1 The Effects of Neurogenesis On the Brain and the Mind Once upon a time in the kingdom of Brainia there

lived a beguiling old wizard who concocted an evil plan. He cast ignorance over all the people, making them depressed in the process. His reign of mass ignorance gave him power, made the people dependent on his happiness pills, and made all but the younger generation believe they could not learn anything new; they had reached their age limit. The people were hopelessly distraught. However, one day a valiant young prince came running into the village. He immediately saw through the wizards smoke and mirrors and decided he had to help them. He started with the younger generation; he reintroduced them to physical exercise, which reminded them of their previous culture; he taught them new lessons and crafts, and he helped them build permanent housing for the future. He helped the older generation by rallying them out of their hopeless dormancy, thus making them active members of the community once more. The wizard saw what this sagacious young prince had donehe had given the people knowledge and knocked them out from under his spell; the people were once again happy, thriving members of the community. The wizard denounced the prince and attacked his character, but now the people could see through the wizards lies. The wizard was banished, never to return again. The people made the young prince their king; he assured them that under his rule they would prosper and never be neglected again. They all lived happily (and efficiently) ever after. Like the good people of Brainia, our brain necessitates a myriad of activities that we do not necessarily provide it. The wizard, like the previously held beliefs about neurogenesis, still often holds our minds; nevertheless, the line of thought commanding that our mind is incapable of controlling all aspects of our body is slowly diminishing.

2 What we need now is global, cognitive liberation from the fetters of past beliefs. If there was a prince who could tell every individual the news that our brains can combat depression and other serious psychological disorders and continue to produce new neurons throughout lifeand that physical exercise is the key to open the doorwe might not only live longer, but also be happier, more intelligent people. The dogma of the early 20th century dictated that our brain would stop producing neurons after early childhood, but recent studies have proven this to be completely false. New methods are currently being developed to map and apply the development of neurons; the 21st century is indeed an amazing time to live. The rules are not set in stone. Who knows what other walls we will tear down?

A Brief Summary of Neurogenesis Scientists have always known that early in life the brain creates neurons, a process known as neurogenesis. Neurons are created in several parts of the brainthe Olfactory bulb in the frontal lobes, the Caudate nucleus in the center of the brain (as can be seen in the picture below from SFN)but neurogenesis is most concentrated in the

3 hippocampus, an area of the brain associated with learning and memory, more specifically the hippocampus dentate gyrus (Begley 55; Goldman 16; Neurogenesis n. pag.). The life of a brain cell, however, can indeed be a short one. The Society for Neuroscience (SFN), an organization dedicated to the study of neuroscience, identifies that: . . . thousands of new cells are produced in the hippocampus each day, although many die within weeks of their birth (n. pag.). SFN also remarks that this is one of the reasons that it took scientists so long to find signs of neurogenesis in the adult brain. You may be asking yourself: why do so many of the neurons that the brain produces die; isnt that a little redundant? It does seem rather redundant for so many of these brain cells to die instantly after their creation, even a week or two after creation; fortunately, there may now be an answer of how to retain more neurons. Sharon Begley, science columnist and a senior editor of Newsweek magazine, provides a possible answer in her book Train Your Mind Change Your Brain, in an experiment conducted by Fred Gage, a laboratory scientist at the Salk Institute in La Jolla, California. Gage demonstrated that mice in enriched environments (cages with wheels, tunnels, toys, other mice, and overallentertaining) vs. mice in plain cages (no interaction with other mice, simple steel bar cages), actually had more neurons (57-58). This seems to be common sense if you think about it: of course you are going to create more memories if you add a dash of variety and new experience to your diet. Gage believes that the enriched environment is what helps retain neurons: Usually, 50 percent of the new cells reaching the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus die. But if the animal lives in an enriched environment, many fewer of the new cells die (qtd. in Begley 66). However, this must

4 be distinguished from neurogenesis itself. Gage further notes: Environmental enrichment doesnt seem to affect cell proliferation and the generation of new neurons, but it can affect the rate and the number of cells that survive and integrate into the circuitry (qtd. in Begley 66). While Gage clearly demonstrates that environmental enrichment does help retain neurons, I believe there is more to it than that. My answer: stress. With my previous and current research I have found that stress can cause not just mental, but actual physical ailments. As Matt Ridley, a former science editor, Washington correspondent, and U.S. editor for The Economist, writes in his book Genome: It is a remarkable fact that people who have been preparing for an important exam, and have shown the symptoms of stress, are more likely to catch colds and other infections, because one of the effects of cortisol is to reduce the activity, number and lifetime of lymphocyteswhite blood cells (149151). Ridley explains that when you have excess amount of cortisol in your system, you are by definitionunder stress (139). Ridley also mentions: The death of a loved one, or an impending exam do not speak directly to the genes. . . . the brain is in charge (151). Since the brain can generate chemicals (such as cortisol) based on environmental factors (such as stress), is it so hard to believe that a lack of stress, which is also an environmental factor, can help our brain retain neurons? Furthermore, Marilyn Albert, a neuroscientist at John Hopkins and co-director of the Alzheimers research center there, mentions: In animal studies, a prolonged elevation in stress hormones damages the hippocampus (qtd. in Larson 49). As you are well aware by this point, the hippocampus is the main site of neurogenesis. This leads me to believe that environments that tend to

5 be stress-free (or in this instance, entertaining) are conducive to a healthy mental, and physical, state of being. Studying neurogenesis is undeniably interesting. SFN points out that research has already identified areas of the brain where neurogenesis is evident, discovered the processes that may promote or inhibit neurogenesis, and offered a glimpse of how new neurons may assimilate into the working brain (n. pag.). With all this information (and more to come) neurogenesis will be an interesting field of study for future scholars, potentially unlocking the brains unimagined capacity.

Tearing Down Walls I know that most men, including those at ease with problems of the greatest complexity, can seldom accept even the simplest and most obvious truth if it be such as would oblige them to admit the falsity of conclusions which they have delighted in explaining to colleagues, which they have proudly taught to others, and which they have woven, thread by thread, into the fabric of their lives. (Leo Tolstoy What is Art?) Scholars of the previous century believed that after initial development the brain would not (and could not) change. This conclusion has been proven to be false. They were not obscurantists, but rather their inflexibility was justified by the unique characteristic that neurons havetheir inability to reproduce. Fred Gage, in his defense of previous scholars, explained that: it was inconceivable that one neuron could give rise to another (qtd. in Begley 52). This parcel of knowledge damaged the credibility of neurogenesis because scientists reasoned that if neurons could not divide, like other cells

6 do, they could not be created. But as Begley reminds us: Neurons, after all, just arent like other cells (Begley 52). Neurons do not conform to the norm of mainstream cellular culture; they are rebels, in a manner of speaking. Scientific belief regarding neurogenesis seemed to be set in stone, a practice that no scientist should ever adopt. Even when empirical evidence was provided to the contrary, it was mostly disregarded. Nevertheless, a scientist named Fernando Nottebohm conducted a series of experiments on birds, using a radioactive tracer that bonds to thymidine (an ingredient of DNA), that demonstrated the validity of neurogenesis (Begley 52-55). In other words, Nottebohms birds gave evidence to support the theory of neurogenesis because he could show, via radioactive tracers, where neurogenesis was occurring. Further research was conducted, and in the 1990s it was uncovered that, contrary to the previously held belief, the hippocampus does not actually store memories but, rather, acquires them (Begley 55-56). In fact, the hippocampus merely functions as a packaging plant and sends parcels of memories throughout the rest of the brain for permanent storage (Begley 56). With this knowledge, neurogenesis could finally be explained. Begley further remarks: brains have a reserve of what are now called neural stem cells [NPCs], precursor cells with the ability to grow and differentiate into neurons and other cells of the nervous system (56). Finally, the door to neurogenesis was opened and ready for exploration. Despite its legitimacy, however, all was not well in the world of human neurogenesis. The tracer that was used to study human neurogenesis, called BrdU, could not be implemented due to the Hippocratic Oath; BrdU is radioactive and has no known medicinal value (Begley 61). This put a damper on the situation, disavowing any further

7 research of human neurogenesis; but as we know, humanity always finds a way to get around the rules. In fact, 2007 was an important year for the study of neurogenesis. Two important discoveries have been made in the past couple years: the discovery of double cortin, and in 2007, the discovery of a way to image neural stem cells (NPCs). Dr. Jason Scalia of the department of psychiatry at Columbia University, explains the origin and importance of this discovery: Several years ago, epilepsy researchers at Duke University in Durham, N.C., discovered double cortin (DCX). . . . A new neuron excretes DCX for the first couple of weeks of its life. . . . researchers can now distinguish newborn neurons from old-timers, allowing them to precisely gauge neurogenesis rates in human subjects (qtd. in Goldman 16). In short, we now have a way to investigate and document human neurogenesis. I believe that this discovery will usher in a myriad of developments in the category of neurogenesis, along with neuroscience in general. But it gets better: researchers at the Stony Brook University Medical Center in Stony Brook N.Y. have discovered a way to image a biomarker of neural stem and progenitor cells (NPCs) in the living human brain. This discovery allows researchers to monitor neurogenesis. . . (Stony Brook n. pag.). The importance of this discovery is monumental; it is the first discovery of how to monitor neurogenesis in humans that does not require a slice of the brain. With the implementation of these discoveries, the future study of neurogenesis looks bright. Studies of other substances, such as pharmaceuticals, also have a place in the world of neurogenesis. I believe one of the most interesting studies is the study of marijuanas effect on neurogenesis. As C. Brownlee puts it in his article High times for brain growth: marijuana-like drug multiplies neurons: In the stoner stereotype, pot

8 smokers and dying brain cells go hand in hand. However, new research suggests the situation may be more uplifting than that. A drug that functions as concentrated marijuana does [sic] may spur neurogenesis . . . (246). As funny as that is, it is important to note that the article mentions no correlation between marijuana and intelligence, it just leaves the door open for discussion. Who knows, maybe more people should be smoking pot. According to Xia Zhang, researcher at the University of Saskatchewan: Cannabinoids promote neurogenesis in embryonic and adult rats, and produce anxiolytic- and antidepressant-like effects. This is widely different from effects seen for other drugs of abuse, such as nicotine, heroin, and cocaine, which suppress neurogenesis (qtd. in Flores 22). As can be heard in the stoner culture: baked not fried. In an article in The Times (London, England), writer Anjana Ahuja humorously argues: The finding raises speculation that weed could be the next Prozac. This would make it doubly useful for future Troy leadersin a single inhalation they would be able to gain street cred and shrug off the resulting furore (23). Further, the articles assert that one concentrated dose does not elicit the response of neurogenesis, but rather chronic use is the only effective means by which neurogenesis can be met (Brownlee 246). Another unlikely discovery in the area of pharmaceuticals and neurogenesis is the effect of Sildenafil (Viagra, Pfizer). Believe it or not: Sildenafil (Viagra, Pfizer) may help patients recover from stroke by aiding regeneration of brain cells. After successfully proving that the drug stimulates cortical neurogenesis in experimental modes of stroke. . . (Rapposelli 46). This, Im sure, is an especially interesting discovery for old men everywhere.

Exercise is Key

9 One thing is for certain: the single most important thing that can be done for the brain, to spur neurogenesis, is to exercise. The first study that asserted this claim, with empirical evidence, can be found in Fred Gages mice experiments. Gage reports that one group of mice was given a running wheel and the other was deprived of such privileges; the mice that were given the wheel produced twice as many neurons as the mice deprived of the wheel (qtd. in Begley 66). This exercise paradigm has been augmented throughout the past several years. In 2007, Dutch scientists at the University of Groningen, Netherlands, altered the experiment slightly, implementing the restriction of food, and reported: Memory acquisition and memory retention and reversal learning in the Ymaze task were all improved by exercise (Van der Borght et al. 325). Nonetheless, the brain does not behave as we would expect it to; it is endless in its edifying nature. The Dutch scientists found that: Memory retrieval itself induced a reduction in the number of maturing neurons, irrespective of physical activity. Taken together, these results suggest

10 that learning and memory and neurogenesis are related to each other . . . this interaction is complex and highly dynamic (Van der Borght et al. 325). As can be observed from the graphs above (published by Van der Borght et al.), the mice that exercised produced more neurons than the sedentary mice in every instance, thus proving that exercise is the trump card in the game of neurogenesis. The Dutch experiments were an important find in the world of neurogenesis because they proved, for the first time, that exercise not only elicits a higher response to learning, but also to the retrieval of a memory (Van der Borght et al. 330). In Gages mice experiments there is another important factor that makes these tests important: the degeneration of neurogenesis through forced exercisestress. Gage recalls that when forcing the mice to exercise, such as dropping mice in a tub of water, neurogenesis did not occur. Begley humorously remarks in her book Train Your Mind Change Your Brain: Forced exercise, it seems, does not promote neurogenesis, a fact that human couch potatoes can probably exploit (68). While I do agree with Begley that lethargic individuals might only skim over the top of this discovery, I believe that the real matter-at-hand is stress. As I mentioned earlier, I have had several dealings with the topic of stress in the past, and I do not believe that a couch potato refusing to exercise because he/she may become exasperated constitutes the stress that Gage is referring to. The mice in Gages experiments are thrown from their natural environments that they spend everyday into a completely foreign environment in which they have to make the decision to swim or drown. I believe that it is this completely disoriented struggle for existence that justifies the stress the mice are feeling, not just swimming because they would rather be sleeping, or in the case of humans, lying on the couch.

11 Gage, however, does explore the issue deeper, explaining that there is more out there than reaches the surface. As Gage explains, the voluntary aspect may be more intricate than its stress-free corollary. When deep concentration is implemented, the brain produces what are called theta waves; the brain produces these waves when an individual is participating in voluntary exercise; conversely, theta waves are not only limited to voluntary exercise; they are produced whenever deep concentration is induced (Begley 69). Therefore, as Gage understands it: the voluntary component could be the key to the promotion of neurogenesis (qtd. in Begley 69). Although Gage is clearly an expert in this subject, this assertion would suggest that playing the guitar, reading a book, or even playing video games would produce as many neurons as voluntary exercise, providing that the individual was paying attention; on the contrary, as the next couple of paragraphs will demonstrate, this may not be necessarily true. Due to all the recent discoveries in the field of neuroscience, mainstream American is finally taking notice, and Americans are trying to figure out a way to decode this data to benefit them; not surprisingly, there is now a growing market for any beneficial information. An article in U.S. News & World Report entitled Keeping Your Brain Fit, by journalist Christie Larson, focuses on the myriad of tactics being implemented by average Americans to increase their mental life-span. The article makes its predication by asserting: Alzheimers now afflicts 4.5 million people in the United States . . . and is expected to reach 16 million by 2050. Statistics show that if we could delay the onset of Alzheimers by five years, the number of people with the disease could be cut in half (42). The article mentions that there are a number of cutting edge video-

12 games aimed at keeping the brain in shape, so to speak. I can finally tell my dad that all those years of playing video games were not in vain. The most interesting piece of information in this article is the comparison of physical exercise vs. cognitive training: . . . faithful aerobic exercise might boost someones cognitive performance from averagesay, from 10th place out of 20 people tested . . . to No. 5. But cognitive training would boost the same person to eighth out of 20 (Larson 48). In other words, forget studying; go out and run before your next exam, odds are youll do better. It is this reason that makes me doubt that finding; on the other hand, the article does not mention what kind of tests were administered, and yet I cant help from feeling that there is something amiss in this study. I also believe that this may provide a valid contrast to Gages theta wave speculation. Nevertheless, whether a person can perform better cognitively on a test is not the topic at hand; the issue is neurogenesis, and physical exercise is most assuredly, at this time, the best way to boost neurogenesis. Besides, if neurogenesis directly implied intelligence then, according to C. Brownlees article High Times for brain growth: marijuana-like drug multiplies neurons, the characteristic stoner would be one of the most intelligent men of all. I would like to take the time here to answer a question that you may be asking yourself: does increasing neurogenesis make you smarter? The answer is yes and no. If you actively try to learn more, then yes, you will become more intelligent in the sense that you know more; if you do nothing with your new neurons, then nothey will go to waste like anything else that is not used. In Gages experiments with mice, the mice that exercised learned to navigate the maze faster than the sedentary mice. The sedentary mice, however, still completed the maze, they were just slower to finish than their

13 counterparts. Since there is a lack of studies regarding neurogenesis in humans, it is difficult to tell, at this point, to what extent neurogenesis will have in regards to increasing our intelligence. If you exercise more, creating more neurons in the process, do not expect to start quoting Socrates; you have to learn it first. Look at it this way: increasing neurogenesis will not spontaneously generate a bridge; it will create more materials to build a bridge. In other words, neurogenesis does not give you intelligence; it gives you the ability to attain information more effectively and create stronger connections, thus increasing your intelligence. A recent article in National Geographic on animal intelligence has particularly piqued my interest in regards to neurogenesis. Minds of their Own, an article by Virginia Morell, a science writer based in Oregon and frequent contributor to National Geographic, asserts that animal minds are not machines, as we may view them, but are actually quite edifying. Morell remarks that Betsy, a six year old border collie (canine): can put names to objects faster than a great ape, and her vocabulary is at 340 words and counting (51). Juliane Kaminski, a cognitive psychologist who worked with Betsy, suggests: Maybe these collies are especially good at it [language comprehension] because theyre working dogs and highly motivated, and in their traditional herding jobs, they must listen very closely to their owners (qtd. in Morell 49). I agree with Kaminskis statement, but I would like to explain its correlation with neurogenesis. For those of you who are not aware, border collies are known for being the most high-energy and intelligent breed of dog. I suggest that these traits are not merely coincidental, but rather cause and consequence; because border collies are working dogs they are bred to have the endurance capacity rivaled only by that of the energizer bunnys. Spending much of their

14 time working (in this case running and herding) they increase their ability to learn twofold: the physical exercise that they endure spurs neurogenesis, and they have to pay close attention to what they are doing. As you may remember, Gage remarked that theta waves are produced whenever deep concentration is paid; thus, border collies not only undergo tremendous neurogenesis, but they also produce theta waves due to their deep concentration. If a border collie is still regularly exercised, their concentration could be shifted from herding to language comprehension; this would account for their remarkable ability to understand language. That still leaves one question unanswered: why physical exercise? What is going on at the cellular level to galvanize neurogenesis? Fred Gage offers: We think voluntary exercise increases the number of neural stem cells that divide and give rise to new neurons in the hippocampus . . . (qtd. in Begley 66). While Dr. Gage does propose a legitimate hypothesis, it does not answer the question: why? But all hope is not lost. Sandra Aamodt, editor in chief of Nature Neuroscience, a scientific journal on brain research, and coauthor of the book Welcome To Your Brain suggests: It may be that a pretty significant amount of deterioration in the brain function relates to disruptions of the cardiovascular system by microstrokes in the tiny vessels of the brain (qtd. in Larson 48). Translation, the heart and the mind are inextricably linked. This is a fascinating piece of information because it would mean that heart and mind are even more closely related than we may have thought. As is the case with all recent discoveries in neuroscience, we will just have to be patient and wait to see.

Depressing isnt it: Depression and Other Diseases

15 According to upliftprogram.com, a website dedicated to replace depression with optimism, depression affects 18.8 million Americans each year. The sheer immensity of that number is overwhelming. As a person who has seen and coped with depression in the past, it is reassuring to know that neurogenesis may play an important hand in the treatment of depression. The combination of pharmaceuticals and other measures, such as exercise, to alter brain chemistry and induce neurogenesis may be the light at the end of the tunnel for alleviating depression. The study of neuroscience has led to new discoveries between mental diseases of the mind and effects on the brain. According to recent studies, when an individual is facing depression his/her hippocampus is actually shrunken in size, and the longer a person has been depressed, the smaller it is (Goldberg D1). A discovery like this leads me to the conclusion that perhaps neurogenesis, since its main site is the hippocampus, may play a role in depression. Fred Gage goes so far to suggest that perhaps the inability to experience the novelty of life (taking interest in everyday experiences) may be a cause, but definitely a hallmark, of depression (Begley 70). Since neurogenesis gives life to new memories, perhaps those who suffer from depression, and thus experience a reduced rate of neurogenesis due to their shrunken hippocampus, have trouble escaping their wellestablished, depressed thought pattern and thus have physical problems with the creation of new, positive experiences and memories. New research suggests that anti-depression medication and neurogenesis may have a secret alliance. Carey Goldberg, writer for The Boston Globe, in an article entitled New life inside the depressed brainNeuron growth may be key to mood disorder treatments, studies find notes: Columbia University gave three other [macaque]

16 monkeys the antidepressant Prozac, and they showed no signs of depression. Later examination showed . . . a myriad of new cells had sprouted [in the hippocampus] (D1). Moreover, the scientists then treated the monkeys with X-ray radiation to block their hippocampus from producing new cells and the Prozac didnt help them at all (D1). Certainly, this is an important experiment; this evidence suggests that Prozac is playing cards, but neurogenesis is dealing the final hand. Goldberg points out: The theory could explain . . . why drugs like Prozac often takes weeks to kick in . . . It could take that long for the new neurons to develop (D1). In fact, Dr. Tarique Perera, the psychiatrist who presented the study, insists: Its the one theory that can encompass the neurotransmitters, the stress hormones, the structure problems and even certain behavioral aspects of depression. . . . boosting neurogenesis may not only lift depression but actually prevent it (qtd. in Goldberg D1). Naturally, as someone who is interested in both neurogenesis and the treatment of depression, I am ardently intrigued by this report. Unfortunately, this theory still has many gaps. Shawn Kohler, a researcher at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, concludes: In mice, it takes three or four weeks for new neurons to mature. . . . in monkeys, new neurons took a good 24 weeks to mature. We only expect it to be longer in humans (qtd. in Goldberg D1). Talk about raining on my parade. Incidentally, while there are some holes in the theory, all hope is not lost; after all, neurogenesis itself was denied recognition for several decades despite empirical evidence. Nevertheless, as reluctant the scientific community is to prove things that seem to be common sense to us, it is for valid reasons. Anti-depression medication has been widely used in the past several decades as the solution to depression; however, while anti-depression medications do sometimes

17 solve the problem of depression, they are more of a palliative measure than an actual cure, often resulting with the patient unable to get off his/her medication. In my interview with Dr. Jeffrey Black, Board Certified Medical Director of Laurelwood Psychiatric Hospital, Dr. Black remarks that: What Ive noticed is that weve lost our way, in terms of psychiatry . . . we look at medication as something that people have to take for long periods of time . . . depression should be seen as episodic, not as a continuous thing. Admittedly, one could not argue that there are no positive results from using medication; regardless, a victim of depression (in Western Culture) is destined for a life of medication dependence. Fortunately, there is another route to follow in the treatment of depression: cognitive-behavior therapy. Cognitive-behavior therapy works by changing the thought process of victims, forcing them to quell their downward spiral of depressing thoughts and establish new, positive ones. As a result, cognitive-behavior therapy elicits a cure for depression by causing the victim to change the way he/she thinks. From a neurogenesis standpoint, this is very intriguing because whether or not neurogenesis provides a complete cure for depression, this proves that it plays a crucial role in alleviating depression: forming new, positive memories requires neurons; therefore, it stands to reason that undergoing neurogenesis gives the victim an abundant supply. Dr. Black himself says: The research that having new cells come in to create new memories and new thoughts, and learning how to deal with things differently; weve seen . . . with SPEC scans and fMRIs . . . that the brain lights up in a very different way when you learn how to handle your thoughts in a very different way. This proves my hypothesis; since the brain lights up differently it stands to reason that the brain has created a plethora of

18 neurons. Furthermore, Gage reports that there is evidence of exercise lifting depression, and by now you know, exercise creates a lot of neurons (Begley 70). According to Dr. Black: The research that Ive read is that 50-60% will do well with just medications. 5060% will do well with cognitive-behavior therapy for depression . . . but when you look at both medication and cognitive-behavior therapy the success rate is about 80%. . . . So what that means to me is that if you just give somebody a pill . . . youre really only doing half of the job. I agree with Dr. Black because my experience with depression was overcome initially using anti-depressants, and then going off them voluntarily and changing my thought patterns. In accordance with exercise, as a means of combating depression, there is, as Gage puts it, evidence for it. Incidentally, experiments on the subject are scarce, as human subjects were, until recently, impossible to measure for neurogenesis. Nevertheless, I asked Dr. Black if he recommended exercise for his patients, and he responded: as long as it is exercise that they are choosing to do. If you tell someone they have to exercise and they look at it as a chore, I dont think it does much for them at all except . . . maybe it makes them a little less stressed so there is some positive benefit with it . . . It follows, then that physical exercise can reduce stress, which not only hinders neurogenesis but undoubtedly adds to their depression. Of course, as Dr. Black mentions, those that view exercise as a chore are probably not reaping all the benefits that neurogenesis has to offer because they are not associating it with anything positive; thus, they are not letting those brain cells reach their full potential (i.e. creating new, positive experiences/memories). Furthermore, Dr. Black makes the distinction between exercising as a chore and exercising for enjoyment: anything they can do socially, I think, exercise-

19 wise can be really helpful. If they love to run, join a running club . . . theyve got to find something that they really enjoy. . . . The people who exercise, and do something to quiet their brain, be it yoga or meditation . . . do remarkably well and, I dont think, have as high a chance of relapse. (As you may or may not know, relapse is considered the most despicable aspect of depression, often becoming worse than the initial depression). As Dr. Black mentions, people who exercise socially and concentrate on quieting their brain do well in combating depression. I believe that the social aspect helps put their neurons to work and helps them form new, more positive memories; in addition, I believe that quieting their brain takes a deeper concentration, which would result in the production of theta waves. Thus, actively taking any part in physical exercise benefits them.

Conclusion Pragmatically, neurogenesis is a tremendous concern because research has already led to important discoveries to elongate your lifespan and refrain from early retirement in your cognitive career. The advent of neurogenesis has taught us that we must stay ever vigilant and always question matters that science refutes when common sense demands it. Modern depression research demonstrates many correlations with neurogenesis but leaves troublesome holes; therefore, it is up to future generations, who now have available methods to study neurogenesis, to bridge the gap. With this information in our handswe have the power to change the way our mind works and our brain functions. Furthermore, it is up to you to relay this auspicious herald; you must be princes to the rest of the world still under the wizards spell. And, remember to exercise!

20 Works Cited Ahuja, Anjana. A synthetic cannaboid; Science Notebook. The Times (London, England) (Oct 17, 2005): 23. Academic OneFile. Gale. Hampden-Sydney College. 29 Feb. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com>. Begley, Sharon. Train Your Mind Change Your Brain: How A New Science Reveals Our Extraordinary Potential To Transform Ourselves. New York: Ballantine, 2007. Black, Jeffrey. Personal interview. 14 Mar. 2008. Brownlee, C. High times for brain growth: marijuana-like drug multiplies neurons. Science News 168.16 (Oct 15, 2005): 246(1). Academic OneFile. Gale. Hampden-Sydney College. 29 Feb. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com>. Flores, Graciela. Cannabinoids boost neurogenesis?. The Scientist 19.21 (Nov 7, 2005): 22(1). Academic OneFile. Gale. Hampden-Sydney College. 29 Feb. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com>. Goldberg, Carey. New life inside the depressed brain - Neuron growth may be key to mood disorder treatments, studies find. Boston Globe 19 Nov. 2007: D1. LexisNexis Academic. LexisNexis. Hampden-Sydney College. 29 Feb. 2008 <http://lexisnexis.com>. Goldman, Erik. Hippocampal neurogenesis: key to antidepressants?(Adult Psychiatry)(Clinical report). Clinical Psychiatry News 35.6 (June 2007): 16(1). Academic OneFile. Gale. Hampden-Sydney College. 29 Feb. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com>. Larson, Christine. Keeping Your Brain Fit. U.S. News & World Report. 11 Feb. 2008:

21 41-49 Morell, Virginia. Minds of their Own: Animals are Smarter than You Think. National Geographic Mar 2008: 36-61. Murray, Bob and Alicia Fortinberry. Uplift Program. 23 Sept. 2007. 28 Feb. 2008. <http://www.upliftprogram.com> Neurogenesis. 2003. 28 Feb. 2008 < http://neurogenesis.iord.org/index.html>. Ridley, Matt. Genome: The Autobiography Of A Species In 23 Chapters. New York: Harper Perennial, 1999. Society for Neuroscience. SFN. 2008. 28 Feb. 2008 <http://www.sfn.org/index.cfm?pagename=brainBriefings_adult_neurogenesis>. Society for Neuroscience. SFN. Picture. 2008. 28 Feb. 2008 <http://www.sfn.org> Stony Brook University Medical Center Researchers First to Image Biomarker of Neurogenesis; Finding May Impact Treatment of MS, Depression, Other Diseases; Reported in Science, Research Uses Non-Invasive Method in Living Human Brain.(Disease/Disorder overview). Ascribe Higher Education News Service (Nov 9, 2007): NA. Academic OneFile. Gale. Hampden-Sydney College. 29 Feb. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com>. Van der Borght, Karin, Havekes, Robbert, Bos, Thomas, Eggen, Bart J. L., Van der Zee, Eddy A. Exercise Improves Memory Acquisition and Retrieval in the Y-Maze Task: Relationship With Hippocampal Neurogenesis. Behavioral Neuroscience 121(2) (2007): 324-334. PsycArticles. EBSCOhost. Hampden-Sydney College. 29 Feb. 2008 <http://web.ebscohost.com>.

22 Van der Borght, Karin, Havekes, Robbert, Bos, Thomas, Eggen, Bart J. L., Van der Zee, Eddy A. Exercise Improves Memory Acquisition and Retrieval in the Y-Maze Task: Relationship With Hippocampal Neurogenesis. Chart. Behavioral Neuroscience 121(2) (2007): 327. Wellesley College Biology Department. Neurogenesis: What is It?. 1 Mar. 2005. 28 Feb. 2008 <http://www.wellesley.edu/Biology/Concepts/Html/neurogenesiswhat.html>. Ziv, Yaniv, and Michal Schwartz. Immune-based regulation of adult neurogenesis: Implications for learning and memory.(Author abstract)(Report). Brain Behavior and Immunity 22.2 (Feb 2008): 167(10). Academic OneFile. Gale. HampdenSydney College. 29 Feb. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com>.