AN ANALYSIS OF THE USE OF CONCEPTUAL-BASED TEACHING IN THE SECONDARY CLASSROOM 1

An Analysis of the Use of Conceptual-Based Teaching in the Secondary Classroom

Julia Amanda Martin
University of Idaho Moscow, ID 83843

mart8434@vandals.uidaho.edu

ABSTRACT
In this paper, I discuss research pertaining to the ongoing discussion of mathematics education, more specifically, the debate between the use of conceptual and procedural teaching approaches. In mathematics, procedural knowledge is the ability to understand and use terms, formulas, equations, etc. this can be done with or without the knowledge of how or why these procedures are used. Conceptual knowledge is the understanding of the concepts behind the procedures. I summarize the uses of both procedural and conceptual knowledge in the secondary classroom by reviewing the research of educators as well as my own. I use this research to compare the United States mathematics education to that of other countries across the world, comparing the use of procedural teachings versus conceptual teachings. More specifically, with use of the TIMSS (Third International Mathematics and Science Study), which analyzes teaching approach in relation to mathematical success in students across 20 countries. I display the need for a more conceptual-based teaching approach for teachers in the United States. I claim that by increasing our conceptual-based teaching, students will not only excel in content knowledge, but will have the ability to use that knowledge to form the procedures that teachers have them memorize without any reinforcing concepts in the past.

identifies the traditional mathematics teaching (in the United States) places emphasis on teaching procedures, especially computation procedures. Little attention is given to helping students develop conceptual ideas, or even to connecting the procedures they are learning with the concepts that show why they work [2]. Hieberts research is highly based on results from the TIMSS, this study informed educators of the rank of the United States in relation to 19 other countries. The breakdown of the results indicated the techniques used by the US (i.e. highly procedural) were not the same techniques being used by higher ranking countries. The heavily procedural-based teaching in the US is placing the country severely behind the leading countries across the world. This discourages the students and teachers while harming the future of the United States and their role in mathematics. In addition to James Hiebert, many other educators feel the need for a change. For instance, Jinfa Cai [3] expresses the need for students to learn through problem solving, meaning they must have a strong idea of the concepts behind a mathematic problem. Cai argues the ability for a student to problem solve is key in their conceptualization of mathematical ideas. Students learn and understand important aspects of the concept or idea by exploring the problem situation [3]. More importantly, Cai explores the newest aspect in mathematics reform, the avoidance of a standard algorithm. Many educators who are embracing a more conceptualbased teaching approach ask their students to (by using problem solving) find a way, besides the standard algorithm, to solve a problem. This technique requires the student to deviate from the normal procedures of math to create their own understanding of the concepts at hand. The fact that students have the ability to create their own method, their own strategy, to problem solving plays a huge role in the necessity of more balanced mathematical education, using more conceptual learning than we have been using.

Keywords 1. Introduction
In 2004, the Third International Mathematics and Science Study Revised (TIMSS-R), an international assessment for mathematics and science knowledge of both fourth and eighth grade students across 20 countries, stated the most difficult attribute across the 20 countries[was] inductive thinking skills [1] whereas the highest area of success was found in evaluation, verification, using figures and tables, and translating word expressions into equations or expressions [1]. In his research, James Hiebert

AN ANALYSIS OF THE USE OF CONCEPTUAL-BASED TEACHING IN THE SECONDARY CLASSROOM 2

In my own smaller-scale research in a seventh grade mathematics class, I have encountered both traditional (heavily procedural-based) teachers as well as modern (conceptual-based) teachers. Students in the traditional classroom sit facing forward, they listen to a lecture only responding when prompted, are given a set of problems, and then individually work through book problems. Students in the more modern classroom are actively involved in the lesson (no longer a lecture), they fight to be the first to answer a question, they work in groups, and they do not rely upon a book for either homework or help. The traditional classroom nearly forces student drive out the window. The traditional mathematics classroom asks its students to memorize the formulas and when it is appropriate it use them. In doing so, the student loses their ability to problem solve. The student is too dependent upon the teacher to explain the whys of mathematics. In the conceptual -based, modern classroom the student is prompted to reason on their own before involving the teacher. This approach asks the teacher (who is normally in complete control) to let go of the reigns, so to speak, allowing the student time to make their own understanding. In many conversations with Anne Adams (Assistant Professor at the University of Idaho, College of Education: Curriculum and Instruction), Anne expressed that research suggests students create their own understanding of a subject, and each student will have an individual view of that subject. So, in a procedural classroom the students understanding is completely surface level, these students created their understanding based upon formulas that pump out a number, that is, without truly knowing how that number was produced. The conceptual classroom changes that. The conceptual teacher gives a student prompts that promote problem solving and self discover. In reference to this contemporary teaching approach Cai comments on how teachers can learn to teach through problem solving, Instead, teachers need opportunities to analyze mathematical ideas and make connections in instructional situations. Also, teachers learn to play their roles in teaching through participating in daily collegial activities in school. Shimahara and Sakai found that both the U.S. and Japanese new teachers learn more about teaching from daily conversations with other teachers than from formally organized workshops or from student teaching [3].

This statement references that in order for teachers to make the step towards modernizing their classroom, the must make attempts towards furthering their knowledge in not just the standard professional development situation but at all times. Research suggests teachers need to foster student understanding of mathematical concepts in addition to procedures [2 3].By doing this a student can actively participate in the process of knowledge construction and therefore, make sense of mathematics in their own terms. By presenting students with problems that ask them to discover the procedures within the problem allows for the student to have a base knowledge, built by themselves, this knowledge is the kind that needs to be fostered. In the following pages I: (1) summarize research pertaining to mathematics education reform and the procedure versus conceptual argument, (2) review the benefits to and potential hindrances on student learning when switching to a conceptual-based classroom, (3) display, first hand, the effects of a student-led lesson, and (4) illustrate that moving toward using conceptual teaching as a means for students to discover and better apply procedure is a not only a good move for mathematics reform but the right move. 1.1. Mathematics reform: The TIMSS and its effects After the results of the TIMSS in 1995, with the US falling drastically behind countries such as Japan and Singapore, in many categories, researchers and educator began discussing a change in the teaching approach the United States was taking. As earlier stated, James Hiebert found the majority of US classrooms were traditional classrooms base mainly on the development of procedural knowledge, lacking the much needed conceptual backbone [2]. Further into his research, Hiebert discusses the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) highlighting that students in the eighth grade had less conceptual understanding: This problem becomes evident when we study performance on related items that require students to extend these skills [simple binary operations such as, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division], reason about them, or explain why they work. For example, only 35% of eighth graders identified how many pieces were left if 65 piece of candy were divided equally

AN ANALYSIS OF THE USE OF CONCEPTUAL-BASED TEACHING IN THE SECONDARY CLASSROOM 3

among 15 bags with each bag having as many as possible [2]. It does not stop there either, the more steps to a problem the more challenging it is [2] for these students; they are limited to purely procedural knowledge and that alone will not assist them in solving such problems. In 1999 the original TIMMS was revised and retested focusing on seven countries: Netherlands, Japan, Hong Kong, Czech Republic, Australia, Switzerland (not retested just revisited), and the United States. In comparing the 1995 test to the 1999 test The United States fell largely behind the six other countries (See: Table 1 from Gallimore et al) Hong Kong and Japan led the average test score both years moving back and forth between first and second ranking. In both test the US was at a minimum 80 points behind the leader and still 20 or more points behind the lowest of the other six countries [4]. So, how is it that the Unites States is so far behind these other countries in terms of mathematics knowledge and application? TABLE 1 (From Gallimore et. al.) Average Scores on the TIMSS 1995 and TIMSS 1999 Eighth- Grade Mathematics Assessments Country Australia Czech Republic Hong Kong SAR Japan Netherlands Switzerland United States Average Score 1995 519 546 569 581 529 534 492 Average Score 1999 525 520 582 579 540 N/A 502

when asked to display their procedural knowledge, such as using modeling, images, or verbal description to support their use of procedure students cannot perform. While in the past these methods worked, for what was needed that is. this present movement toward conceptual knowledge asks more of mathematics students. A student of mathematics who does not have conceptual knowledge will struggle in discovering mathematic properties or just plain discovering math. While this procedural knowledge has gotten high school students through their four years, high math education in the collegiate world need individuals who problem solving ability. The United States problems solving and conceptual knowledge is significantly too low.

1.1.1. Pros and cons of reform

With the results of the TIMSS, many educators are being asked to start modifying their approach to teaching mathematics. A teacher who one solely relied upon a lecture-notes-homework-questionanswer must now shift their teaching style into that of a conceptual-based classroom. This type of classroom requires less book teaching and more student-led teaching. Our secondary education teachers were not prepared for this modern teaching approach. Many mathematics teachers (not only secondary but primary as well) dont fully understand the concepts behind the procedures they are teaching their students. They grew up in a system that informed them of the procedures not the concepts thus giving them a false mentality on how students learn. The solution to this problem is continued professional development for our mathematics educators. Recent research reflects a consensus about at least some of the characteristics of professional development that are critical to increasing teacher knowledge and skills and improving their practice, and which hold promise for increasing student achievement, states Desimone [5]. In her opinion the key components of professional development are as follows, content focus, active learning, coherence, duration and collective participation. To bring this research to its main point, we need mathematics teachers to not only understand the concepts behind the procedural steps in mathematics, teachers need to learn new methods for teaching mathematics. In response to the outcomes of the TIMSS research teachers, along with students, are taking a different approach to mathematics. The question now is, how does this modification of both student and teacher learning effect the education, better yet, the overall

Gallimore et als research indicates four characteristics (insights) into why US students did so poorly in relations to their foreign counterparts: low level of mathematical challenge, emphasis on procedure, emphasis on review, and fragmented lessons (mathematically and pedagogically). Each of these characteristics are present within the teacher dominated classroom. These classrooms are based upon having procedural knowledge, this procedural knowledge has, in the past, given students at least the students who are good at memorizing the ability to pass standardized test without any trouble. But,

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understanding of mathematics in the secondary classroom?

2. Methods and Results: In the Conceptual Classroom

Before delving into the methods portion of this white paper, note: research involving mathematics reform is highly based over a long period of time. The TIMSS has taken years to prove the need to change mathematics education. What does this mean? The research conducted for this white paper was done over the course of two weeks; it will display the act of more student involvement, procedural knowledge, and conceptual knowledge within the 7th grade remedial student. The students within this study currently participate in a conceptual-based classroom with a contemporary, reform-based teacher.

conceptual idea. This show completion in the students thought about place value. Not only do they show the procedural ability to identify numbers, they go deeper into procedure, displaying an ability to recite the places (hundredth), and even further. This student displays the ability to uphold their claims by describing why the four is in the hundredths place, showing a deep conceptual knowledge of place value.

2.1b. Logistics
The following two activities lasted roughly 30 40 minutes. I instructed the first portion of Choral Count Activity 1 observing a fellow student teacher, Dylan Root University of Idaho: Secondary Education Mathematics, for the last 15 minutes. For the second activity (done exactly a week after the first) Root began the lesson and I observed for 15 20 minutes, instructing for the last 15 minutes. A choral count is done on the white or chalk board with the students in chairs or desks facing forward. As the students count the instructor writes the numbers in a downward vertical position on the board. When the students count to a specific number, chosen by the instructor, the instructor begins a new column to the right of the first. The count continues in this fashion until the lesson is over (See Appendix 1). The row and column formatting promotes a problem solving opportunities, such as finding mathematical patterns within the count. A student who can describe a mathematical pattern based on simple calculation (under a standard algorithm) proves to have procedural knowledge, while a student who can use a nonstandard algorithm (if any algorithm) shows conceptual knowledge. Choral counting tests a students procedural understanding (counting, using the simple addition algorithm in their head or on paper) as well as their conceptual knowledge (place value knowledge, describing and explaining why and how a number gets its name). The results from the count will allow for an analysis of the conceptual and procedural knowledge of a remedial 7th grade classroom.

2.1 Choral Count Lessons

A group of eight 7th grade students in a remedial mathematics class at Moscow Middle School participated in two Choral Counting lessons. A choral count is a group count using a predetermined number starting from the number chosen by the instructor. The reasoning for this activity is not simply repetition of numbers but more so to access a students or a group of students procedural and conceptual knowledge about place value, addition, and problem solving (in terms of discovering patterns). Appendix 1 provides a lesson plan for the first choral count. This plan was created by Anne Adams, Assistant Professor at University of Idaho, College of Education: Curriculum and Instruction department. Choral count activity 2 follows the first activity, using .99 as a counter and .99 as a starting point (See table 2).

2.1a. Goals
In the first count students will be asked to count by .04; the students are asked to refer to the number by its actual name according to place value: four hundredths. This allows the instructor to access the procedural knowledge of the students. If a student refers to .04 as point-zero-four the instructor then asks the student if it is has another name. The student that correctly identifies this number as four hundredth shows knowledge of place value; the student who replies with a short no will be seen as simply identifying number, with limited knowledge into place value. The student with knowledge of place value will then be prompted to tell how they know the number is four hundredth In a perfect world the student would respond, it is four pieces out of one hundred or something to the same

2.1.1 Choral Count 1: Counting by .04

Each of the eight students sat in the front row of the classroom facing a white board. They were given the following prompt: Today we will be working together to count up by .04 using its mathematic name. Does anyone know what this number is? Students responded with: point-zero-four, pointoh-four, after a brief discussion on hundredths and place value the class decided to count up by four

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hundredths. Starting with .02 written on the white board the students began to count, in unison, by .04. In reaching .10 the count was stopped and the students were prompted: Using the correct name, what is this number? Many students responded, ten-hundredths, while one student said, one tenth. The students were then asked, can a number have two names? Student A, why do you say tenhundredths? Student B, why do you say one-tenth? Are they the same number? After a brief discussion the count continued, stopping again at .30 with a similar discussion, referring back to the .10 discussion. The count ended at 1.02. In this exercise the students reached 1.02. In reaching a whole number we had a brief discussion on what it means to be a whole number. Three students were able to articulate that, in terms of hundredths, a whole is one hundred pieces total. two students were not following at all and the other three understood the idea of one hundred pieces but could not articulate it for themselves. We then asked the students to start looking for patterns within the count. The students were asked if they could find any number in the count (See Table 2). They worked either by themselves or in groups of two in order to find a pattern. Many of the students simply said, each time you go down you add four-hundredths.To get a a better look into their thought process we asked them to find a pattern that allowed them to shift horizontally. you go up by .40 each time. This led into a discussion about how many hundredths were in .40 and how many hundredths were in a tenth versus how many were in a whole. As before the student involved were the original three, the two were still lost and the three in the middle were still grasping at the idea of breaking down a whole into parts. From this exercise it is important to note that less than half of these 7th grade students were able to articulate what it means to be part of a whole. Over have could state place value. This is supportive of Gallimore et. al. and their claims into the procedural knowledge out weighing conceptual knowledge in the United States. TABLE 2 White Board Representation of Choral Count Activity 1: Counting by .04 Column 1: Column 2 Column 3 Starting point .02 .42 .82 .06 .46 .86 .10 .50 .90 .14 .54 .94 .18 .58 .98 .22 .62 1.02

.26 .30 .34 .38

.66 .70 .74 .78

(a)

2.1.2 Choral Count 2: Counting by .99 Precisely a week after the first choral counting activity the students were given the second counting activity. The students were prompted exactly as above, the only difference between the two lessons were the counting number and the starting number. This time the starting number, written on the board, was .99 from this number the students counted up by .99 referring to the number as ninety-nine hundredths. My fellow student teacher prompted the students by asking them, as before, What is this number? Remembering from the previous class five out of the eight students responded with ninety-nine hundredths. They were then asked, How do you know? To which a student responded, well, it is one away from one. The discussion continued until the students were able to articulate the fact that .99 is .01 away from one whole number. The important portion of this exercise was to make sure the students recognized .99 in reference to a whole number, as before with .04. The second portion of this choral count surrounds identification of mathematical patterns. Table 3 below is a visual representation the second choral counting activity. The table below is constructed halfway through the activity. The students are asked to take a minute (work individually) to find a pattern amongst the rows and columns. The student responses were vague, including such responses as: each time you go over you add ten and subtract ten [meaning .10]. Through a brief discussion of the many responses the students decided to take the starting number, n (this could be any of the numbers, i.e. the student may pick .99 to start with OR 5.94), and the number of columns away from the initial number, c, to form the expression: n + (10 * c) c * .10. This is more convoluted than we wanted the students to discover. This expression only registered with two of the eight students. In the sake of moving forward, the students were asked to find a way to find any number on the board.

TABLE 3

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White Board Visual Representation of Choral Count Activity 2: Counting by .99 Column 1: Starting point .99 1.98 2.97 3.96 4.95 5.94 6.93 7.92 8.91 9.90 Column 2 10.89 11.88 12.87 13.86 14.85 15.84 16.83 (a) 18.81 (b) Column 3 20.79 (c) 23.76 (d)

By the end of the class, the students did not decipher any distinct, overarching rule about finding any number in the count. The students struggled with this exercise.

The United States is no longer one of the top ranking countries in terms of mathematic knowledge and performance [1, 4]. Gallimore et. al.s research indicates the difference between the United States and top ranking countries such as, Hong Kong and Japan. Their research displays a desperate need for mathematics reform. The student in the remedial 7th grade math classroom struggled with the more conceptual-based ideas when trying to articulate why a number like .04 has the name four hundredths Having said that, the United States system of learning is quite different than other countries. Research suggests the United States focuses on a lower level of mathematical challenge, has a higher emphasis on procedures, heavy emphasis on review, and lack of coherence and cohesiveness in mathematics lesson in comparison to its leading counterparts [4]. The one to one comparison of the teaching approaches within the United States and the leading mathematics countries suggest a need for change in the way the US approaches teaching mathematics. 3.1.1. Conceptual-based teaching: the better if not best option In the preceding pages I have shared the flaws of United States mathematics education in comparison to the top countries defined in the TIMSS, weighed the benefits and constraints in mathematics reform, and analyzed the conceptual knowledge of a mathematics classroom, each of these components display a need for a greater background in conceptual knowledge for mathematics students. Understanding the above analyzed 30 minute choral counting activities cannot encompass the entirety of youth in the United States, it is important to look into moments such as the ones above. The TIMSS results can generalize the current state of mathematical learning, something that will only help educators to see the more wide range problems; by observing a smaller, more connected group the effects of procedural and conceptual teaching are much clearer. With professional mathematics educators, administers, teachers, parents, and students embracing a conceptual-based learning and teaching approach the mathematics students in schools across the US will only grow to excel in math, but even more so, they will develop a more concrete ability to problem solve, something that is bigger than mathematics itself. With any other topic in education we teach the core concepts backing up the procedural nature of the subject, why can mathematics not be the same? This forward progression in math, the push for reform may not allow are teachers perfect standardized test results; it definitely will leave no

2.2 Results: What does this mean?

What does this mean for the conventional procedurebased mathematics learning in comparison to reforms conceptual-based mathematics learning? In the study above, eight students we asked to simply count by decimals. These students have grown up in traditional U.S. classrooms. They have learned place value: hundreds, tens, ones, tenths, hundredths, thousandths, etc. With conceptual background in combination with labels (procedures) a student will be able to reason and justify why and how they came to the conclusion that a number is four hundredths. A conceptually sound student can show their answer in multiple ways. The research conducted above suggests that out of a group of eight students, two students consistently backed procedural claims with conceptual knowledge. Suggesting, in a small scale, parallels between the more broad TIMSS results. The balance of procedural and conceptual teachings and learning in the United States is skewed. From my own small scale study it can be seen, first hand, that US students, coming from a proceduralbased, traditional classroom struggle with the more conceptual-based ideas in mathematics. Researchers suggest that it is the conceptual knowledge that allows individuals to excel in mathematics. We see this in classrooms in Japan and in Hong Kong, the two countries leading the way in mathematics.

3. Discussion

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room for teaching to the test; but will allow students a deeper understanding in the reasons behind the procedures in math. With this approach our collective knowledge of mathematics will grow, only creating a more positive outlook for the future. References [1] Corter, J. E., Tatsuoka, C. Tatsuoka, K. K. (2004). Patterns of Diagnosed Mathematical Content and Process Skills in TIMSS-R across a Sample of 20 Countries. AmericanEducational Research Journal, 41 (4), 901-926.

[3]

Cai, J. (2003) What Research Tells us about Teaching Mathematics Through Problem Solving. Research and issues in teaching mathematics through problem solving. 1-17. Gallimore, R., Garnier, H., Givvin, K. B., Hiebert, J., Hollingsworth, H.,Jacobs, J. K., Manaster, A., Smith, J. M., Stigler, J. W., Wearne, D. (2005). Mathematics Teaching in the United States Today (And Tomorrow): Results from the TIMSS 1999 Video Study Education Evalulation and Policy Analysis. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 27 (2), 111-132. Desimone, L. M. (2009). Improving Impact Studies of Teachers' Professional Development: Toward Better Conceptualizations and Measures. Educational Researcher, 38 (3), 181-199. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20532527

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[2]

Hiebert, J. (1999). Relationships Between Research and the NCTM Standards. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 30 (1), 3-19.

[5]