
j
i i
j
i
i
i
j
i
R
t
t

=
|
.
|

\
|
+

|
.
|

\
|

=
+
1
) 1 (
1
1
(54)



25

If
j
i
j
i
<
+1
for all i, the pore pressure will dissipate with time. To ensure such a stable
solution dictates the absolute value of the ratio,
i
R , 1 <
i
R . If there exists one 0 <
i
R , some
mode will swing between positive and negative values. This swing may or may not show as
oscillation in the resulting pore pressure curve. It all depends upon the participation of that
mode. Thus, the oscillation free criterion is a necessary but not a sufficient condition.

To illustrate this point, the following examples use Crank-Nicolson time marching
scheme. When =0.5, the solution is stable and non-oscillatory; while =0.6, the solution is
still stable but fail to meet oscillation free criterion. However, an consolidation analysis using
=0.6 did not give oscillatory pore pressure distribution.

It immediately follows that it is the absolute value of the largest eigenvalue,
max
, that dominates
the criterion. For a oscillation free for a homogeneous ground, t has to satisfy ( Zienkiewicz and
Morgan, 1982),

max
) 1 (
1

< t
(49)

This clearly demonstrates, for lies between 0.5 and 1, that =0.5 is the most oscillatory, while
=1 the solution is not oscillatory for any t. While a stability condition requires,

2 ) 2 1 (
max
< t (56)
When 5 . 0 , Eq. (56) is satisfied for any t, and stability is satisfied unconditionally. Whereas
for 5 . 0 0 < , the stability is condional.



26
sort
( )
:= rearrange the eiigenvalues

T
0.098 0.382 0.824 1.382 2 2.618 3.176 3.618 3.902 ( ) =
Find eigenvectors for corresponding eigenvalues
i 0 8 .. :=

i
eigenvec A
i
, ( ) :=
i
T
=
i i
A 0 =
i j

T
Show that
and

2
T
A
2
0.824 ( ) =
2
0.824 =
OK

5
T
A
1
0 ( ) =
5
T

1
0 ( ) = OK
Check stability ratio R
i 0 8 .. :=
R
i
1
t
1
( )

i

1
t

i
+
:=
R
T
0.952 0.826 0.658 0.486 0.333 0.209 0.115 0.05 0.012 ( ) =
Satisfy stability and oscillation-free criteria
A stable and non-oscillating Example 0.5 :=
Cv 1 := z 1 := t 0.5 :=

Cv t
z
2
:= '
Cv
z
2
:=
0.5 =
Define A matrix
i 0 8 .. := j 0 8 .. :=
A
i j ,
0 :=
A
0 0 ,
2 ' := A
0 1 ,
' :=
i 1 7 .. :=
A
i i 1 ,
' := A
i i ,
2 ' := A
i i 1 + ,
' :=
A
8 7 ,
' := A
8 8 ,
2 ' :=
Find Eigenvalues
eigenvalsA ( ) :=





27
A stable but may oscillate Example 0.5 :=
Cv 1 := z 1 := t 0.6 := 0.6 =

T
0.098 0.382 0.824 1.382 2 2.618 3.176 3.618 3.902 ( ) =
R
T
0.943 0.794 0.603 0.414 0.25 0.12 0.024 0.041 0.079 ( ) =
Satisfy stability but not oscillation-free criteria






28
5.8 The Case of a Multi-Layer Deposit

When a clay deposit is stratified, it is necessary to divide the ground into a mutli-layer
system and assign different soil properties for each layer. At an interface between two layers, the
flow continuity condition has to be explicitly implemented because the flow gradient is no longer
continuous. We will derive the modified equation for an explicit scheme first.

Let us examine a node i which lies on the boundary between layer n and layer n+1 as
depicted in Fig. 5. Similar to seepage problems, the continuity dictates that (Here, we consider the
change in z is not significant. If this is not the case, z is updated at each time step. In other wards,
Largrangian approach is implied.)

Here, the difference in the void ratio is included. Again, substitute h=h
s
+u/
w
, and recognize that h
s

also satisfies the continuity, the above equation becomes,


By maintaining a consistent order of error in z, a modified explicit finite difference
equation can be obtained as follows,


where,



z
h
e
k
=
z
h
e
k
1) + n (layer i
n 1 + n
n) (layer i
n n

+
+
) 1 ( ) 1 (
1
(50)

z
u
e
k
=
z
u
e
k
layer) 1 + i(n
n 1 + n
layer) i(n
n n

+
+
) 1 ( ) 1 (
1
(51)

u m u
)]
m
+
m
( + [1
u m
=
u
j
1 - i n
j
i n 1 + n
j
1 + i 1 + n
1 + j
i
+ (52)

) + (
2
=
m
,
) + (
2
=
m
1 + n
1 + n
n
n
1 + n
1 + n
1 + n
1 + n
n
n
n
n

(53)

z
t
C
= ,
e
k
=
2
(n)
v(n)
n
z(n)
n n
n

) 1 (
(54)



29

Eq. (55) becomes identical to Eq. (37) if the soil is homogeneous.

For non-explicit schemes, we may extend the above results through simple substitution at a
node i between layers n and n+1. This can be done by substituting the 2 in front of all ui terms,
either at time j or time j+1, with (mn+mn+1); the in front of ui-1 and ui+1 are to be replaced with
mn and mn+1 respectively. Eqs. (54) and (55) for an interior node on a boundary therefore becomes,

where,



Since the coefficient of the permeability is not needed except in the calculation of , we do
not need the exact value of k, but a relative magnitude between layers. As such, in the program, one
is asked to input k with values relative to other layers.


5.10 Time-Dependent Loading

In reality, a loading is never placed instantaneously. For some problems, the approximation
that assumes loading to be instantaneous may be acceptable. For others, it may be not. In this latter
situation, the problems can be easily handled through finite difference formulation.

In the case of a homogeneous ground, analytical solutions have been obtained by Schiffman
(1958) and Aboshi et al. (1970) for a time-dependent loading increased at a constant rate. This
solution can easily be obtained through a simple integration. In the case of a singly drained stratum,
the pore pressure at time t is a function of the loading at time t, ) (t , as follows

)
`

=
] )
4
( exp[ 1 )
2
sin(
1 ) ( 16
) , (
2 2
0
3 3 v
d m v
T
M
H
z M
M T
t
t z u

where, M=2m+1


A MathCAD implementation is given below for the case that loading is applied under a
constant rate until t=0.2T
v
and remains constant afterwards as depicted below.

G
=
u m
-
u
)]
m
+
m
( + [1 +
u m
-
j
i
1 + j
1 + i 1 + n
1 + j
i 1 + n n
1 + j
1 - i n
(55)
]
u m
+
u
)
m
+
m
( -
u m
)[ - (1 +
u
=
G
j
1 + i 1 + n
j
i 1 + n n
j
1 - i n
j
i
j
i
(56)



30

The time-dependent analytical solution applies only for t 0.2T
v
. For t beyond that point, we will
resort to the time-independent solution again but using T
v
=T
v
-0.2, and u(z,T
v
=0.2) as the initial pore
pressure.

Consolidation under time depdent loading
When Tv<=0.2
use herein z'
z
Hd
t ( )
1
Tv
0.2
u z' Tv , ( )
16
Tv
0.2

3
Tv
0
10
m
1
2 m 1 + ( )
3
sin
2 m 1 + ( ) z'
2

(
(

1 e
2 m 1 + ( )
2

2

4
Tv

(
(
(

(
(
(
(

:=
z 0 0.05 , 1 .. :=
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
0.5
1
Tv=0.05, 0.1, 0.2
u(z,Tv)
z
/
H

In this case, as T
v
increases, loading also increases thus pore pressure also increases.




31
When Tv>0.2
Use u(z,Tv=0.2) as the initial excess pore pressure distribution for a time-invariant loadin
i 0 1 , 40 .. :=
u0
i
u
i
40
0.2 ,
|

\
|
.
:= x
i
i
40
:=
interpolate u0 as a initial pore pressure function
ui z ( ) linterpx u0 , z , ( ) :=
Ht 1 := Hd 1 :=
u
i
z ( ) ui z ( ) z Ht if
ui 2 Ht z ( ) otherwise
:=
Intial pore pressure for singly drained
u z Tv , u
i
, Hd ,
( )
0
10
m
sin
m
2
z
Hd

\
|
.
exp
m
2
|

\
|
.
2
Tv 0.2 ( )

(
(

0
2 Hd
z'
u
i
z' ( )
Hd
sin
m
2
z'
Hd

\
|
.

(
(

(
(
(
(

:=
z 0 0.05 , 1 .. :=
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
0.5
1
Tv=0.2, 0.4, 0.8,1.0
u(z,Tv)
z
/
H

Here, the pore pressure decreases as T
v
increases.

The definition of average degree of consolidation can be ambiguous. At time t, U
ave
(t) has been
defined in terms of the current loading, ) (t , as

=
H
H H
ave
dz t
dz t z u dz t
t U
) (
) , ( ) (
) (

This leads to a solution as
)
`

=
] )
4
( exp[ 1
1 32
1 ) (
2 2
0
4 4 v
m v
ave
T
M
M T
t U

32

We prefer a definition that use as the base the final loading,
F
, as follows,

=
H
F
H H
F
ave
dz
dz t z u dz
t U

) , (
) (
where,
F
represents the final loading reached.

Since the final settlement, S
cf
, is based upon
F
, and the above definition validates the equation,
(t)
U S
= (t)
S ave cf c

The is implemented in the program developed.

Returning to Eq. (22), a finite difference approximation posed with the method becomes,


The loading or the forcing term can be moved to the right-hand side of the equation. As a result, the
general equation as represented by Eq. (70) is still valid. The only modification can be implemented
to the G
i
j
term as follows,




By proper choosing the value, Eqs. (58) and (59) provide the basis for application in the
cases involving time dependent loadings.

Verification Example

To verify the code developed, a problem involving a time-dependent loading applied to a
homogeneous ground is solved and compared with the analytical solution. For this case, C
v
=1
ft
2
/day, H
d
=H
t
=10 ft,
F
=1 tsf, and the loading is applied at a rate of 0.05 tsf per day, i.e., it takes 20
days for the load to be completely added, or at t=0.2T
v
the load reaches its final value of 1 tsf. The
implicit scheme is used in this example.

A screen shot of the sample run is given below. For this particular example, settlement is not a
concern, CR=0.15, RR=0.03 were used. The soil is considered normally: the maximum stress history

|
|
|

|
|
|

|
|
|

t
u
C
=
t
-
t
u
2
2
v
t + t
v
t + t t + t

(57)
] - [ + ]
u m
+
u
)
m
+
m
( -
u m
)[ - (1 +
u
=
G
1 + j
v
j
v
j
1 + i n
j
i 1 + n n
j
1 - i n
j
i
j
i
(58)



33
equals the current stress. The stress increment input is that corresponds to
F
.





The results obtained match that of the analytical solution as attested by the summary plots of pore
pressure distribution given below. In the plot, the solid line represents the analytical solution, the
dash line the numerical solution.




34

Figure Comparisons of numerical versus analytical solutions.



5.6 Soil Non-linearity

Both the m
v
and C
v
are nonlinear function of void ratio and stress history. A sample test data
showing how C
v
varies as a function of stress history is duplicated below. On the other hand,
permeability, k, is a function of void ratio, e. A trend of how k varies with e in a consolidation test
by Terzaghi et al.(1996) is presented in Fig..

The soil non-linearity can be incorporated through the finite difference scheme by adopt a
C
v
-log
10
OCR curve, and a log k e curve. (This part of the code is in progress.)




35

Figure Variation of C
v
as a function of stress history



36

Figure Variation of permeability k as a function of void ratio e


5.11 Relaxation Solution

As we already established the finite difference formulations, we are now ready to implement
a relaxation solution. In contrast to what we have exercised in the seepage problem, the two
dimensions are both spatial dimensions, and the solutions are all tackled simultaneously, in the
present problem, our solutions are actually reached first at one time, then propagate to the other time.
For simplicity, let us first discuss the explicit solution to a homogeneous ground. We set up a
column as the pore water pressure distribution for each time that a solution is desired.

The finite difference formulation for any interior node i is Eq. (35) which can be applied
directly, whereas at an impervious boundary, Eq. (40) applies.

Let us examine a simple homogeneous clay stratum with single drainage boundary
condition. The table of an EXCEL implementation is summarized as follows. The example run is
shown in Fig. .



37


A B C D E
1 1-D Consolidation Analysis of a Homogeneous Clay Deposit
2 Cv> KEY IN START> KEY IN
3 dz> KEY IN
4 beta> KEY IN
5 dt> @IF($D$2=0,0,$B$
4*$B$3*$B$3/$B$2
)

6 TIME (t):
7 DEPTH(Z) 0 @IF($D$2=0,0,$B$5) @IF($D$2=0,0,$B$5+
C7)
COPY D7
8 0 1 0 0 0
9 $B$3 1 @IF($D$2=0,1,(1-
2*$B$4)*B9+$B$4*B10)
COPY C9 COPY D9
10 $B$3+A9 1 @IF($D$2=0,1,$B$4*B9+(1-
2*$B$4)*B10+$B$4*B11)
COPY C10 COPY D10
11 COPY A10 1 COPY C10 COPY C10 COPY D11
12 COPY A10 . . . .
13 COPY A10 . COPY C10 COPY C10 COPY D13
14 COPY A10 1 @IF($D$2=0,1,2*$B$4*B13+(
1-2*$B$4)*B14)
COPY C14 COPY D14
15 AVERAGE DEGREE OF CONSOLIDATION, Uave
16 Area: @SUM(B8..B14)-
0.5*(B8+B14)
COPY B16 Copy C16 COPY D16
17 Uave(%): 1-(B16/$B$16) COPY B17 COPY C17 COPY D17

The relaxation solution can be extended to any desired time by simply copying the last
column as many times as required. For example, copying D7..D17 to column E at E7 to E17 gives
the results at t=2dt. One should continue this copying process to columns beyond column E until the
answer is obtained. Here, we have used trapezoidal rule for the evaluation of the average degree of
consolidation. A sample result of this spreadsheet is given below. The results are also plotted
following the procedure detailed in Chapter 2.






38



1-D Consolidation Analysis of a Homogeneous Clay Deposit
Cv> 0.001 START> 1
dz> 0.1
beta> 0.2
dt> 2
TIME (t)
DEPTH(Z) 0 2 4 6 8 10
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0.1 1 1 0.8 0.68 0.6 0.5424
0.2 1 1 1 0.96 0.912 0.8656
0.3 1 1 1 1 0.992 0.9776
0.4 1 1 1 1 1 0.9984
0.5 1 1 1 1 1 0.9968
AVERAGE DEGREE OF CONSOLIDATION
AREA: 5 4.5 4.3 4.14 4.004 3.8824
U(%): 0 0.1 0.14 0.172 0.1992 0.22352



39
A two-layer Excel template
A B C D E
1 1-D Consolidation Analysis of a Two-Layer Clay Deposit
2 START> KEY IN A
POSITIVE
NUMBER
LAYER1 LAYER2
3 Cv> INPUT INPUT
4 dz> INPUT INPUT
5 dt> INPUT
6 k> INPUT INPUT
7 ALPHA> @IF($B$2=0,0,D6/$D$4) COPY D7
8 BETA> @IF($B$2=0,0,D3*D5/$D$4/$
D$4)
COPY D8
9 TIME AXIS
10 Mn DEPTH(Z) 0 @IF($B$2=0,0,$D$5+C10)

COPY D10
11 @IF($B$2=0,0,$
D$8)
0 1 0 COPY D11
12 COPY A11 $B$4+B11 1 @IF($B$2=0,1,(1-
2*$A12)*C12+$A12*C13)

COPY D12
. . . @IF($B$2=0,1,$A13*C12+(1-
2*$A13)*C13+$A13*C14)
COPY D13
14 COPY A11 COPY B12 1 COPY D13 COPY D14
15* @IF
($B$2=0,0,2*$D$
7/($D$7/$D$8+$
E7/$E8))
COPY B12 . @IF($B$2=0,1,$A$14*C14+(1-
$A14-$A16)*C15+$A16*C16)
COPY D15
16 @IF($B$2=0,0,2*
$E$7/($D7/$D$8
+$E$7/$E$8))
COPY B12 . @IF($B$2=0,1,C15*$E$8+
C16*(1-2*$A16)+C17*$A16)
COPY D16
17 @IF($B$2=0,0,$
E$8)
COPY B12 1 COPY D16 COPY D17
18 COPY A17 COPY B12 1 IF($B$2=0,1,2*$A18*C16+(1-
2*$A18)*C17)
COPY D18
19 AVERAGE DEGREE OF CONSOLIDATION, Uave



40
20 AREA: (@SUM(C11..C15)-
0.5*(C11+C15))*$D$4+(@SUM(
C15..C18)-
0.5*(C15+C18))*$E$4
COPY C20 COPY D20
21 Uave(%): 1-(C20/$C$20) COPY C21 COPY D21

Note: Node 15 is located on an interface.

5.12 Time dependent settlement

To evaluate the settlement as a function of time, the stress increment ) (t
v
at any given
time is needed, which is found as
) ( ) ( t u t
e
v v
=

A program that combines the consolidation equation with the settlement calculation is
developed. The details of running the program is presented below,

After specify the number of stratum, the time desired, an input is required of the consolidation
characteristics





41
Japan's Sinking Airport
Japan's artificial island in Osaka Bay that was to hold the $7.7-billion Kansai International Airport
was sinking at a much faster rate than originally anticipated. The 1,263-acre island was built in
59 ft of water on top of a soft, water-saturated alluvial clay layer 66-ft thick and a diluvial layer of
clay beneath it with sand lenses about 1,000 ft thick. Though geologists presented a wide range
of possible total settlements, the project's engineers based their design on the optimistic end of
the range because of budget pressures and the little that could have been done to speed
settlement. Because of the increased settlement, engineers estimated that consolidation would
be two to three times greater than expected within the diluvial layer, so they decided to increase
the depth of fill by 11 ft, making it 108 ft (ENR 1/7/91 p. 9).


Example A clay stratum as depicted below is subjected to an instantaneous ground surface loading.
Find the settlement of clay 3 months after the loading is applied. For the sand, use a unit weight of
115 pcf, and for clay 120 pcf. For N.C clay, use Cv=10
-2
cm
2
/s, for O.C clay, use
2
OCR C C
v v
= .
RR=0.05, CR=0.15.


Solution:

In preparation for input, the maximum past pressure and the required C
v
are obtained. For simplicity,
a permeability ratio of 1 is used. The OC clay is divided into 4 sratum, while the NC is input as one
layer, i.e.,



42

The necessary input are computed as follows,

v
z ( ) 115 2 z 2 ( ) 120 62.4 ( ) + :=
OCR z ( ) if z 12 4
z 2 ( )
10
3 , 1 ,

(
(

:=

vm
z ( )
v
z ( ) OCR z ( ) := z
2
4.5
7
9.5
12
27
|

\
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
:=
c
v
z ( ) 10
2 24 60 60
30.48 30.48
OCR z ( ) := ft*ft/day
i 0 5 .. :=
0 10 20
0
1000
2000

vm
z
i
( )

v
z
i
( )
z
i

v
z
i
( )
230
374
518
662
806
1.6710
3
= OCR z
i
( )
4
3.25
2.5
1.75
1
1
=
vm
z
i
( )
920
1.21610
3
1.29510
3
1.15910
3
806
1.6710
3
= c
v
z
i
( )
3.72
3.023
2.325
1.628
0.93
0.93
=


This gives,



43



The settlement at time t=180 days is found to be 1.613 ft as detailed below.

Layer Layer Initial Current Max past OC NC
No dz Stress Stress Pressure Settlement Settlement
1 0.5 244.4
2240.76
9 949.6 0.01474 0.02796
2 0.5 273.2 2262.31 1008.8 0.01418 0.02631
3 0.5 302
2283.86
4 1068 0.01371 0.02476
4 0.5 330.8 2305.44 1127.2 0.01331 0.02331
5 0.5 359.6
2327.04
6 1186.4 0.01296 0.02194
6 0.5 388.4
2348.69
4 1223.9 0.01246 0.02123
7 0.5 417.2
2370.39
8 1239.7 0.01182 0.02111
8 0.5 446
2392.17
3 1255.5 0.01124 0.021
9 0.5 474.8
2414.02
8 1271.3 0.01069 0.02089
10 0.5 503.6
2435.97
5 1287.1 0.01019 0.02078
11 0.5 532.4
2458.03
3 1281.4 0.00954 0.02122
12 0.5 561.2
2480.23
2 1254.2 0.00873 0.02221
13 0.5 590
2502.59
6 1227 0.00795 0.02322
14 0.5 618.8
2525.13
8 1199.8 0.00719 0.02424
15 0.5 647.6 2547.87 1172.6 0.00645 0.02528
16 0.5 676.4
2570.85
6 1123.7 0.00551 0.02696
17 0.5 705.2
2594.21
4 1053.1 0.00435 0.02937



44
18 0.5 734
2618.01
7 982.5 0.00317 0.03192
19 0.5 762.8
2642.28
4 911.9 0.00194 0.03465
20 0.5 791.6
2667.03
5 841.3 0.00066 0.03758
21 3 892.4
2760.18
5 892.4 NA 0.22067
22 3 1065.2 2932.19 1065.2 NA 0.19789
23 3 1238
3124.82
5 1238 NA 0.18095
24 3 1410.8
3335.01
6 1410.8 NA 0.16813
25 3 1583.6
3556.96
1 1583.6 NA 0.15815
0.18079 1.43173
Total= 1.61252

The pore pressure at t=0,60, 120 and 180 days are summarized below:
u(z,t)
2
7
12
17
22
27
0 1000 2000
u(z,t)
z
t=0
t=60 days
t=120
days
t=180
days

The Uave(t) curve obtained is also plotted below.



45
Uave(t)
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0 50 100 150 200
t (days)
U
a
v
e
(
t
)




46

5.13 Consolidation Analysis involving Sand Drains

Sand drains are frequently used to accelerate the process of consolidation. It is often used in
connection with preloading. With the installation of sand drains, the pore water will flow not only in
vertical direction, but also in the horizontal direction. Sand drains are generally installed in a certain
pattern. For the purpose of analysis, one will take the area surrounding a sand drain that water may
flows into and idealize it into a cylindrical shape. If the assumptions as discussed before regarding to
the validity of a 1-D consolidation problem still hold, in particular, volume change is completely due
to vertical strain. The governing equation after this idealization is,


where, an additional term is added to the classic consolidation equation in which C
r
is the coefficient
of consolidation in the radial direction with respect to a sand drain, r is the radial distance measured
from its center.

Since a sand drain wall is a pervious boundary, the boundary conditions of a sand drain
problem are,


Notice that in Eq. (74) u is a function of not only z and t, but also of r, i.e., u(z,r,t). The
numerical solution of a sand drain problem requires a discretization therefore also of the r direction.
If C
v
is a function of only z, whereas C
r
is a function of only r, the solution to Eq. (74) can be
decoupled as a multiplication of the following,


where, u(z,t) is a solution to the 1-D consolidation problem, i.e., Eq. (74) without the radial term,
whereas, u(r,t) is a solution to a 1-D radial consolidation problem, i.e., Eq. (74) without the vertical
drainage term.

As C
v
and C
r
are generally non-linear, to obtain a numerical solution, one have to discretize
the flow region surrounding a sand drain both in the vertical and in the radial directions. To begin
)
r
u
+
r
u
r
1
(
C
+
z
u
C
=
t
u
2
2
r
2
2
v

(59)

R
= r , 0 =
r
u
R
= r , 0 = u
e
w

(60)
t) u(r, t) u(z, = t) r, u(z, (61)



47
with the discussion, let us focus on a homogeneous soil stratum, and concentrate on the use of a fully
explicit scheme. For the indices, i stands for z
i
, j for t
j
and k for r
k
. The finite difference
approximations involved are,




where, r
k
is the distance from the center of a sand drain to the k-th discretization point in the radial
direction.

By substituting Eqs. (77) to (80) into Eq. (74), we obtained a fully explicit finite difference
approximation equation to a sand drain problem;


where,

Rearranging Eq. (81) we obtained for an interior node (i,k) the following equation,

t
u
-
u
=
t
u
j
k i,
1 + j
k i,
j
k i,

|
|
|

(62)
]
u
+
u
2 -
u
[
r
1
=
r
u
j
1 + k i,
j
k i,
j
1 - k i,
2 2
2
j
k i,

|
|
|

(63)
]
u
-
u
[
r
r
2
1
=
r
u
r
1
j
1 - k i,
j
1 + k i,
k
j
k i,

|
|
|

(64)
]
u
+
u
2 -
u
[
z
1
=
z
u
j
k 1, + i
j
k i,
j
k 1, - i
2 2
2
j
k i,

|
|
|

(65)
]
u
+
u
2 -
u
[ + ]
u
-
u
[
r
2
r
+ ]
u
+
u
2 -
u
[ +
u
=
u
j
1 + k i,
j
k i,
j
1 - k i, r
j
1 - k i,
j
1 + k i,
k
r j
k 1, + i
j
k i,
j
k 1, - i z
j
k i,
1 + j
k i,

(66)

r
t
C
= ;
z
t
C
=
2
r
r
2
v
z

(67)



48



At a pervious boundary, excess pore water pressure u is assigned a zero value for any t that is greater
than zero. On the other hand, an impervious boundary conditions has to be incorporated into the
governing equation by substituting the following relationships into the final equation depending
upon if a z-plane or a r-plane is involved:


Figs. through show the relaxation charts for an interior node, a node on a r-boundary, a
node on a z-boundary, as well as a node on r- and z- boundaries. This charts are implemented in the
following spread sheet construction. In the following, we construct a spreadsheet for typical sand
drain problems involving a homogeneous clay deposit. We adopted the same simple problem that we
have analyzed without sand drains. In the present case, again we use 6 z-intervals, but added 3 r-
intervals. The reason that only 3 r-intervals are used is such that the spreadsheet may be clearly
presented within a table.

The additional input required were r, C
r
, and R
w
. We have inserted a row, row 8, for
tracking radial distance. Since each time step involves 28 cells, the time calculation is done therefore
every four radial distance. In the calculation of the average degree of consolidation, we have to
integrate over an area. Still, the trapezoidal rule was used. Since z and r are the same throughout
the region analyzed, there is no need to multiply them in the present calculation.

u
]
r
2
r
+ [1 +
u
]
r
2
r
- [1 +
u
+
u
] 2 - 2 - [1 +
u
=
u
j
1 + k i,
k
r
j
1 - k i,
k
r
j
k 1, + i
z
j
k i,
r z
j
k 1, - i
z
1 + j
k i,

(68)

u
=
u
;
u
=
u
j
1 + k i,
j
1 - k i,
j
k 1, + i
j
k 1, - i
(69)



49




A B C D E
1 Consolidation Analysis of a Homogeneous Clay Deposit with Sand Drains
2 Cv> KEY IN Cr> KEY IN
3 dz> KEY IN dr> KEY IN
4 dt> KEY IN Rw> KEY IN
5 beta_z> IF($B$6=0,0,A2*$A$4/A
3/A3)
beta_r> COPY B5
6 start> a non-zero number
7 TIME: 0
8 (Z,R) @IF($B$6=0,0,$D$4) @IF($B$6=0
,0,B8+$D$3)
COPY C8 COPY C8
9 0 1 1 1 1
10 $B$3 1 1 1 1
11 $B$3+A10 1 1 1 1
12 COPY A11 1 1 1 1
13 COPY A11 1 1 1 1
14 COPY A11 1 1 1 1
15 COPY A11 1 1 1 1
16 AVERAGE DEGREE OF CONSOLIDATION, Uave
17 Area: @SUM(B9..B15)-
0.5*(B9+B15)
COPY B17 COPY B17 COPY B17
18 Uave(%): 1-(@SUM(B17..E17)-
0.5*(B17+E17))/(@SUM
($B$17..$E$17)-
0.5*($B$17+$E$17))





50


F G H I
7 @IF($B$6=0,0,B7+$B$4)
8 COPY B8 COPY C8 COPY D8 COPY E8
9 @IF($B$6=0,1,0) COPY F9 COPY F9 COPY F9
10 COPY F9 @IF($B$6=0,1,
$B$5*B10+(1-2*$B$5-
2*$D$5)*C10
+$B$5*D10+$D$5*(1-
$D$3/2/$C$8)*C9+$D$5*(1
+$D$3/2/$C$8)*C11)
COPY G8 @IF($B$6=0,1,
2*$B$5*D10+(1-2*$B$5-
2*$D$5)*E10 +$D$5*(1-
$D$3/2/$C$8)*E9+$D$5*(1+$
D$3/2/$C$8)*E11)
11 COPY F9 COPY G8 COPY G8 COPY E10
12 COPY F9 COPY G8 COPY G8 COPY E10
13 COPY F9 COPY G8 COPY G8 COPY E10
14 COPY F9 COPY G8 COPY G8 COPY E10
15 COPY F9 @IF($B$6=0,1,
$B$5*B15+(1-2*$B$5-
2*$D$5)*C15
+$B$5*D15+2*$D$5*C14)
COPY G15 @IF($B$6=0,1,
2*$B$5*D15+(1-2*$B$5-
2*$D$5)*E15 +2*$D$5*D14)
16
17 @SUM(B9..B15)-
0.5*(B9+B15)
COPY B17 COPY B17 Copy B17
18 COPY B18

By copying the cells from F7..I18 to J7, we will obtain solutions for the second time step.