Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
4 April 2013
TVAs Paradise Unit 2 Sets
New Long-Run Record
Pick the Best Mercury Technology
Stop Steam Turbine Vibration
NERC CIP Audit Preparation
Global Nuclear Waste Storage Plans
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April 2013
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POWER www.powermag.com 1
24
Established 1882 Vol. 157 No. 4 April 2013
ON THE COVER
Tennessee Valley Authoritys (TVAs) Paradise Fossil Plant Unit 2 set its 259+ day continu-
ous run record for a cyclone-fired boiler on Jan. 12, 2013. The new record eclipsed the
previous cyclone-fired boiler record of 255+ days, set by the plants Unit 1 in 1993. The
Paradise plant will mark its 50th anniversary of first operation on May 19 this year. Cour-
tesy: TVA
COVER STORY: COAL PLANT OPERATIONS
24 TVAs Paradise Unit 2 Sets New Continuous Operations Record
Tennessee Valley Authoritys Paradise Fossil Plant got off to a rocky start with its
original cyclone-fired boilers, but since replacing them with improved versions and
incorporating emissions upgrades, the plant has racked up several records. Paradise
has more complex equipment now than previously, and that equipment is operated
by a younger, but more rigorously trained, staff.
SPECIAL REPORTS
REGULATORY
28 Preparing for a NERC CIP Audit
Based on real-world NERC CIP audit experiences, this five-step plan will guide
those responsible for audit documentation preparation. The process is applied
to a single NERC CIP sub-requirement as an example, and additional resources
are provided.
EMISSIONS CONTROL
36 Electrostatic Precipitator Upgrade Opportunities
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has accepted filterable particulate mat-
ter as a surrogate for virtually all trace metals, which gives power generators the
flexibility to use electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) to comply with the recent Mer-
cury and Air Toxics Standards. That means monitoring the performance of your
ESP is more important than ever.
FEATURES
POWER IN CHINA
53 Wind Power Incidents in China: Investigation and Solutions
The rapid pace of wind power development in China has resulted in excess capacity,
grid integration difficulties, and myriad problems associated with quality. Turbine
trip incidents and equipment faults are the most prevalent. The authors look at the
causes of these problems and propose solutions.
MERCURY CONTROL
56 Enhancing Mercury Capture: An Asset-Based Approach
This article outlines common factors affecting mercury capture performance and
presents a generalized asset-based approach for identifying basic upgrade re-
quirements for U.S. coal-fired plants preparing to comply with the Mercury and
Air Toxics Standards.
Power in the United
Arab Emirates
Shifting Sands: The UAE Power Sector En-
ters a New Era of Diversification, a spon-
sored report from Global Business Reports,
tracks the attempts of the UAE to explore
alternative energy sources in response to
explosive growth in its electricity con-
sumption. From large investments in
nuclear to the unique challenges of solar
power in the desert, a wide range of op-
tions remain on the table. (After p. 44)
56
www.powermag.com POWER
|
April 2013 2
PLANT O&M
62 Steam Turbine Rotor Vibration Failures: Causes and Solutions
Managers of an Iranian coal-fired power plant share their experience with the static
and dynamic causes of extreme rotor bending as well as measures for avoiding the
potentially cascading effects of this problem.
NUCLEAR WASTE POLICY
67 Nuclear Waste Disposal Sites Still Rare After All These Years
Even as more nations build new nuclear power plants, long-term storage options for
various radioactive waste products from nuclear power generation remain scarce.
We look at the types of waste, reuse and disposal options, and the status of long-
term storage sites around the world.
DEPARTMENTS
SPEAKING OF POWER
6 Americas Growth Corridors
GLOBAL MONITOR
8 Europe Embraces Shale Gas
10 THE BIG PICTURE: Subsidy Tug-of-War
12 Bulgarian PM Quits over Power Price Protests
FOCUS ON O&M
14 Battling White Rust
LEGAL & REGULATORY
22 Filling the Hole in Californias Capacity Procurement Plan
By Jeffrey P. Gray and Vidhya Prabhakaran, Davis Wright Tremaine
74 NEW PRODUCTS
COMMENTARY
80 The Pacific Northwests Wind Fleet Integration Struggles
By Eric Christensen, Gordon Thomas Honeywell LLP
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Get More POWER on the Web
Online, associated with this issue (on our homepage, www.powermag.com, during the
month of April, or in our Archives any time), youll find these web exclusives:
Spain Proposes More Power Market Reforms
Global Developments for Nuclear Reactors Under Construction
The UKs Uncertain Nuclear Future
Carbon Capture for Natural Gas
Asian Hydro Sees Mounting Legal Disputes
Fuel Cells Adapted for Unmanned Undersea Vehicles
Ohio State Completes Integrated Operation Test of Coal Chemical Looping Technology
POWER Digest, a selection of recent global power industry deals
Too Dumb to Meter, Part 10 with The Great Uranium Conspiracy and Breeding at
the Turkey Farm
And remember to check our Whats New? segment on the homepage regularly for
just-posted news stories covering all fuels and technologies.
62
14
Achieving Zero Liquid Discharge
When a public utility client needed upgrades to the
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April 2013 4
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April 2013 12
reach an agreement to bring down the prices Ukraine pays
for Russian gas, Moscow and Kiev were embroiled in a fresh
gas dispute. Gazprom billed Naftogas $6.77 billion under a
take-or-pay clause of the 2009 agreement that Ukraine has
to disburse, even if it does not import gas. In 2012, Ukraine
bought 32.9 bcm of Russian gas, while the deal stipulated it
should have imported a minimum of 42 bcm.
Ukrainian officials lauded the regional councils decision
to approve development of the shale gas field in January,
saying its annual production could exceed 20 bcm and lower
gas prices within five or six years while boosting the coun-
trys energy independence from Russia. The country is also
looking to develop the Olesska gas field in the western part
of the country but has yet to make a production-sharing
agreementlikely with Chevronofficial.
UK Lifts Shale Gas Ban
Last December, nearly a year and a half after the UK halted
unconventional shale gas exploration when a project near
Blackpool set off tremors, Energy and Climate Change Secre-
tary Edward Davey approved shale gas fracking. The approval
means shale gas developers can resume fracking but will op-
erate under more stringent rules, including more in-depth
assessments for seismic risks.
The UK is facing a massive power shortfall if it cannot find
new capacity to replace about 21 GW that is set to be phased
out by 2030 due to age and EU pollution rules. Highlighting
the countrys energy dilemma are its dwindling conventional
natural gas reserves that have forced it to become a net
importer. Though the government estimates that the UKs
onshore shale gas reserves hover at 150 bcm, only one shale
gas firm, Cuadrilla Resources, has an exploration license.
However, the government has called for the creation of a
new office to simplify regulation and offer tax incentives to
sprout a working shale gas industry.
Bulgarian PM Quits Over Power
Price Protests
Protests in more than 20 cities by tens of thousands of Bul-
garians over January electricity bills that averaged more
than 100 ($130) forced the countrys prime minister, Boyko
Borissov, and his center-right government to resign in mid-
February.
Bulgarians, who have the lowest average salary in the Eu-
ropean Union (EU)about 387 ($504) a monthreportedly
accused three foreign-owned energy companies of what they
said were unreasonably high electricity bills. Brushing aside
government platitudes that January was an exceptionally
frigid month, they showed outrage at reports that the com-
panies pulled in windfall profits. According to some media
reports, Bulgarians alleged corruption among Czech firms CEZ
and Energo-Pro and Austrias EVN and the government. The
three firms control the countrys power distribution market,
which was divided into three regions when the country priva-
tized its network a decade ago.
UDI WHOS WHO AT ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS
Enhanced PDF version now available
The 2013 UDI Whos Who Directory covers more than 4,200
U.S. and Canadian generating plants. The directory provides:
Nearly 8,500 plant management and support
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April 2013
|
POWER www.powermag.com 13
the
company
torque gun
tm
The European Commission (EC) in January had referred
Bulgariawhich joined the EU in 2007 but has been criti-
cized for shortcomings that remain regarding corruption and
organized crimeto the European Court of Justice for failing
to fully abide by EU energy market rules.
An EU country report published last year finds two issues
with Bulgarias recent power sector reforms. First, liberaliza-
tion of the nations wholesale market is incomplete. There
are quotas, there is a dominant player and there are no free
prices, Marlene Holzner, spokesperson for EU Energy Com-
missioner Gnther Oettinger told the EUs web-based media
portal Euractiv in February. Second, despite recommenda-
tions by the EC, the countrys electricity regulator is not
independent. In Bulgaria there were regulated prices for
small and medium enterprises and also for end users. The
Commissions position was that Bulgaria should have market
prices, but also regulated prices for very vulnerable consum-
ers, it said.
Former Prime Minister Borissov had sought to quell the
chaotic protests in February by announcing Czech utility CEZ
would be stripped of its license. Though this failed to diffuse
public tensions and calm protests, he also pledged to cut
power prices by 8% starting March 1. Czech Prime Minister
Petr Necas, meanwhile, reacted to Borissovs statements by
urging the country to keep its international obligations un-
der European law, including those regarding foreign invest-
ment protection.
Bulgarian President Rosen Plevneliev called for an early
election on May 12 to reduce the fallout from the political
crisis that he said could undermine the countrys economic
stability.
Sonal Patel is POWERs senior writer. Look for more
Global Monitor stories associated with this issue online at
www.powermag.com.
2. A power protest. Mass protests by Bulgarians over surging
January electricity bills forced the prime minister, Boyko Borissov, and
his center-right government to resign in mid-February. Bulgarians al-
lege corruption between the government and three utilities that control
the distribution network. Courtesy: Blisses
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April 2013 14
Battling White Rust
Does your power plant use a chiller for combustion turbine in-
let air cooling or other processes that reject heat? If so, there
is a good chance you also have an auxiliary cooling tower
(Figure 1) or a wet surface air cooler (WSAC, Figure 2) to cool
these systems. (See POWER, September 2008, Wet Surface
Air Coolers Minimize Water Use by Maximizing Heat Transfer
Efficiency.) Galvanized steel has been commonly used in the
construction of smaller, package-type cooling tower systems
because it is relatively inexpensive. These cooling towers are
popular in many different industries and will increase in use
in power applications.
Those of us who work in the water treatment industry are
familiar with the smaller, package-type cooling towers from
our experience in the food and beverage, institutional, and
manufacturing business units. These units are typically con-
structed using galvanized and stainless metallurgies. How-
ever, many in the power industry are only familiar with wood
or fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) because these are the
materials most commonly used in the construction of field-
erected cooling towers at central station power plants.
A cooling water treatment program must consider not just
the galvanized, wood, or FRP but also all the materials that
the water will come into contact with throughout the plant,
such as titanium, stainless steel, and copper-based alloys
used in the condenser and possibly other balance-of-plant
heat exchangers.
The question of acceptable chloride levels in the bulk cool-
ing water always comes up anytime stainless steel alloys are
used. Typically, the engineering firm responsible for the plant
design will select appropriate materials and a water chemistry
program that ensure chloride levels in the cooling water are
kept at acceptable levels, depending on the grade of stain-
less. When stainless steel is used, developing an acceptable
water treatment program is straightforward.
Galvanized cooling towers are a much different story. Al-
though rare in the power industry, towers using galvanized
steel components are becoming more popular with the in-
creased use of chillers for inlet air-cooling combustion
turbines in combined cycle plants, as well as WSACs in the
air-cooled configuration.
In general, all cooling towers are very sensitive to wa-
ter chemistry, particularly chlorides, sulfates, and alkalinity.
These constituents are often overlooked when designing a
cooling water treatment program. (See POWER March 2013,
Selecting a Combined Cycle Water Chemistry Program and
September 2009, Avoid These 10 Mistakes When Selecting
Your New Water Treatment System.) Even so, using galva-
nized parts within a cooling tower makes the problem of wa-
ter treatment even more difficultthe water is tough on the
galvanized parts, and the power industry operates cooling
towers at much higher cycles of concentration than other
industries.
Finally, the propensity for white rust formation in galva-
nized systems is not very well known in the power industry.
The remainder of this article will define white rust, how it
is formed, its potential impacts on equipment integrity, and
how to control its formation.
Galvanized Steel and White Rust
Galvanized steel is carbon steel with a coating of zinc metal
on its surface. Either a hot-dip or electroplating process can
produce a zinc layer that is a protective surface coating as
well as a sacrificial anode. Because zinc is less noble than
carbon steel, it will corrode sacrificially to protect the under-
lying base metal. If the protective zinc layer should corrode
through, the base-layer steel will corrode at the same rate as
unprotected carbon steel. It is important to note that gal-
vanized steel will always have some small amount of general
corrosion occurring, just as with mild steel. The key is to
minimize those general corrosion rates while minimizing the
potential for localized corrosion.
When a galvanized steel system is operated under nonag-
gressive conditions such as a neutral pH and moderately hard
water, a protective layer of nonporous zinc carbonate and
zinc hydroxide forms to prevent further corrosion of the zinc
coating. However, if the system is operated under aggressive
conditions such as high pH, low hardness, or high chloride or
sulfate levels, rapid corrosion of the protective zinc layer can
occur. If the corrosion is severe, all the galvanized coating
2. Go with the flow. The co-current flow of air and water (both
flow downward) in a wet surface air cooler increases the systems heat
transfer efficiency. Courtesy: Nalco Power ITC
1. Cool breeze. This is a typical auxiliary evaporative cooling tower.
Courtesy: Nalco Power ITC
Mechanicals:P35299_EML_I01_V2.indd
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4. Coal ash collecting. ESP collection efficiency versus specific collecting area (SCA) for
various coals in illustrated. Source: K.S. Kumar and P.L. Feldman, Beyond NSPS: Electrostatic
Precipitator and Fabric Filter Technologies to Meet Future Emission Control Requirements, 9th
Symposium on Transfer & Utilization of Particulate Control Technology, October 1991.
POWER magazi ne POWERnews COAL POWER GAS POWER
MANAGI NG POWER POWER Handbook powermag. com
POWER connect Careers i n POWER ELECTRI C POWER
To subscribe, visit www.powermag.com/subscribe or call 847-763-9509.
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April 2013
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POWER www.powermag.com 41
EMISSIONS CONTROL
In this example, the ESP is operating well
above the acid dew point. If stack testing is
to be conducted at 250F on an unscrubbed
unit, assuming that 10 ppm SO
3
is present
at the ESP outlet, Figure 3 indicates that
about 8.5 ppm SO
3
would have condensed
as sulfuric acid aerosol. The extent of pos-
itive bias from condensed SO
3
will depend
on how much of this aerosol gets retained
on the front half of the EPA Method 5 sam-
pling train.
Research has shown that the extent of
positive bias from SO
3
can vary, depend-
ing on the ash loading and alkalinity of
particulate being caught in the probe.
Testing that was done to measure the ac-
curacy of SO
3
measurements revealed
that as much as 40% of the sulfuric acid
can be captured on the filter probe. This
amount of positive bias can have consid-
erable impact on the reported test results.
A 40% capture rate across the filter probe
would amount to 4 ppm SO
3
. If 4 ppm SO
3
is captured on the probe, positive bias on
filterable particulate as a result of conden-
sation of SO
3
on the filter catch can be as
high as 0.015 lb/MMBtu. For ashes that
are more alkaline, such as those derived
from Powder River Basin (PRB) coals or
produced as a result of alkaline sorbents
added for SO
3
mitigation on eastern coal
applications, the capture efficiency of the
condensed acid aerosol on filter probes
could be higher than 40%.
It is not uncommon for ESPs operating
with SO
3
conditioning to experience the
effects of over-conditioning from time to
time. Process control of SO
3
injection can
be difficult if sulfur and alkaline levels in
the coal change considerably. Therefore, it
is possible for flue gas at the ESP outlet to
be saddled with a substantial level of free
SO
3
in the vapor phase. EPA-certified PM
continuous emission monitors (CEMs) op-
erate at a filter probe temperature specified
by Method 5B (320F, plus/minus 25F). At
this temperature, for the stated example,
condensed sulfuric acid aerosol is unlikely
to be present at the filter probe tempera-
ture. Operation of the filter probe at this
temperature has the most probability of
avoiding SO
3
-related positive bias on the
filterable test results.
ESP Performance on Various Coals
Estimated ESP performance curves show-
ing SCA (normalized at 9 in. plate-to-
plate spacing) versus collection efficiency
are illustrated in Figure 4. The figure
demonstrates the expected performance
of ESPs when faced with a variety of dif-
ferent fuels. The prediction curves closely
correspond with performance estimates
reported in the past by EPRI. This early
work projected that, for comparable filter-
able outlet emissions, ESPs treating flue
gas from the combustion of low-sodium,
low-sulfur western PRB fuels would need
to be more than twice as large as ESPs on
plants firing higher-sulfur coals. For rea-
sons discussed earlier, the higher resistiv-
ity of ash resulting from the firing of PRB
coals limits the corona current density in
each electrical section to a much lower
level. This would result in lower spe-
cific corona power for an ESP of similar
size designed for eastern coals. The ESP
size, therefore, would need to be larger
to achieve the necessary particulate col-
lection, as dictated by the specific corona
power considerations.
ESP Performance and Testing Data
The remainder of this article reports on the
stack filterable emissions from six coal-fired
power plants, as well as the associated ESP
configuration and operating data. The discus-
sion above will be helpful when interpret-
ing the descriptions and test data from each
plant. Table 2 shows the configuration of
power plant boilers referenced in the stack
emissions review. Table 3 lists the properties
of coals used at these plants.
Plant and Fuel Descriptions. Plant 1
is an unscrubbed unit that fires a blend
Plant 1 Plant 2 Plant 3 Plant 4 Plant 5 Plant 6
NO
x
control LNB, OFA,
SNCR
LNB, OFA, SCR OFA, SNCR LNB, SOFA OFA, SCR
SO
x
control None Wet FGD Wet FGD None None None
HCl control None Wet FGD Wet FGD Dry sorbent injection of
SBC has been tested
No None
Mercury
control
None Wet FGD Wet FGD Activated carbon
injection
No None
Boiler type Opposed
wall-fired
Opposed
wall-fired
Cyclone-fired Tangential-
fired
None
SO
3
conditioning
No No No Yes, > 20 ppm
injection rate for ash
conditioning. Non-SO
3
conditioning also tested.
No None
Ammonia
conditioning/
other SO
3
mitigation
No Yes,
for SO
3
mitigation
Yes, for SO
3
mitigation
following
SCR
addition
No No Yes, for SO
3
mitigation
following SCR
addition
Notes: LNB = low NOx burners, OFA = overfire air, SNCR = selective noncatalytic reduction, FGD = flue gas desulfur-
ization, SBC = sodium bicarbonate.
Table 3. Coal-fired power plant operational information of tested units.
Source: Babcock & Wilcox Power Generation Group Inc.
Table 2. Coal-fired power plant configurations of tested units. Source: Bab-
cock & Wilcox Power Generation Group Inc.
Plant 1 Plant 2 Plant 3 Plant 4 Plant 5 Plant 6
Coal type PRB/
eastern
coal blend
Eastern
bituminous
Eastern
bituminous
PRB PRB Eastern
bituminous
Coal data, as
recd, avg.
values (Btu/lb)
10,225 12,070 Similar to
Plant 2
8,800 8,800 Similar to
Plant 2
Ash (%) 6.6 10.7 - 5.4 5.3 -
Moisture (%) 20 8 - 27 27 -
Sulfur (%) 0.9 3.3 - 0.3 0.3 -
Ash, LOI (%) 2 NA NA 9 to 10
moderate sodium in
ash (1.3% to 1.7% as
Na
2
O)
5.3 lower
sodium in ash
(1.30% as Na
2
O)
than Plant 4
9 to 10
after
installation
of OFA
Notes: LOI = loss on ignition, OFA = overfire air.
www.powermag.com POWER
|
April 2013 42
EMISSIONS CONTROL
of PRB coal and eastern high-sulfur Pitts-
burgh No. 8 coal. For NO
x
control, this
plant employs low-NO
x
burners (LNBs)
and overfire air (OFA). The plant also
utilizes selective noncatalytic reduction
(SNCR) as an additional NO
x
control.
There is no dedicated fly ash conditioning
system in use at this plant.
Plants 2 and 3 fire eastern high-sulfur
coal. They both utilize open tower wet
FGD for SO
2
control and LNB and SCRs
for NO
x
control. Both plants also utilize
SO
3
mitigation techniques to control the
increase in SO
3
produced after SCRs were
installed. Plant 2 utilizes sodium-based in-
jection ahead of the ESPs. Plant 3 utilizes
ammonia injection ahead of the ESPs.
Plants 2 and 3 are equipped with particu-
late matter CEMS to monitor stack filter-
able emissions.
Plant 4 is an unscrubbed unit firing
100% PRB coal. SO
3
injection is normally
used. Considerable additional testing was
conducted with injection of activated car-
bon for mercury control and sodium bicar-
bonate for HCl control ahead of the ESPs.
To prevent the adverse impact of SO
3
on
activated carbon injection (ACI) effective-
ness, a proprietary, non-SO
3
-based alter-
native fly ash conditioning technique was
also evaluated.
Plant 5 utilizes 100% PRB coal, but with
slightly lower sodium content in its ash as
compared with Plant 4. This plant utilizes
both OFA and LNB for NO
x
control. Plant
5 is also unscrubbed and does not use fly
ash conditioning.
Plant 6 utilizes eastern high-sulfur
coals. It also employs OFA. This plant
utilizes ammonia injection to control the
increase in SO
3
produced after SCRs were
installed.
Table 4 shows the relevant details of
each ESP and the actual ESP operating in-
formation during the testing period. Plants
1, 3, 4, and 6 utilize the North American
style ESP design, which consists of single-
piece electrodes, weighted wire, and rigid
discharge electrode geometries. These de-
signs utilize top-mounted rappers, located
outside of the flue gas stream, to dislodge
ash collected on both collecting and dis-
charge electrodes. Plants 2 and 5 utilize
the European-style ESP design, with mul-
tiple-piece discharge electrodes hung be-
tween electrode supports in a bed-spring
manner.
In sum, the most important parameters
affecting ESP performance, as presented
in Tables 2, 3, and 4, are:
Average operating corona current density
ESP inlet temperature
Plant 1 Plant 2 Plant 3 Plant 4 Plant 5 Plant 6
ESP design
arrangement
Weighted wire
discharge electrodes,
top rapped
Rigid mast bed frame
with twisted wires,
top rapped
Weighted wire
and rigid discharge
electrodes, top rapped
Weighted wire
discharge electrodes,
top rapped
Bed frame discharge
electrodes, bottom
rapped
Weighted wire
and rigid discharge
electrodes, top rapped
ESP inlet temp (F) 297 319 315 315 358 295
Gas velocity (ft/sec) 6.1 4.3 NA 6.6 5.3 NA
Aspect ratio 0.83 0.6 NA 0.8 1.72 0.9
Treatment time (sec) 4.9 5.5 NA 3.6 14 NA
Average corona
current density
(mA/1,000 ft
2
)
54 15.8 32 52 17.5 33
Stack filterable
emissions (lb/MMBtu)
0.019 0.015 0.003 0.028 0.014 0.015
Filterable emissions
test method
5 Method 5 w/certified
PM CEMS
(after wet FGD)
Method 5 w/certified
PM CEMS
(after wet FGD )
5 5 5
Notes: CEMS = continuous emissions monitoring system, FGD = flue gas desulfurization.
Table 4. ESP operational data from tested units. Source: Babcock & Wilcox Power Generation Group Inc.
0.050
0.045
0.040
0.035
0.030
.0.25
0.020
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000
F
i
l
t
e
r
a
b
l
e
o
u
t
l
e
t
e
m
i
s
s
i
o
n
s
(
l
b
/
m
m
B
t
u
)
ESP specific power (watts/1,000 acfm)
100
Kumar-Feldman prediction Recent full scale data Plant #4 data WFGD outlet data
0 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
5. Final test results. Filterable emission versus ESP specific corona power. Note the Ku-
mar-Feldman prediction line that is referenced in this article. Source: Babcock & Wilcox Power
Generation Group Inc.
www.powermag.com POWER
|
April 2013 44
EMISSIONS CONTROL
ESP residence time
If ash conditioning or SO
3
mitigation tech-
niques have been employed
Fireside NO
x
control techniques
Specific ESP corona power
ESP Corona Current Density Perfor-
mance. Plants 1, 3, 4, and 6 show operating
corona current densities between 32 and 54
mA/1,000 ft
2
. This is indicative of a well-en-
ergized precipitator collecting ash that is well
conditioned and properly conductive.
Plants 2 and 5 show operating corona
current densities of 15 to 18 mA/1,000 ft
2
.
This is at least a factor of two less than
the values reported for Plants 1, 3, 4, and
6 and is indicative of process differences
that could result in less-conductive ash
limiting the corona current input to the
ESPs. The ESP behavior of Plant 5 can
be generally explained as due to a com-
bination of variations in the coals sodium
content and a relatively high operating
inlet temperature. However, the reasons
for Plant 2 performing at a relatively low
operating corona current density level on
eastern high-sulfur coal application have
not yet been fully researched.
ESP Specific Corona Power Effect
on Emissions. Based on operating volt-
age and current density data on ESPs from
these six plants, and their respective SCA,
ESP specific corona power values were
developed for each of these plants, utiliz-
ing the approach discussed earlier in the
research review section. Figure 5 plots the
stack filterable emissions data collected
from each of these plants.
To better understand the relationship
between ESP specific corona power and
filterable emissions, three separate curves
are plotted in Figure 5. First a predicted
curve based on SCA versus collection effi-
ciency relationship is developed; second, a
trend line based on data from Plants 1, 4, 5
and 6 (all unscrubbed units) is created; and
finally, a trend line is added based on data
from Plants 2 and 3 (both of which have a
wet FGD system following a dry ESP).
From Figure 5, the following observa-
tions about the ESP performance on the
unscrubbed units is possible:
Though the predicted values of filter-
able emissions would be higher than
0.03 lb/MMBtu in most cases based on
the Kumar-Feldman line for ESPs oper-
ating specific corona power densities of
350 to 400 watts/1,000 acfm, all of the
dry ESPs were able to operate below the
MATS filterable emissions standard of
0.03 lb/MMBtu.
Among the unscrubbed units, Plant 4
shows significant additional filterable
reductions of 0.015 lb/MMBtu when the
ESP was operating with an alternative,
non-SO
3
fly ash conditioning system.
Plant 4 was able to retain the same low
emission levels with a non-SO
3
ash con-
ditioning system even when ACI and so-
dium bicarbonate injection testing were
conducted at this plant, and without loss
of the high ESP specific corona power.
Stack filterable emissions of Plant 2 at
the wet FGD outlet following a small,
two-field dry ESP operating at specific
corona power of about 150 watts/1,000
acfm consistently showed filterable
emissions below 0.02 lb/MMBtu. For
an ESP-only configuration, the Kumar-
Feldman curve predicts filterable emis-
sions in excess of 0.05 lb/MMBtu for
the operating specific corona power
level.
At Plant 3, the dry ESP was operating
at a specific corona power level of 320
watts/1,000 acfm. The stack filterable
emissions after the wet FGD showed val-
ues of 0.003 lb/MMBtu from PM CEMS
data (utilizing a certified method based on
EPA Method 5B). Based on the Kumar-
Feldman prediction, a standalone dry ESP
would perform at levels much higher than
0.03 lb/MMBtu.
Interpretation of the Observations.
Test data on stack filterable emissions have
shown that well-operating ESPs can handle
both eastern high-sulfur coals and PRB
coals. Proper fly ash conditioning seems es-
sential for achieving this result. Several spe-
cific conclusions can be drawn from the data
collected from the six plants and the observa-
tions presented above.
Most promisingly, the stack filterable
emissions testing on stations where ESPs are
followed by wet FGDs indicate that consid-
erable additional particulate collection can be
realized. Additional research seems necessary
to determine the mechanisms controlling this
important particulate control co-benefit.
These observations have significant im-
plications for plant operators interested in
reduced particulate emissions:
Stack filterable emissions data after wet
FGD systems on Plants 2 and 3 cannot
be explained without significant addi-
tional collection occurring across the
wet FGD. Though this co-benefit phe-
nomenon is not altogether surprising
based on the research review presented
earlier, currently there is a scarcity of
publicly available literature validating
the particulate collection mechanisms
that are possible across a relatively
lowpressure drop device such as an
open tower wet FGD.
The trend line of ESP performance on
unscrubbed units in Figure 5 indicates a
consistent under-prediction by a value be-
tween 0.010 and 0.015 lb/MMBtu as com-
pared to the Kumar-Feldman line. Though
this represents no more than a 15% dif-
ference for older units operating at filter-
able emissions of 0.10 lb/MMBtu, it could
have much greater significance for plants
operating near the 0.03 lb/MMBtu level.
Because most of the plants profiled em-
ploy some form of fireside modification
technique to reduce flame temperature,
are these plants also reducing the fine
particulate concentrations in fly ash dur-
ing the practice of this and other NO
x
-
reduction techniques? Additional testing
will be necessary to determine if fireside
modifications to reduce NO
x
could also
result in reductions of fine particulate
matter in fly ash.
It is significant that the data from Plant 4
indicates a factor of two differences in fil-
terable emissions between ESP operation
with SO
3
and non-SO
3
conditioning agents.
Carefully consider the potential damage to
probe filters resulting from condensed sul-
furic acid as well as the data bias caused
particulates collecting on the probe. It ap-
pears that all SO
3
mitigation techniques
tend to avoid the bias that acid mist aero-
sols can introduce into test results.
The testing and analysis also left several un-
answered questions that suggest additional re-
search is required to fully understand the impact
of ESP performance on filterable emissions:
What is the explanation for the optimistic
ESP performance based on stack testing
and evaluation at the six power plants?
Could the positive bias from condensed
SO
3
be a factor in the overprediction by
the Kumar-Feldman curve?
Could the past curves of overprediction be
a direct result of suboptimum control of
ash re-entrainment from ESPs?
Could the use of ESP specific corona pow-
er suggest that the quality of the power ap-
plied to the ESP may improve filterable
emissions?
Could use of pulsed energization, high-
frequency power supplies, or three-phase
power supplies have an impact on filter-
able emissions?
K.S. Kumar (kskumar@babcock.com) is
business development manager and J.A.
Knapik (jaknapick) is technical consultant
for the Babcock & Wilcox Power
Generation Group Inc.
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Global Business Reports
POWER UAE
Dubai, meanwhile, retains a much more
bundled approach to power governance
through the Dubai Electricity and Water
Authority (DEWA). DEWA owns and oper-
ates 11 plants varying from 400 MW to
1,400 MW with a total capacity of almost
9,000 MW. DEWA has stated intentions
to move towards an IPP model, however
phase one of the irst IPP project ten-
dered was subsequently deferred, creat-
ing uncertainty over the future of such a
model in the emirate.
Hassyan was to be Dubais irst partially
private-owned power plant and through
its six phases would have reached an
impressive total capacity of 9,000 MW.
The initial tender in 2009 was eventually
deferred indeinitely in April 2012, DEWA
stating oficially that capacity would be
made up through eficiency measures.
Consortiums would have spent in the
region of $3-5 million preparing their
bids, so a deferral at that stage would
have been extremely disappointing for all
those involved.
On the possibility of a Hassyan
re-tender, David Charlier, partner at
Ashurst commented: Although the de-
ferral was not ideal and it will have dent-
ed bidders conidence, many developers
and lenders were enthusiastic about the
opportunity to do the irst IPP in Dubai so
I suspect that if DEWA were to re-tender
there would be interest. DEWA will need
to consider how to address the concerns
of potential bidders and to convince them
that the project will go ahead.
A great deal of uncertainty remains
on the future of the Hassyan tender and
Dubais IPP model in general. As Dubais
economy continues to grow and develop,
there will be further requirements for in-
creased foreign investment for the con-
struction and operation of power plants.
The ive smaller emirates, or northern
emirates (Sharjah, Fujairah, Ajman, Ras
Al Khaimah and Umm Al Quwain), pos-
sess minimal natural resources and are in
a much earlier stage of industrial devel-
opment. Each is seeking to build on core
industrial sectors and encourage foreign
investment to spur economic growth.
Economic development of the northern
emirates will result in an increasing de-
mand for electricity, to which Abu Dhabi
has committed to providing in the short
to medium term through expansion and
diversiication of its own power sector.
Generation:
Diversiication in motion
As it stands today, 97.5% of power gen-
eration across the country comes from
natural gas-powered plants. However the
next 10 years will see the introduction of
a nuclear program in Abu Dhabi and the
highly anticipated move towards renew-
able technologies, namely solar power,
which holds huge potential in this desert
environment. The push towards power
diversiication is in line with the strategy
of industrial diversiication away from
fossil fuel dependence. For Dubai this
will reduce the cost of liqueied natural
gas (LNG) imports, while in the case of
Abu Dhabi diversiication will give greater
opportunities for export of its remaining
hydrocarbon resources. The UAE might
well have enough gas to last until 2030 or
2050, but it doesnt want to take the risk,
says the regional manager of Hatch, Roy
Dabbous on the push for nuclear power.
In the last four years, there has been
good push to develop the more of the
UAEs sour gas ields. These tend to cost
more and require greater diligence when
it comes to HSE Dabbous continues.
Nuclear
Abu Dhabis nuclear program is the irst
nuclear project in the Gulf Cooperation
Council (GCC), the political and economic
union made up of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait,
Bahrain, Qatar, Oman and the UAE. Abu
Dhabi established the Emirates Nuclear
Energy Cooperation (ENEC) in Decem-
ber 2009 to oversee the nuclear sector,
beginning with the establishment of four
nuclear reactors in the Barakah region of
western Abu Dhabi. The tender for the
project was contested by a number of con-
sortiums including GE-Hitachi, EDF-Areva
and the eventual winners Korea Electric
Power Company (KEPCO) with compa-
triot partners Samsung and Doosan. The
irst reactor is set to come into operation
in 2017, with the fourth to be completed in
2020. Combined, they could make up as
much as 25% of the emirates electricity
capacity, providing the primary baseload
of power demand. Our project is today
regarded as employing global best prac-
tice, so ENEC is being looked at as a role
model. This is something to be proud of,
but not complacent about: we have a long
journey ahead of us, states Mohammed
Al Hammadi, CEO of ENEC.
Solar
Another key element in the UAEs forth-
coming era of diversiication is the highly
anticipated adoption of renewable ener-
gies, namely solar power. The regions ide-
al climate for solar technology has been
matched by the commitment of govern-
ments in Abu Dhabi and Dubai. The Abu
Dhabi government, through its invest-
ment arm Mubadala, has established
Masdar City to advance renewable ener-
gy and sustainable technologies through
education, research and development,
investment and commercialization. Along
with regional ofices for major players in
the power sector such as Siemens and
Boeing, Masdar City will also be home to
the United Nations International Renew-
able Energy Agency (IRENA). The main
reason for placing IRENAs headquarters
in the UAE was the countrys dedication
to renewable energy. Despite being rich
in hydrocarbons, the UAE still has a very
2 pv mini power plant - csem-uae. Courtesy of CSEM
5
Global Business Reports // POWER UAE April 2013
5
www.gbreports.com
Global Business Reports
POWER UAE
director of clean energy. Masdar is the major partner in the
UAEs irst major solar project, Shams One, a 100 MW solar park
in the desert of Abu Dhabi, constructed in association with Total
and Abengoa Solar. Dubai has also made its intentions clear with
the announcement of the 1,000 MW Mohammed Bin Rashid
Al Maktoum Solar Park, which began construction in late 2012.
A debate still runs within the solar industry about which tech-
nology is best suited to this market; photovoltaic (PV) or con-
centrated solar power (CSP). There should, however, be space
for both in the UAE; each technology is good, and people who
talk about the front-end investment cost advantages of PV are
taking too simplistic a view. What you should do is calculate
costs across the 20-25 year life cycle of a power plant suggest
Tonjes Cerovsky, senior VP of sales in the Middle East and Africa
region for KSB.
The 100MW Shams One project has chosen a hybrid CSP and
gas model but when comparing the two technologies, Yousif
Al Ali, general manager of Shams Power Company, suggests:
In 2008, CSP technologies were still cheaper than photovol-
taic (PV); however, as a result of the inancial crisis and large
excess production capacity in China the price of PV dropped
dramatically. Accordingly the generation of electricity from PV
became very competitive, with electricity prices from PV now
below those of CSP. If the dispatch-ability is not that important,
companies will go with the cheapest technology, which at the
moment is PV. When countries begin to increase the percent-
age of renewable energy in the system, they will need a reliable,
dispatch-able source of energy, and thus they will initially need
to go for a mix.
It is clear that this region should make full use of its ideal
climate for utilising solar power. However, despite the year round
sunlight and cloudless skies this harsh desert environment cre-
ates some unique challenges for solar installations. This is not
as good a place for solar power as the likes of North Africa, Aus-
tralia and Chile, which have excellent direct sunlight, but it is
the second best points out Hamid Kayal, CEO of CSEM-UAE.
The main two concerns in the Middle East with regard to solar
deployment are the high heat and dust, and our technology out-
performs in both these aspects, explains Matt Merfert, project
manager at First Solar, whose thin ilm PV modules have been
chosen for phase one of the Dubai project.
There is a clear advantage for thin ilm when it comes to util-
ity-scale plants, and most of the new markets have large-scale
plants. Less electricity is used to produce the thin ilm modules,
adds Christopher Burghardt, First Solars VP of business devel-
opment, referring to the reduced time of energy payback from a
more eficient manufacturing processes.
The market is looded with solar-related irms positioning
themselves to make the most of the highly anticipated boom
in projects. Yet this has been the case for some years now, and
the most signiicant obstacle to the establishment of solar pro-
jects remains: the lack of a regulatory framework in place to give
conidence to both potential investors and the utility companies.
However, there is a case to be made for patience. Although
the lack of regulatory framework is an obstacle to the develop-
ment of the solar industry, rushing the process as in the case
of Jordan results in a framework that many ind overly com-
plex, perhaps dificult to understand. The real challenge for the
UAE is whether it can create a regulatory regime to give the cer-
tainty to attract investment without it being overly complex and
prescriptive, suggests Micheal Rudd of legal irm Bird & Bird.
Clean Coal
Optimizing the extent of diversiication is the construction of a
clean coal plant in the emirate of Ras Al Khaimah by Utico in part-
nership with Shanghai Electric. The UAE has no signiicant coal
reserves and as a signatory to the Kyoto protocol on CO2 emis-
sion reduction, the choice by Ras Al Khaimah for a coal power
plant appears a little surprising at irst. The 270MW plant is set
Central Courtyard of the Masdar Institute Campus, Masdar City
8
Global Business Reports // POWER UAE April 2013
Within the UAE the transmission and
distribution network must keep up with
the growth and development of the sec-
tor. The role of smart grids is central to
balancing demand and supply in a diversi-
ied power sector. Investments in distri-
bution and generation must be synchro-
nized and linked to the existing grid, with
a focus on issues such as load-shedding,
explains Goktug Gur, country president of
Schneider Electric.
The transmission and distribution mar-
ket is becoming very competitive in the
build up to these necessary develop-
ments. However as Pradip Kumar Das,
general manager of Gulf Jyoti International
explains: Most of the projects in the coun-
try set prequaliication conditions; utility
companies want to award the contracts
to experienced contractors. Our challenge
at the moment is our experience, and ive
years will give us enough time to build this
experience and become the number one
player in the region, says Kumar Das.
All the major players in the power sec-
tor are now present in the region and
newer companies are looding in year af-
ter year. Abu Dhabi is mainly focused on
cap-ex investment for new projects, Dubai
on op-ex to improve existing systems.
Dubai has also taken the initiative in solar
power, while Abu Dhabi needs more prop-
erty developments to make it attractive to
migrants. The UAE is very challenging in
terms of competition; the market is crowd-
ed with traditional companies as well as
newcomers from the Asia-Paciic region,
says Goktug Gur, country president of
Schneider Electric.
Although we can be fairly sure that there
will be a continuous stream of projects
across the power sector, the competition
will remain ierce for some time in such a
congested market.
The future
The GCC sits on the cusp of a power
revolution, with investments in the sector
estimated at over $250 billion in the next
ive years. The rest of the region will be
assessing the success of the application
of new energy sources, the balancing of a
diversiied power sector and perhaps most
crucially the style of inancial and regula-
tory regimes. The next ive to ten years
will be crucial in shaping not only the UAE
power sector, but the GCC and the wider
Middle East region.
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April 2013
|
POWER www.powermag.com 53
POWER IN CHINA
Wind Power Incidents in China:
Investigation and Solutions
Chinas installed wind power capacity has doubled for six consecutive years.
However, along with the increased capacity come wind power accidents,
incidents, and failures. Considering the sharply rising amount of wind
power, the authors examine and sort wind technology failures by type
and explore their causes in an effort to offer solutions.
By Zeng Ming, Xue Song, Li Ling-yun, Cheng Huan, and Zhang Ge, School of Economics and Management, North China Electric
Power University
C
hina has abundant and readily devel-
opable wind resources. According to
relevant data, the exploitable on-land
wind energy resource represents a power
generation capacity of 2,380 GW; the off-
shore wind energy resource is around 200
GW. Chinas wind resource is centralized,
and the wind energy potential of the three-
north area (composed of north, northeast,
and northwest China) as well as the coun-
trys southeast coastline and islands along
the coast accounts for 80% of that potential.
The geographic distribution of the wind re-
source somewhat coincides with Chinas coal
resource, although it is generally not coinci-
dent with load.
In 2011, some 11,409 wind turbines were
installed in China (excluding Taiwan), repre-
senting 17.63 GW of installed capacity. By the
end of 2011, the total capacity of wind turbines
in China equaled 62.36 GW, representing an
annual growth rate of 39.4% (Figure 1).
Compared with installed capacity, grid-in-
tegrated capacity and grid-integrated output
are more effective ways to measure the qual-
ity of Chinas wind power industry growth.
With the development of advanced technol-
ogy, grid-integrated capacity is increasing
annually, and rose from almost 31.6 GW in
2010 to 45 GW in 2011 (Figure 2).
The rate of growth in the development of
wind power is slowing, but grid-integrated
capacity is increasing, which indicates that
the number of projects not integrated with
the grid is falling. This suggests that Chi-
nas wind power industry is developing in a
healthy way, albeit gradually.
As grid-integrated capacity rises, so
too does wind power production. In 2007
wind generated 5.7 billion kWh and ac-
counted for 0.17% of Chinas total power
production. As the table shows, by 2011
wind power production stood at 73.2 bil-
lion kWh and accounted for 1.55% of the
countrys total electricity production.
1. Growing wind capacity. Newly added and total installed capacity in China between
2006 and 2011. Source: North China Electric Power University
2. Grid-integrated wind capacity. Newly added and total grid-integrated wind gener-
ating capacity in China between 2006 and 2011. Source: North China Electric Power University
70,000
60,000
50,000
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
I
n
s
t
a
l
l
e
d
c
a
p
a
c
i
t
y
(
M
W
)
Newly added Total
1,290
2,540
3,310
5,850 6,150
12,000
12,800
25,800
18,930
44,730
17,630
62,360
50,000
45,000
40,000
35,000
30,000
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
G
r
i
d
-
i
n
t
e
g
r
a
t
e
d
c
a
p
a
c
i
t
y
(
M
W
)
Newly added Total
1,010
2,070 2,130
4,200 4,190
8,390 9,210
17,600
13,990
31,590
13,410
45,000
www.powermag.com POWER
|
April 2013 54
POWER IN CHINA
Wind Power Incidents in China
The rapid pace of wind power development in
China has brought with it issues such as excess
capacity, difficulties in grid integration, and
myriad problems associated with quality. These
issues could impede developing still more wind
power. Data analysis suggests that wind power
incidents may be divided into two classes: trip
accidents and equipment faults.
Turbine trip incidents are very common. In
2010, there were 80 trip incidents, 15 of which
resulted in the loss of 100 MW to 500 MW of
electricity. In 2011, 193 turbine trip incidents
occurred between January and August, of which
54 resulted in the loss of 100 MW to 500 MW
of capacity. Another 12 incidents resulted in the
loss of more than 500 MW of capacity.
An analysis of statistics related to equipment
faults among wind-power companies shows
that starting in 2010, the number of wind tur-
bine faults has been increasing. Parts such as
the pitch system, frequency conversion system,
electrical system, control system, gearbox, gen-
erator, and yaw systems have been affected, as
shown in Figure 3.
The technical performance of some wind tur-
bines falls short of meeting the requirements of
safe grid integration. In particular, most turbines
that have been put into use do not have low-
voltage ride-through capability. Efforts aimed at
improving this capability have been hampered
because many wind farms lack a retrofit plan.
This failure to plan for low-voltage ride-through
has resulted in seemingly endless arguments
about retrofit fees and has led to shelving some
reconstruction plans altogether.
Retrofit fees can be high, putting great pres-
sure on operators; its also not easy to prepare a
reconstruction plan. For those turbines that were
put into service early on and whose capacity is
below 1 MW, technical difficulties exist con-
cerning their reconstruction. Furthermore, some
wind farms are poorly managed, and many man-
agers are afraid of reconstruction. As a result, a
few wind farms have stated that they could not
complete reconstruction until 2014; a few wind
farms are not studying the issue at all.
A second issue involves reactive power com-
pensation devices in some wind farms that could
not satisfy grid safety operation requirements.
Most wind farm turbines either are not capable
of regulating reactive power dynamically or their
capacity and regulation speed are incapable of
satisfying grid operation requirements. In a few
instances, reactive power compensation devices
are absent altogether or older devices are run-
ning with a fixed capacitor (reactance) group,
which requires operation that does not regulate
voltage automatically. Other wind turbines have
limited systematic voltage regulation capabili-
ties. Wind turbine monitoring systems provided
by manufacturers often do not offer access to
users or are not capable of regulating power fac-
tors online. Hence, turbines cannot effectively
manage voltage regulation, which increases the
difficulty of systematic reactive regulation and
leads to some wind farms being equipped with
more reactive devices than necessary.
A third issue is construction faults in the
design of some wind farms. For example,
35-kV collector systems in some wind farms
are designed by mechanically referring to the
design standard of the conventional distribu-
tion network, which results in using improper
grounding methods. As a result, operators
are unable to quickly cut off the selected line
when there is single phase fault, which may
lead to accidents and grid disconnection. In
addition, the type of step-up transformer cho-
sen is based on selected distribution network
design principles; package transformers are
widely adopted and more cable terminations
are used than are necessary. As a result, cable
termination fault becomes a main cause lead-
ing to wind farm accidents.
In Chinas southeast coastal areas, wind tur-
bines in some instances are installed without
considering microsite factors, which may af-
fect turbine safety and performance. As a result,
when typhoons create strong turbulence, equip-
ment accidents occur, such as collapsed tow-
ers and broken blades. Other design problems
include improperly positioned leading wire and
improperly secured cable structures, which can
lead to excessive vibration in high winds.
In other cases, major construction quality de-
ficiencies exist. This is the result of some wind
farm construction organizations focusing main-
ly on expediting development while putting
little thought into management. Specifically,
quality, testing, control, and acceptance inspec-
tions are not carried out in strict accordance with
the rules. Whats more, some developers do not
have effective control and management over
construction quality. In some cases, unqualified
organizations perform the primary work.
Recently, more wind power equipment
manufacturers are starting up in China; their
number currently stands at more than 80. To
reduce costs, a few manufacturers have ad-
opted low-cost components, which reduce
equipment quality even as they reduce ex-
penses. Whats more, some domestic wind
turbines are put into use without field opera-
tion tests; hence, turbine accidents typically
occur during construction or soon after the
machines are put into use. In some instances,
the entire turbine falls down, the main shaft
breaks, the motor catches fire, the gearbox
becomes damaged, and blades rupture.
At present, Chinas wind power system is not
sound, and technical standards lag far behind
those in other nations. National technical stan-
dards have not been set, and technical standards
for the centralized control of wind farmsalong
with standards for system design, integration,
and monitoringare still on the way.
Year
Wind power production
(billion kWh) Growth rate (%)
Share of total power
generation (%)
Average utilization of
wind power (hours)
2007 5.7 NA 0.17 NA
2008 13.1 126.79 0.38 2,046
2009 27.6 111.14 0.75 2,077
2010 49.4 78.9 1.17 2,047
2011 73.2 48.16 1.55 1,903
Note: NA = not applicable.
Wind power production in China 20072011. Wind powers share of total energy
production has risen in recent years, but it remains a small part of Chinas overall generation
mix. Source: China National Electric Power Industry Statistics Bulletin
Impeller
Brake system
Hydraulic system
Gearbox system
Generator system
Pitch regulation system
2,000
Jan. Aug. 2011 2010
4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000
3. Wind turbine accident classifications. Parts such as the pitch system, frequency
conversion system, electrical system, control system, gearbox, generator, and yaw systems
have been most affected. Source: North China Electric Power University
April 2013
|
POWER www.powermag.com 55
POWER IN CHINA
Solutions and Suggestions
Given the problems outlined above, China
should endeavor to take action toward the
following three goals.
Strengthen Research on Key Tech-
nology and Perfect Wind-Equipment
Manufacturing Industry Policies to Com-
prehensively Improve Manufacturing.
Industry policy improvements are required to
make the equipment manufacturing industry
avoid irrational competition. Strict equip-
ment manufacturing standards and authen-
tication systems should be established, and
wind turbine series directories and standard
accessories should be set up to guide orderly
research and development.
Efforts should be made to strengthen re-
search efforts on key pieces of equipment
with more investment devoted to technology
innovation. As a start, China should arrange a
series of major projects in wind power manu-
facturing to improve wind turbine design and
development with an eye toward reliable and
stable operations.
China Should Adopt a Comprehensive
Approach to Wind Resource Planning. As
a first step, policies should encourage taking a
comprehensive approach to wind power and the
construction of transmission lines. China should
keep a balance and a connection between wind
power development and the grids construction.
In areas where wind resources are abundant,
grid construction should be enhanced and at-
tention should be paid to improving the grid to
meet the requirements of wind power develop-
ment. Moreover, China needs to strengthen the
construction of tie-lines between provinces to
improve transmission as well as the grids abil-
ity to accept wind power.
As a second step, China must better inte-
grate wind power, peaking power supplies,
and frequency-tuned (frequency regulation)
power supplies. The construction of flexible,
dispatchable power sources such as pumped-
storage power plants, gas-fired plants, and
conventional hydropower plants should be
speeded up, and fossil-fueled plants could
be encouraged to take part in peak-regulating
operations. Whats more, policies aimed at
linking renewable energy and frequency-
tuned power sources should be carried out
to promote the coordinated development of
wind power, thermal power, and hydropower.
These could be further expanded to meet the
demand of large-scale grid integration.
As a third step, China should take a com-
prehensive view of economic development
and wind power development planning to
ensure resources are developed on the basis
of available wind resources and local load.
China also needs to make the location of en-
ergy-loaded industries compatible with those
areas rich in wind resources.
As a fourth step, China needs to add more
ways to consume wind power at its point of
production. China should combine both dis-
tributed and centralized wind power, encour-
age areas to utilize distributed wind power,
strengthen the construction of distribution
networks, and improve in-situ wind power
consumption. Furthermore, China needs to
strengthen demand-side management in ar-
eas rich in wind power, improve load char-
acteristics, and encourage and use smart grid
technologies to promote the consumption of
wind power.
As a fifth step, China needs to build an in-
formation communication mechanism for wind
energy exploration and grid planning. China
should appropriately arrange early grid engi-
neering work according to relevant departments
wind power and transmission planning, making
efforts to keep grid construction and wind power
development in step with one another.
Improve National Regulations and
Standards. China should build a national
wind-power standard and regulation system that
covers the process of research and manufactur-
ing, planning and construction, installation, inte-
gration detection, and operation management in
an effort to promote the standard development
of its wind power industry.
Relevant policies that promote the wind
power industry need to be improved. Ad-
ministrative regulations and policies that
support renewable energy law need to be
developed, including price subsidies for
peak and frequency regulation, and rea-
sonable compensation standards for grid
integration.
Moreover, policies need to be developed
covering the on-grid price of distributed
wind power, peak and off-peak prices on the
supply side, and interruptible prices on the
demand side to help promote wind power
consumption.
Finally, studies should be undertaken to
examine green-certificate systems and con-
sumption policies that encourage renewable
energy subscriptions.
Pursuing these steps will help encourage
the whole of Chinese society to actively ex-
plore and consume renewable energy such as
wind power.
Zeng Ming, Xue Song, Li Ling-yun,
Cheng Huan, and Zhang Ge are with
the School of Economics and Man-
agement, North China Electric Power
University, Beijing, China. The authors
may be contacted through Li Ling-yun at
lilingyunncepu@126.com.
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www.powermag.com POWER
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April 2013 56
MERCURY CONTROL
Enhancing Mercury Capture:
An Asset-Based Approach
The Mercury and Air Toxics Standards will soon force many coal-fired plants
to install mercury-specific emission control equipment. Planners can use
particular characteristics of a plant to quickly screen for the best mercury
removal technology.
By Dr. Michael Trovant, Hatch Consultants Inc.
B
arring successful legal challenges, the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agen-
cy (EPA) has mandated that utility
boilers achieve compliance with new Mer-
cury and Air Toxics Standards (MATS) by
April 2015. While site-specific extensions of
up to one year may be granted in certain situ-
ations, the majority of facilities are expected
to upgrade their flue gashandling systems
to meet the new standards on a timely basis.
MATS is primarily intended to address mer-
cury emissions, although other hazardous air
pollutants (HAPs), such as acid gases (for
example, hydrocholoric acid and hydroflu-
oric acid), heavy metals (such as arsenic and
lead), dioxins, and furans, are also targeted.
Unlike particulate, SO
2
, and NO
x
contami-
nants that can normally be captured quite
consistently with dedicated equipment, the
performance of mercury control technology
is highly dependent on multiple factors, par-
ticularly coal composition and existing flue
gas treatment equipment. As a result, the
most cost-effective and reliable upgrade op-
tion will often be site-specific.
This article outlines common factors affect-
ing mercury capture performance and pres-
ents a generalized asset-based approach for
identifying basic upgrade requirements. The
strategy focuses solely on mercury control.
Upgrades to address other regulations, includ-
ing updates required by the currently vacated
Cross State Air Pollution Rule (CSAPR) and
future National Ambient Air Quality Stan-
dards (NAAQS), are not addressed.
Brief Review of Mercury Speciation
A major consideration in the design of a
mercury control process is the chemical state
of mercury at the boiler exit, known as its
speciation. Mercury vapor typically takes
on three forms: particulate-bound (Hg
p
), oxi-
dized mercury (Hg
2+
), and elemental mercury
(Hg
0
). The distribution among the three forms
is dictated by many factors, such as coal type,
combustion process, and subsequent gas
treatment steps. A good knowledge of these
factors is critical in determining mercury re-
moval equipment requirements.
Hg
0
is generally very difficult to capture
in flue gas. By comparison, Hg
2+
and Hg
p
are
more easily collected using conventional wet
or dry flue gas treatment systems. The only
proven approach to achieving reasonable
overall removal efficiencies is to promote
low levels of Hg
0
in the flue gas at the boiler
exit and, if necessary, convert most of the Hg
0
to either Hg
2+
or Hg
p
upstream of the main
gas-cleaning equipment. The latter approach
is an essential part of the mercury emission
control design strategy for the flue gas sys-
tem; the former is primarily a function of the
boiler fuel source.
Impact of Coal Type
The type of coal or coal blend used by a facil-
ity can greatly affect the resulting distribu-
tion of mercury species in the flue gas and
the potential for subsequent conversion in
downstream treatment equipment.
In terms of mercury speciation, the three
most important characteristics of coal are
its chlorine (Cl) and sulfur content and its
tendency to produce fly ash with high levels
of unburned carbon (UBC). High-chlorine
coals (producing 500 to 2,000 ppm Cl in the
flue gas) generally promote the formation of
Hg
2+
, which is beneficial. Fly ash with high
UBC generally increases the concentration of
Hg
p
, which is also beneficial.
Higher-sulfur coals that produce more
SO
2
in the flue gas do not directly impact
mercury speciation but can interfere with
the potential of other components, including
chlorine, to oxidize mercury. While UBC in
the flue gas is a function of several boiler op-
erational variables (including load and fuel/
air distribution), bituminous coals normally
produce higher levels of UBC than subbitu-
minous coals, which in turn produce higher
levels than lignite. Other coal-related charac-
teristics, such as catalytic metal content and
even water vapor (which can have oxidation
1. Distribution of common U.S. bituminous coals, with medium to high
unburned carbon (UBC). Source: Hatch Consultants Inc.
10,000
1,000
100
0 1 2 3 4
Sulfur content of coal (% wt)
C
h
l
o
r
i
n
e
c
o
n
t
e
n
t
o
f
c
o
a
l
(
p
p
m
)
High chlorine/low sulfur
Good mercury speciation
Low chlorine/low sulfur
Poor mercury speciation
High chlorine/high sulfur
Reduced ACI performance
Low chlorine/high sulfur
Poor mercury speciation
Reduced ACI performance
Appalachian region
bituminous
Interior province
bituminous
April 2013
|
POWER www.powermag.com 57
MERCURY CONTROL
interference similar to SO
2
), would also af-
fect mercury speciation, though typically to
a lesser degree.
The chlorine and sulfur contents of bi-
tuminous, subbituminous, and lignite coals
found in the continental U.S. are generally
well documented. Representative distribu-
tions are illustrated within four approximate
composition quadrants corresponding to
combinations of high or low concentrations
of both sulfur and chlorine in Figures 1, 2,
and 3. As noted, the high-chlorine/low-sul-
fur quadrant is typically the most beneficial
for mercury speciation and adsorption with
activated carbon. The low-chlorine/high-
sulfur quadrant is the most problematic,
and the remaining quadrants have the corre-
sponding mixture of speciation and adsorp-
tion characteristics.
Although extreme variations in coal com-
position exist, most bituminous coals produce
exhaust gas with fairly well-oxidized mercury
compositions and high levels of UBC. Lower-
sulfur Appalachian bituminous coals gener-
ally have higher mercury oxidizing potential,
and interior province bituminous coals have a
somewhat reduced potential. Subbituminous
coals, including Powder River Basin (PRB)
coal, have lower mercury oxidizing poten-
tial owing to lower chlorine content and less
UBC in the fly ash (though sulfur levels are
also typically much lower, which allows for
downstream gas-conditioning options). Lig-
nite coals normally have the lowest oxidiz-
ing potential of all coals, with very low levels
of chlorine and production of low-carbon fly
ash. This family of coals normally requires
more extensive mercury upgrades to achieve
reasonable collection efficiencies.
MATS compliance will require the aver-
age plant to attain an outlet mercury con-
centration of no more than 1.2 lb/TBtu (4
lb/TBtu for lignite), which corresponds to a
collection efficiency of approximately 90%
(80% for lignite). However, it is possible for
certain plants with access to very low mer-
cury content coals to achieve compliance
with existing equipment at much lower col-
lection efficiencies.
For example, facilities that do not have a
scrubber may be able to meet standards sim-
ply on a mass balance basis by switching to
low-mercury coal (though the coal will also
likely need to be low chlorine and, to comply
with likely future CSAPR regulations, low
sulfur). Another short-term strategy could in-
volve facilities with existing high-efficiency
SO
2
gas-scrubbing switching to higher-chlo-
rine coals to enhance mercury collection,
without exceeding acid gas HAP regulations.
Consequently, the demand for these unique
coal types is likely to increase for a period
of time before more stringent second-gen-
eration mercury regulations or rule changes
mandate capital improvements.
Understanding the impact of coal type
on mercury removal is an important consid-
eration in selecting mercury control equip-
ment, but a facilitys fate is not entirely
bound to its fuel.
Options for Enhancing Hg
2+
and
Hg
p
Speciation
Post-combustion mercury speciation can be
significantly altered by several means. The
required extent of conversion to oxidized
or particulate-bound mercury is dictated by
the desired degree of mercury control, the
installed gas treatment equipment, and the
system upgrades (if any) being considered.
The intent is to allow the downstream gas
treatment equipment to best capitalize on the
mercury speciation profile and maximize the
degree of capture.
Options for enhancing mercury col-
lection efficiency have been documented
extensively in the literature. A summary
of the more common options, categorized
for particulate-bound and oxidation-based
10,000
1,000
100
0 1 2 3 4
Sulfur content of coal (% wt)
C
h
l
o
r
i
n
e
c
o
n
t
e
n
t
o
f
c
o
a
l
(
p
p
m
)
High chlorine/low sulfur
Good mercury speciation
Low chlorine/low sulfur
Poor mercury speciation
High chlorine/high sulfur
Reduced ACI performance
Low chlorine/high sulfur
Poor mercury speciation
Reduced ACI performance
PRB region
subbituminous
2. Distribution of common U.S. subbituminous coals, with low to me-
dium UBC. Source: Hatch Consultants Inc.
10,000
1,000
100
0 1 2 3 4
Sulfur content of coal (% wt)
C
h
l
o
r
i
n
e
c
o
n
t
e
n
t
o
f
c
o
a
l
(
p
p
m
)
High chlorine/low sulfur
Good mercury speciation
Low chlorine/low sulfur
Poor mercury speciation
High chlorine/high sulfur
Reduced ACI performance
Low chlorine/high sulfur
Poor mercury speciation
Reduced ACI performance
Western/Gulf
lignite
3. Distribution of common U.S. lignite coals, with low UBC. Source: Hatch
Consultants Inc.
www.powermag.com POWER
|
April 2013 58
MERCURY CONTROL
conversion routes, is depicted schemati-
cally in Figure 4 with a list of accompany-
ing advantages and risks.
As noted, wet limestone and lime flue gas
desulfurization (wet FGD) based systems
are particularly suited for capturing oxi-
dized mercury. For example, a facility using
higher-chorine/lower-sulfur fuels, with an
installed selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
unit to enhance oxidation and a downstream
wet FGD system would achieve excellent
mercury control (likely in excess of 95% cap-
ture), but it would need to run the SCR year
round and closely monitor scrubber chemis-
try to prevent re-release of mercury from the
scrubbing liquor. If coal chlorine levels hap-
pen to be lower, halogen injection could be
used to restore oxidation potential.
Dry FGD systems, particularly those
equipped with baghouses, circulating dry
scrubbers, spray dryersand, to a lesser ex-
tent, electrostatic precipitators (ESPs)can
be effective at capturing particulate-bound
mercury, in addition to having reasonable
oxidized mercury capture efficiencies. An
example of an effective dry system would be
an Appalachian bituminous coal-fired boiler
coupled with an activated carbon injection
(ACI) system upstream of a baghouse. If only
higher-sulfur bituminous coals are available,
the detrimental impact could be partially off-
set via dry sorbent injection, which can be
easily installed in tandem with ACI equip-
ment (see sidebar Three Site-Specific Sor-
bent Injection Options).
Systems having both wet and dry gas-
cleaning equipment can achieve the com-
bined benefits of both sets of options and
generally attain higher degrees of mercury
capture. This approach may be necessary
for facilities using particularly difficult coal
types, including certain grades of lignite.
The relationships in Figure 4 illustrate
the synergy that can be achieved by cou-
pling two or more mercury reduction unit
operations. With this general set of rela-
tionships established, it is now possible to
construct a road map outlining a range of
equipment combinations that satisfy mer-
cury reduction requirements.
Matrix of Mercury Control
Upgrade Options
The development of a comprehensive asset-
based methodology is a very large undertak-
ing, requiring the evaluation of a vast number
of equipment combinations, fuel grades, and
other complex process factors. A summary
matrix of the results of the asset-based ap-
proach is shown in the table. The purpose of
this table is to highlight the range of equip-
ment configurations capable of achieving
mercury reduction targets and to allow users
to identify the most attractive upgrade alter-
natives for their site on a qualitative basis.
Using the summary table is very straight-
forward:
1. Define the coal type: The coal is defined in
Step 1 (upper three rows of the table). The
coal type is specified as bituminous, subbi-
tuminous, or lignite, and the levels of sul-
fur and chlorine in the coal are defined as
high, medium, or low (coal grades/blends
in between these broad definitions will re-
quire some interpolation of the results).
2. Determine whether existing equipment
configurations are suitable: Some facilities
may be able to achieve MATS compliance
with common gas-cleaning equipment al-
ready installed to control other pollutants
such as particulate matter, SO
2
, and NO
x
.
Suitable existing equipment configura-
tions are represented by the numbered col-
umns in Step 2 (middle rows of the table)
for a given coal composition. Note that
for some coal compositions, no existing
configurations are suitable and mercury-
specific equipment upgrades are required,
as specified in Step 3.
3. Identify upgrade options, if required:
Upgrade equipment configurations are
represented by lettered columns in Step
3 (bottom rows of the table). Each con-
figuration can be expected to achieve, on
average, the required reduction in mercury
emissions for MATS compliance.
For example, a facility firing high-sulfur,
high-chlorine, interior province bituminous
coal would have five existing combinations
of equipment that would preclude the need
for any specific mercury control upgrades:
4. Many paths to compliance. Summary of the challenges and opportunities for im-
proving Hg collection from plant stacks. Courtesy: Hatch Consultants Inc.
Three Site-Specific
Sorbent Injection Options
Three primary sorbent injection pro-
cesses are used for the reduction of mer-
cury in the stack gas. Selection of the
right process is a function of the coal,
existing air quality management system
(principally, the presence of a baghouse
or scrubber), and impact on ash bene-
faction programs.
Activated Carbon Injection (ACI).
Powdered porous activated carbon is in-
jected into the flue gas in a uniformly dis-
tributed and well-mixed manner to adsorb
mercury. The spent carbon is captured in a
particulate collection device. Treated and/
or alternative agents can also be used.
Halogen Injection (HI). Halogen gas
(for example, chlorine, bromine, and/or
alternative agents) is injected into the
flue gas to promote oxidation and the
formation of Hg
2+
. The oxidized mercury
is collected in a wet scrubber or other
particulate collection device.
Dry Sorbent Injection (DSI). Sorbent
(such as hydrated lime, trona, or sodium
bicarbonate) is injected into the flue
gas in a uniformly distributed manner to
absorb scavenging agents (such as SO
2
)
that compete for adsorption sites on
activated carbon and would otherwise
reduce ACI performance.
A
p
r
i
l
2
0
1
3
|
P
O
W
E
R
w
w
w
.
p
o
w
e
r
m
a
g
.
c
o
m
5
9
M
E
R
C
U
R
Y
C
O
N
T
R
O
L
Matrix of Hg control equipment options. A number of assumptions are implicit in constructing the matrix, such as using only equipment combinations that are expected
to achieve at least 90% total mercury collection efficiency (80% on lignite). Also, there are several factors that can influence activated carbon injection (ACI) adsorption efficiency that
are not accounted for in the analysis, such as using treated sorbents (considered as separate options), flue gas temperature and composition, mercury concentration and composition,
fly ash composition (for example, levels of unburned carbon, loss on ignition, and catalytic metal content), flue gas residence time and degree of turbulent mixing at ACI injection area,
and flue gas quench rates (wet systems). Other minor factors related to collection efficiency also are not accounted for in the analysis, including the impact of water vapor in the boiler
exhaust, which can inhibit the formation of Hg
2+
by scavenging the chlorinating agents. A comprehensive site-specific assessment should be conducted to confirm achievable mercury
collection efficiencies. Courtesy: Hatch Consultants Inc.
www.powermag.com POWER
|
April 2013 60
MERCURY CONTROL
Circulating dry scrubber with baghouse.
Baghouse with wet flue gas desulfuriza-
tion (both systems).
Spray dryer absorber with baghouse
(both systems).
Selective catalytic reduction with a cold
electrostatic precipitator and wet flue gas
desulfurization (all three systems).
Selective catalytic reduction with a hot
electrostatic precipitator and wet flue gas
desulfurization (all three systems).
If the facility did not have any of the above
combinations of equipment, there would
only be one clear upgrade strategy, namely
to install upgrade option Aactivated car-
bon injection with a baghouse (one or two
upgrades, depending on whether the facility
already had a baghouse).
Conversely, a facility firing medium-
sulfur, medium- to low-chlorine lignite coal
would not be able to reliably achieve MATS
compliance with existing common gas-clean-
ing equipment and would need to consider
one of four possible upgrade strategies:
A: Combined activated carbon and halo-
gen injection with a baghouse and spray
dryer absorber.
B: Combined activated carbon and halogen
injection with a circulating dry scrubber.
C: Combined activated carbon and dry
sorbent injection with a baghouse and wet
flue gas desulfurization.
D: Combined halogen and dry sorbent in-
jection with a baghouse and wet flue gas
desulfurization.
The selected upgrade route would pri-
marily depend on any existing installed
equipment. In this case, the use of SCRs
or cold/hot ESPs may partially enhance
mercury collection, but this equipment is
considered optional, as the impact would
be small and would not likely make a sig-
nificant difference in achieving the 90%
mercury reduction target.
A quick review of the table reveals a num-
ber of important trends:
Coal type plays an extremely important
role in defining the available options for
mercury control. As we move from high-
er- to lower-chlorine coals, the possibility
of achieving high collection efficiencies
with common (existing) gas cleaning
equipment soon dissipates. This is evident
by the absence of E options for these cases
in the table. Similarly, coals producing
lower carbon fly ash require more U op-
tions, also evident in the table entries.
All else being equal, baghouses are bet-
ter suited for mercury capture than ESPs.
ESPs using SO
3
as a flue gasconditioning
agent (to meet stack opacity requirements)
are at a further disadvantage. ESPs are re-
ally only relevant for mercury control with
certain high-chlorine coals, though even in
these cases, baghouse collection efficien-
cies are still much higher.
The need for halogen injection to offset low-
7. Additive storage. This is the reagent
addition system at HBCP. Courtesy: Hatch
Consultants Inc.
5. Cleaning up stack gas. CERI testwork on wet flue gas desulfurization (FGD) at the
Huaneng Beijing Cogeneration Power Plant (HBCP). The wet FGD system was supplied by a
third party. Courtesy: Hatch Consultants Inc.
6. Front-end treatment. The programmable logic control, instrumentation, and reagent dos-
ing silo for precombustion mercury control at HBCP are visible. Courtesy: Hatch Consultants Inc.
April 2013
|
POWER www.powermag.com 61
MERCURY CONTROL
er chlorine concentrations in the flue gas (and
dry sorbent injection to reduce high sulfur)
can be seen in the upgrade cases for lower
chlorine/higher sulfur coals and more so for
coals producing lower carbon fly ash. Mer-
cury control for lower-ranked coals is cur-
rently the focus of much research and will
drive the development of alternative sorbent
technology in the years to come.
The table is most effective when used to
compare the relative merit of different equip-
ment configurations for the particular char-
acteristics of a given facility (with all other
factors being equal), or to illustrate the impact
of common fuel variables on mercury col-
lection performance. In many situations, the
table can be used in helping a facility decide
the best path forward to meet mercury reduc-
tion targets. However, it is important to keep
in mind that upgrades should always be eval-
uated after consideration of all site-specific
factors, including achieving compliance with
regulations for other common pollutants, lay-
out constraints, and economic considerations.
In some cases, additional test work will be
required to verify some of the upgrade sce-
narios, including piloting trials and/or compi-
lation of site data from similar facilities.
China Embraces Mercury Reduction
Strict control of mercury and other hazard-
ous air pollutants is becoming more impor-
tant in the national environmental strategies
for most countries, especially emerging
economies where capacity is rapidly ex-
panding. Although most U.S. projects in-
volve retrofitting equipment on existing
assets, nations like China have started to
design and incorporate mercury control into
greenfield projects from the ground up. That
means those projects will have the advan-
tage of designing the new plants gas-han-
dling system to promote mercury removal
from conception, rather than as an add-on.
This experience is quickly moving Chinese
vendors to the forefront of mercury control
technology development.
China Huaneng Clean Energy Research
Institute Ltd. (CERI), a division of state-
owned China Huaneng Group, is a good
example of an equipment supplier with a re-
search-oriented mercury control focus. China
Huaneng Group has a total installed capacity
of about 115 GW, which ranks as the largest
in Asia and the second-largest in the world.
As an example, mercury removal upgrades
were recently completed at its Huaneng Bei-
jing Cogeneration Power Plant (HBCP).
One of CERIs current areas of expertise
is the development of monitoring and con-
trol systems to maximize mercury removal
with conventional flue gascleaning equip-
ment using coordinated optimization. The
company is heavily involved in research and
development with lower-mercury coals but
also designs and supplies conventional ACI
mercury removal systems for facilities with
higher-mercury coals (Figures 5, 6, and 7).
Low-mercury coals provide additional op-
portunities for low-cost compliance, because
removal efficiencies do not need to be as
high. One such approach under development
is the addition of calcium bromide or other
additives directly to the fuel coal or in the
primary air to the burners. Another approach
being implemented involves the addition of
reagent to circulation water and/or the flue
gas upstream of the plants wet FGD equip-
ment. CERI is currently conducting tests with
the overall goal of identifying operational pa-
rameters that maximize the mercury remove
effectiveness of each of these strategies.
Dr. Michael Trovant (mtrovant@
hatch.ca) is a Toronto-based consultant
specializing in flue gas handling and other
gas quality control applications at Hatch
Consultants Inc.
For more information, call Wrights Media at 877.652.5295 or visit
our website at www.wrightsmedia.com
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