Disability Resource Notebook 2012

DRN Disability RESOURCE NOTEBOOK
U n i v e r s i t y o f N o r t h T e x a s
A Comprehensive guide to five disabilities and the resources dedicated to them
Compiled By: Kristen Morales 2 012

Table
of Contents
Intellectual Disability Specific Language Impairment Autism Spectrum Disorder Learning Disability Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder References
3 7 11 15 19 23
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Intellectual Disability
Introduction
An intellectual disability is marked by limitations in cognitive functioning, as well as some difficulties with communication, social skills, and self-maintenance. There is a wide range of things that can cause intellectual disabilities, such as genetic conditions, problems during pregnancy and birth, and other health factors such as diseases, malnutrition, or heavy metal poisoning. The five sections below will cover some facts about intellectual disabilities, a review of organizations and services dedicated to them, the evidence based teaching practices that can be utilized with them, as well as available assistive technology associated with intellectual disabilities and web resources that can assist people who deal with this disability.
Facts About Intellectual Disabilities
Intellectual disabilities, as defined by the AAIDD, are disabilities in which an individual experiences significant limitations in both intellectual functioning as well as adaptive behavior with social and practical skills (AAIDD 2012). Another term commonly used for intellectual disability is mental retardation (sometimes abbreviated as MR), though this term may become outdated due to the negative stigma attached to the label (Hallahan et al, 2012) In fact, AAIDD, the American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities changed its name in 2007 from AAMR American Association on Mental Retardationbecause of this negativity (Hallahan et al, 2012). Intelligence Quotient (IQ) tests are commonly performed to identify students with intellectual disabilities, though an assessment of adaptive behavior is necessary to make a full diagnosis. The American Psychological Association has four classifications of intellectual disability which are commonly used in schools: mild (50 to 70 IQ), moderate (35 to 50 IQ), severe (20 to 35 IQ), and profound (IQ below 20) (Hallahan et al, 2012). There are many causes behind intellectual disabilities, and these causes are commonly divided into prenatal, perinatal, and postnatal.
Prenatal: There are many genetic conditions that can cause some form of intellectual disability, but the most common are the chromosomal disorders known as Down Syndrome (also known as trisomy 21), Prader-Willi Syndrome, Fragile X Syndrome, and Williams Syndrome. Each of these syndromes has unique physical and behavioral characteristics associated with them. In addition, other conditions like phenylketonuria, also known as PKU, as well as microcephalus and hydrocephalus can cause the brain and its structures to form abnormally, which can result in intellectual disabilities, learning disabilities, and behavioral disorders. If an infection like Rubella is transmitted to the fetus, it may cause both blindness and intellectual disabilities. Fetal alcohol syndrome, or FAS, is one of the fetal alcohol spectrum disorders that is also linked to intellectual disabilities.
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Perinatal: Low birth weight, lack of oxygen (anoxia) and infections (such as syphilis or herpes simplex virus) transmitted during birth can all lead to the development of intellectual disabilities. Postnatal: After birth, malnutrition, diseases like meningitis and encephalitis and poisoning from heavy metals and mercury can cause intellectual disabilities due to their effects on the brain (Hallahan et al, 2012).
An intellectual disability is not an illness or a diseaseit is not curable per se nor can it be spread to others (NICHCY, 2012)but people with an intellectual disability can improve with the help of supports. (AAIDD, 2012). There are approximately 6.5 million people with an intellectual disability in the United States, and more than 545,000 children from ages 6 to 21 who have some form of intellectual disability that receive special education services through IDEA (NICHCY, 2012). Individuals with an intellectual disability all tend to exhibit some or all of certain characteristics such as gullibility, a deficit in self-regulation, and impairments in working memory and metacognition. All of these tend to play into adaptive behavior, which is important social interaction and practical skills such as preparing meals or using a computer program (Hallahan et al, 2012). People with an intellectual disability also tend to have problems with motivation and language problems as well (Hallahan et al, 2012). Learned helplessness is common among people with intellectual disabilities often due to lack of proper support and paternalistic attitudes aimed towards them, and hinders transition programming helping these individuals develop selfdetermination (Hallahan et al, 2012).
Organizations and Services
AAIDD: The American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities is a national organization founded in 1876. It is currently the oldest organization dedicated to promoting effective teaching and counseling for people with intellectual disabilities. AAIDD acts as an advocate for people with intellectual disabilities, providing resources for these individuals as well as lobbying for more progressive legislation, and researches ways to minimize the negative effects of the disability while improving the quality of life for them. See their annual breakdown here and a list of events they host. The Arc of Denton County: The Arc of Denton county is a local chapter of the national and state organization known as the Arc. The Arc is a non-profit volunteer organization that supports expanding opportunities for people with intellectual disabilities and acts as an advocate for them in addition to encouraging self-advocacy. It also promotes public awareness of intellectual disabilities and provides family support and referral services. See their latest newsletter here. Condition Specific Organizations:
NADS: The National Association for Down Syndrome was founded in 1961 in Chicago. It provides support for children with Down Syndrome and their families and offers a variety of resources and programs for them, including retreats, workshops, and outreach for Spanish speaking families. They have an e-booklet available here. WSA: The Williams Syndrome Association was founded in 1982 in order to provide support for the families of people with Williams Syndrome. It has resources for both parents and educators and is dedicated to the improvement of the lives of people with Williams Syndrome. They provide a media kit here for further information.

NFXF: The National Fragile X Foundation is an organization committed to supporting people with Fragile X Syndrome and their families as well as provides resources and promote public awareness about Fragile X Syndrome. It also funds research and legislation related to Fragile X Syndrome and hosts annual international conferences. See their foundation quarterly here. PWSA-USA: The US Prader-Willi Syndrome Association provides support and information for families with children who have Prader-Willi Syndrome. They provide resources and assistance for parents and teacher in planning IEPs for children with Prader-Willi Syndrome, and offer mentoring services for parents as well.
CEC-DADD: The Council For Exceptional ChildrenDivision on Autism and Developmental Disabilities is a division of the CEC focused on the expanding of knowledge pertaining to autism and intellectual and developmental disabilities and improving the educational outcomes of these individuals. CEC-DADD also strives to enhance the skills of educators that work with these children. They provide informational materials for educators and at the annual conferences they host. Disability Rights Texas: This state organization advocates for the legal and educational rights of people with disabilities. They provide numerous legal resources and documents pertaining to legal action having to do with disabilities, such as how to file a complaint under the ADA. Their brochure is available here for more information. NICHCY: The National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities is a large organization founded in 1980, focused on promoting public awareness of disabilities and providing information to families, educators and the general public. They also provide a searchable database of information, publications, and other organizations that deal with disabilities as well as a bulletin with contact information.
Evidence Based Teaching Practices
Functional academics (Hallahan et al, 2012) involves placing academics, like reading or math, in the context of everyday life. Using this method aids the child with intellectual disability in learning to perform independently. Cihak and Grim demonstrated in a study that by teaching counting skills to children with mild to severe intellectual disabilities, like the next dollar strategy, increased their ability to use those skills to purchase things independently at a store (2008). Classwide Peer Tutoring (CWPT) can also be used to great effect with students with intellectual disabilities. This method involves pairing two students together to provide feedback and tutoring. According to Sayeski, implementation of CWPT in a test classroom resulted in improved academic performance and positive attitudes for all students (as cited in Hallahan et al, 2012). Video-enhanced instruction with video that is interactive and uses symbols and highlighted text to drawn attention to key ideas has been shown to aid students with intellectual disabilities in comprehension (Evmenova & Behrmann, 2011). Time delay techniques, such as progressive time delay, involve the instructor giving a request and then a related prompt, and gradually increasing the time period between them, eventually losing the prompt altogether. Kaiser and Grims research shows an increase in independent behavior in individuals with intellectual disabilities with this technique (as cited in Hallahan et al, 2012).
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Alternative and Augmented Communication (AAC) and its use of picture-based symbols can aid in communicating complex ideas in a simpler, more broken-down form for children with intellectual disabilities, allowing them to participate in an adapted general classroom (Evmenova & Behrmann, 2008).
Assistive Technology
Remember the Milk: A free online application useable on computers and smartphones, Remember the Milk allows the user to create easy-to-use task checklists with reminder alerts that can be sent out via email or text. It can be upgraded to Pro, which has more features for $25 a year. This application can assist people with intellectual disabilities in living more independently and make task management much easier for them. PDA: A personal digital assistant can have various assistive applications loaded onto it that provide help with writing, task management, communication and improve overall productivity at school or work for people with disabilities. Most PDAs are integrated into smartphones or tablets now, and these usually cost between $90 and $500 depending on the device. The HP Palm Pre3 costs around $400 and can be bought online or in an electronics store like Best Buy. Everyday Life Project: A free educational tool that uses a method of functional academics. The site has interactive tutorials in everyday life skills that can benefit a person with intellectual disabilities.
Web Resources
For Teachers:
Wrightslaw: An up to date source with extensive information on special education law. TA&D Network: A resource center that provides information and technical assistance to schools and teachers.
For Parents:
Pacesetter: An online newsletter published by the Pacer Center for parents of children with disabilities. PATH Project: A resource network for parents of children with disabilities in the northeast region of Texas that hosts conferences
and provides support.

ISER: An online directory of therapists and special educators for parents of children with disabilities.
For Students
Best Buddies: A non-profit organization that provides one-on-one friendships, mentoring, and job assistance for people with in-
tellectual disabilities.
Camphill Soltane: A learning community for people with intellectual disabilities that provides support and encouragement.
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Specific Language Impairment

Introduction
Specific Language Impairment, or SLI, is a disorder that affects how language is acquired developmentally, resulting in a delay in learning language skills. It is important to note that language skill delays can also occur in children with developmental delays or children with hearing loss, but SLI exists as an entirely separate disability. The sections below cover the facts, the organizations and services available, evidence based teaching practices, assistive technology, and web resources.
Facts About Specific Language Impairment (SLI)
Specific Language Impairment and its disorder subtypes are categorized under disorders of communication. Children with SLI show delays in language acquisition and mastery. SLI is also called developmental language disorder, language delay, or developmental dysphasia (NIDCD, 2012). Having a language disorder like SLI means that an individual has problems with comprehension and expression of the rules of language (Hallahan et al, 2012). For SLI these problems may be in any or all of these areas:

Phonology: How sounds in speech are used and sequenced Morphology: How words can be altered (i.e. pluralized, verb tenses, and appropriate suffixes/prefixes) and are organized Syntax: How sentences and phrases are formed grammatically with these words Semantics: How and why meanings and concepts are ascribed to words Pragmatics: How language functions in a social setting
A SLI is language disorder categorized as a primary language disorder, one that has no identifiable cause, and is not due to hearing loss, a learning disability, or an intellectual disability (Hallahan et al, 2012). Specific Language Impairment affects 7 to 8 percent of kindergarteners nationwide (NIDCD, 2012). Children who have SLI often exhibit delayed language acquisition and do not produce words until they are 2 years old (NIDCD, 2012). In severe cases, with the disorder in early expressive language delay (EELD), the child may significantly lag behind in with expressive language by the age of two (on average this refers to making use of two-word phrases and possessing a vocabulary of 50 or more words) in such a way that they will not outgrow it (Hallahan et al, 2012). Although speech-language delays are a part of SLI, such delays are not necessarily indicative of this type of disorder (Hallahan et al, 2012). Typically, children raised in a multilingual environment tend to produce speech later in all the
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languages to which they have been exposed.
Children with SLI often make errors in speech, such as a 5 year old child asking questions without the be or do verbs that would normally be used (NIDCD, 2012). Although the specific cause behind SLI is unknown, current research suggests that there may be a genetic link and some level of inheritability. This may explain why to 50 to 70 percent of children with SLI have a parent or sibling that experienced some type of language delay (NIDCD, 2012). Children with SLI often experience a language-based reading impairment, which cannot be identified until the child begins to learn how to read (Hallahan et al, 2012). Testing for SLI is available for children from ages 3 to 8, in which a speech pathologist or other communication specialist performs a series of exams on a child to gauge their language skills (NIDCD, 2012). SLI and ASD both deal with symptoms of communication impairment, and a child with one of these disorders exhibits behavior common in both, such as the lack of expressive language skills and trouble with pragmatic language and semantics (NIDCD, 2012). Augmentative or Alternative Communication (AAC) can aid children with SLI and other language disorders to facilitate the use of language and foster improvement with language mastery (Hallahan et al, 2012).
NIDCD: The National Institute on Deafness and other Communication Disorders is a government-funded organization founded in 1988. It focuses on research pertaining to hearing loss and communication disorders like SLI in order to improve the lives of people with these disabilities. NIDCD also provides the public with health information on various disorders. ASHA: The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association is a society for professionals like researchers and speech language pathologists. They promote awareness of communication disorders as well as methods of treatment for them, and act as advocates for people with these disorders. ASHA also hosts conferences which have numerous informational brochures pertaining to therapy for these disorders, which are also available online through their searchable database. TXSHA: The Texas Speech-Language-Hearing Association is a state organization founded in 1956 not affiliated directly with ASHA. TSHA is also a professional society for SLPs and Audiologists and backs research pertaining to communication disorders. In addition, TSHA hosts conventions and provides brochures for families of children with these disorders. Charles E. and Geneva S. Scott Scottish Rite Communication Disorders Clinic: A clinic dedicated founded in 1968 to be used as a training facility for students and also help children with communication disorders. Though they largely work in their own locality, they are accredited by ASHA and have been the model for other similar clinics. They have programs for school age children with language impairments and one for preschool children, with screening available for preschool children as well.
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CEC-DCDD: The Council on Exceptional Children Division for Communicative Disabilities and Deafness is an educational organization that publishes a research journal dedicated to communicative disorders. They also have a committee dedicated specifically to speech and language disabilities that promotes awareness of these disabilities as well as effective therapy for children who have a disorder like SLI. Disability Rights Texas: This state organization advocates for the legal and educational rights of people with disabilities. They provide numerous legal resources and documents pertaining to legal action having to do with disabilities, such as how to file a complaint under the ADA. Their brochure is available here for more information. NICHCY: The National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities is a large organization founded in 1980, focused on promoting public awareness of disabilities and providing information to families, educators and the general public. They also provide a searchable database of information, publications, and other organizations that deal with disabilities as well as a bulletin with contact information.
Augmentative or Alternative Communication (AAC) utilizes alternative means of communication other than speech-language to convey thought and meaning. This can be used to aid in teaching children with a disorder like SLI because they use gestures and electronic devices to communicate, which can both aid a child in communicating quickly and also help them develop their language skills (Hallahan et al, 2012). Shape Coding is similar to AAC and uses shapes and colors to visually represent linguistic features of the English language. This method has proven effective for both young children and adolescents and helps them improve their skills in expressive language (Ebbels, 2007). Milieu Teaching is a teaching strategy that teaches functional language skills in a natural environment. For example, a teacher might request an object from a child, or when a child wants something, the teacher might ask a question about the object with appropriate gestures and wait for the child to give a reciprocal response. This method is very effective in helping a child with a language disorder develop their expressive language skills as it relies partially on gestures in addition to speech language (Hallahan et al, 2012). Collaboration with an SLP can greatly benefit a teacher with children that exhibit language impairments as it creates a better understanding of the children and their abilities and limitations. According to a case study done by Kathleen Wright, students had their needs met much more readily than usual (as cited by Hallahan, 2012). Question-asking strategies such as asking questions about the students interests, feelings, or experiences creates a bond between the student and teacher as well as facilitating the development of language skills a child with a language disorder by allowing them to develop in a more natural way. This method also involves using questions as prompts in order to engender more feedback from the child (Hallahan et al, 2012).
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wordQ+speechQ: a useful piece of software that aids the user in writing and reading comprehension in variety of other programs and settings, including in Microsoft Word documents and Outlook, Gmail, Facebook, Blackboard, and Wikipedia. It has text-to-speech and speech-to-text capabilities, which can be beneficial to people with communicative disorders. It is available for download on the software website for $199 or in a hard copy installation DVD for $279. Talking Overboard with neospeech: Software from the well-known company Gus Communications Inc., Talking Overboard uses symbols and a speech synthesizer to aid users in conveying ideas through communication boards. Overboard can help people with language disorders like SLI in improving their language skills and helping them communicate their thoughts quickly and easily. Overboard with neospeech costs $199 and can be ordered in bulk by schools or other organizations. Symbly: Symbly is an application available on the iPad that allows the user to create and share visual supports, which can be used to aid communication, particularly if the person has a language disorder or is communicating with a person with a language disorder. Symbly costs $12 a month for personal use, $20 a month for professional use, and also has customized pricing plans available.
Web Resources
For Teachers:
AAPPSPA: a directory of SLPs and Audiologists in the United States with an easy-to-use locator, useful to have on hand for refer-
rals to parents.
How to detect speech language impairments: an article detailing ways in which to recognize speech-language impairments
such as SLI.
FAQ on Communication Disorders in a school setting: a quick reference list from ASHA that covers communication disor-
ders found in school-age children.
For Parents:
Family Activities with Speech Disorders: an article with suggestions for helping a child with a speech-language impairment
with family activities.

Signing with Your Baby: a website offering tutorials and products to help facilitate the use of sign language with an infant, which
can aid in communication and augmenting communication skills, particularly children who may have a disorder like SLI.
For Students:
NSSLHA: A student organization dedicated to the study of communication disorders, it publishes a research journal available for
members.
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Autism Spectrum Disorder

Introduction
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD), is not actually one disorder, but rather a class of disorders in the autism spectrum, and are also known as pervasive developmental disorders (PDD). Children with disorders in the autism spectrum present symptoms ranging from mild impairments to severe disabilities with communication, social skills, and behavior. The five specific disorders currently diagnosed are autistic disorder (also known as classic autism), Aspergers disorder/syndrome, Retts disorder/syndrome, pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS), and Childhood Disintegrative Disorder (CDD). Below are some facts about ASD along with information on organizations and services, evidence based teaching practices, assistive technology, and web resources.
Facts About Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
According to the APA researchers for the DSM-V, people diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder must meet the following criteria:
Clinically significant, persistent deficits in social communications and interaction, as manifest by all of the following:
Marked deficits in nonverbal and verbal communication used for social interaction (pragmatic language); Lack of social reciprocity (give-and-take); Failure to develop and maintain peer relationships appropriate to developmental level
Restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, and activities, as manifested by two of the following:

Stereotyped motor or verbal behaviors, or unusual sensory behavior Excessive adherence to routines and ritualized patterns of behavior Restricted, fixated interests
Symptoms must be present in early childhood (but may not become fully manifest until social demands exceed limited capacities) (as cited in Hallahan et al, 2012)
In addition, the DSM-IV and upcoming DSM-V also categorize ASD under the heading of pervasive developmental disorders (PDDs) and divide ASD into the following classifications:
Autism: extreme social withdrawal and impairment in communication; often includes stereotyped movePage 11 | ASD

ments, resistance to change, and unusual responses to sensory experience; usually manifests before 3 years of age

Asperger syndrome: much like mild autism, but without significant impairment in cognition and language Childhood disintegrative disorder (CDD): normal development for at least 2 and up to 10 years, followed by significant loss of skills; much more prevalent in males Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS): persons who display behaviors typical of autism but to a lesser degree and/or with an onset later than 3 years of age (as cited by Hallahan et al, 2012) Retts Syndrome: normal development until 6 months of age, then between the ages of 2 and 5 a rapid decrease in head growth, motor skills and severe deficits in communication and social interaction develop; almost exclusively found in females (Important note: this classification is considered being removed in the DSM-V as the autistic behaviors present in the disorder often do not present after early childhood and the APA suggests it be moved to the classification Associated with Known Medical Disorder or Genetic Condition)(NIMH, 2011)
There has been an increase of 57 percent in the diagnosis of ASD from 2002 to 2006, though this may be partially attributed to an increased understanding of the disorder. (Hallahan et al, 2012) In general, autism is found to be 4 times more prevalent in boys than in girls; however, like other disorders, this may not just be because of the male biological tendency of susceptibility to neurological dysfunction, but instead attributable to a referral bias. ASD is also found to be more common in people of European descent than in Latino or African American population, but once again this may be due to issues with health care accessibility and a bias for diagnosing Latinos and African Americans with an intellectual disability rather than autism (Hallahan et al, 2012). While the belief that there is a link between autism and vaccines still persists, it is of the utmost importance to note that there is absolutely no known link between vaccines and autism. Some attributed it to trace mercury in thimerosal, a preservative found in the MMR (Measles-Mumps-Rubella) vaccine, however, thimerosal has not been present in US vaccines since 2001. This link was first suggest in a paper published in the British medical journal The Lancet by Andrew Wakefield, but the data and results provided have since been proven to be inaccurate and/or falsified. Due to this vaccine scare, and many medical professionals attribute the return of whooping cough and a 2008 outbreak of measles as being a consequence of decreased immunization with vaccines.
Autism Society: The Autism Society was founded in 1965 and is dedicated to increasing public awareness, advocating for the welfare of individuals with autism, and providing resources and information for these people and their families. They publish a quarterly journal, Autism Advocate available online for their members and a free publication, Living with Autism. ASAN-DFW: This local chapter of the Autism Self-Advocacy Network serves the Dallas-Fort Worth area is a non-profit organization run by people with ASD for other people with ASD, hence their mantra, Nothing About Us ,Without Us. They provide information, work to influence public policy, and host events for local people with autism and their families.
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OASIS @ MAAP: Online Asperger Syndrome Information and Support @ MAAP Services is a merging of two organizations, the former of which was founded as a newsletter in 1984. They provide a wealth of information and support in their articles and forums and have a searchable database of state and local organizations. GAC: The Global Autism Collaboration is a sort of meta-organization for all autism organizations to share information with each other. They provide support for research initiatives and help foster social change and advocacy with affiliated organizations. CEC-DADD: The Council For Exceptional ChildrenDivision on Autism and Developmental Disabilities is a division of the CEC focused on the expanding of knowledge pertaining to autism and intellectual and developmental disabilities and improving the educational outcomes of these individuals. CEC-DADD also strives to enhance the skills of educators that work with these children. They provide informational materials for educators and at the annual conferences they host. Disability Rights Texas: This state organization advocates for the legal and educational rights of people with disabilities. They provide numerous legal resources and documents pertaining to legal action having to do with disabilities, such as how to file a complaint under the ADA. Their brochure is available here for more information. NICHCY: The National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities is a large organization founded in 1980, focused on promoting public awareness of disabilities and providing information to families, educators and the general public. They also provide a searchable database of information, publications, and other organizations that deal with disabilities as well as a bulletin with contact information.
Social stories are a teaching strategy for children and adolescents with ASD that involves formulating a personalized narrative, usually in a visual and verbal format, like a comic to foster the development of social skills and appropriate behavior and reducing the occurrence of undesirable and inappropriate behavior. A study done by Graetz, Mastropieri, and Scruggs found that using these stories for adolescents with ASD resulted in an immediate decline in undesirable behaviors and did not make a resurgence (as cited in Hallahan et al, 2012). Applied Behavioral Analysis is an instructional strategy that centers on teaching functional skills by implementing a system of rewards and making periodic assessments of progress (Hallahan et al, 2012). This strategy in particular is very useful for teaching children with ASD, as it can instill confidence and feelings of efficacy in an educator using it and better meet the needs of the children (LeBlanc et al, 2009). Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) is a form of AAC that involves the use of pictures to communicate, and can be utilized when teaching children with ASD. Children with ASD often have difficulties with meaningful and functional communication, sometimes completely lacking in this area and need assistance in developing these skills. According to research done be Sulzer-Azaroff and colleagues, use of PECS significantly improved communication between children with ASD and their parents, teachers, and other adults (as cited in Hallahan et al, 2012).
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Pivotal Response Teaching (PRT) is a method of instruction similar to ABA that operates on the assumption that certain skills are pivotali.e. necessary for a person to fully function in all areasand focus on helping to improve these skills allows for better development of other skills. PRT is an extremely useful strategy to employ when teaching children with ASD because it increases their autonomy, motivation, and skills of perception (Hallahan et al, 2012). Positive behavioral intervention and support (PBIS) is a teaching strategy that can be used for children with ASD because of its focus on the entire learning environment. PBIS makes use of positive reinforcement and support of appropriate behavior rather than punishing for negative behavior. A reward system can be implemented to great effect with PBIS in order to facilitate positive behaviors in children with ASD (Hallahan et al, 2012).
Askability: A free to use website that utilizes picture symbols to communicate news and current events in a simple, easy to understand manner. This is particularly useful as a tools for teaching children with autism when trying to convey a complex idea like those found in the news. Zac Browser: a free Web browser created specifically for children with ASDZAC even stands for Zone for Autistic Children it features a system that allows a child with ASD to easily navigate around the Web, play games and interact with other people in a safe, secure manner. It is available for use free of charge with version for PC, Mac, iPad, or Android. Max and Friends: a series of educational DVDs utilizing applied behavioral analysis, it gives young children with ASD a fun, easy way to explore concepts and learn social skills. The full 1st volume of DVDs is available for purchase online for $69.99. Hugging Machine: a device created by Temple Grandin based on her studies of the beneficial nature of deep touch pressure on children with autism. The device and variations of it is also available for purchase with pricing around $4525 and up to $10000.
Web Resources
For Teachers:
Autism Learn: a website with various suggestions and materials for teaching children with ASD
For Parents:
Parents Guide to Autism: a guide created by the National Institute on Mental Health to help parents understand their childs
disorder
May Institute for Military Families: a school that caters specifically to families with parents in the military, it has special ac-
commodations for children with ASD.
For Students:
Charis Hills: a summer camp for children and teens with autism College Living Experience: a website that helps teens with ASD cope with adjustments needed for college life. Page 14 | ASD
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Learning Disability
Introduction
A learning disability, often abbreviated as LD, is the general term for a group of disorders that affect how a child learns in one or more skill area, such as with reading, writing, spelling, math, listening, and oral expression. Some of the well known LDs are dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, auditory processing disorder, and visual processing disorder, all of which can have varying degrees of severity. However, the common thread among all learning disabilities has to do with a psychological impairment with information. More specifically, a learning disability is one in which the ability to receive, process, recall/store, and communicate information is impaired. Provided below are a fact sheet and information on organizations and services, evidence based teaching practices, assistive technology, as well as a list web resources.
Facts About Learning Disabilities (LD)
The NJCLD definition of learning disabilities was made in response to perceived inadequacies in the federal definition in 1989, and reads as follows:
Learning disabilities is a general term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual, presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction, and may occur across the life span. Problems in self-regulatory behaviors, social perception and social interactions may exist with learning disabilities but do not themselves constitute a learning disability. Although learning disabilities may occur concomitantly with other [disabilities] (for example, sensory impairment, [intellectual disability], [emotional and/or behavioral disorder]) or with extrinsic influences (such as cultural differences, insufficient or inappropriate instruction), they are not a result of those conditions or influences (as cited in Hallahan et al, 2012).
Learning disabilities are found to be more prevalent in boys, with a 3:1 ratio of boys diagnosed versus girls diagnosed, though like other kinds of exceptionality, this may be due in some part to a referral bias (Hallahan et al, 2012). There are many kinds of LD, but some of the more prevalent disorders are as follows:

Dyslexia: a disorder in which the individual has difficulties with reading and spelling Dyscalculia: a disorder in which the individual has difficulties with math Dysgraphia: a disorder in which the individual has difficulties with handwriting and writing composition Auditory Processing Disorder: wherein the individual has difficulties with processing auditory information
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Visual Processing Disorder: wherein the individual has difficulties with processing visual information
Learning disabilities are thought to be the result of central nervous system dysfunction, and in the case of dyslexia, the dysfunction is shown to be caused by structural and functional differences in the brain. LDs are also beginning to be regarded an inheritable trait; according to several studies, when an individual has an LD, 35 to 45 percent of their immediate family (parents or siblings) also have an LD (as cited in Hallahan et al, 2012). In addition, LDs can be caused by malformations that take place in utero due to toxins like alcohol. Fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol spectrum disorders can cause learning disabilities in cases where exposure was not severe enough to cause intellectual disabilities (Hallahan et al, 2012). Much like people with ADHD, people with learning disabilities also have problems with executive functioning, which controls how a person regulates their own behavior. This can result in problems with organization, ability to follow instructions, frustration with tasks, and hypersensitivity to being corrected. People with LDs often have problems with working memory, making the completion of even seemingly simple tasks difficult (Horowitz & Golembeski, 2011).
LDA: A national organization founded in 1964, Learning Disabilities Association of America works to provide information for parents with children who have an LD and advocate for individuals with LDs. They have numerous free publications, a research committee and host conferences for learning disabilities. LDA provides an informational brochure for parents who have children with recently diagnosed LDs here. NCLD: Founded in 1977, the National Center for Learning Disabilities is an organization focused on connecting parents and educators with resources, information, and support. They also provide information on scholarships, advocate for beneficial legislation for people with LD and are affiliated with the NJCLD. LDAT: Learning Disabilities Association of Texas is the state chapter of LDA located in the Dallas area and works towards many of the same goals as its parent organization. They publish a newsletter called Texas Key and provide information on the disorder as well as information on national, state, and local resources. NJCLD: The National Joint Committee on Learning Disorders is an organization founded in 1975 that works to promote inter-organizational harmony and good leadership within its member organizations. NJCLD provides various resources and reports, and hosts various symposiums on LDs. NJCLD is tied to LD online and has its homepage there. CEC-DLD: The Council For Exceptional Children Division on Learning Disabilities was founded in 1983 as a teaching organization to further understanding of learning disabilities and the role of the educator in identifying and supporting children with LDs. It features basic information on learning disabilities and how to deal with them in the classroom in addition to further resources for educators. They also publish a research journal and host various events. Disability Rights Texas: This state organization advocates for the legal and educational rights of people with disabilities. They provide numerous legal resources and documents pertaining to legal action having to do with disabilities, such as how to file a complaint under the ADA. Their brochure is available here for more information.
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NICHCY: The National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities is a large organization founded in 1980, focused on promoting public awareness of disabilities and providing information to families, educators and the general public. They also provide a searchable database of information, publications, and other organizations that deal with disabilities as well as a bulletin with contact information.
Peer-mediated teaching is a teaching practice similar to CWPT, but instead implements the use of student teaching teams rather relying on pairs of students using one-on-one tutoring. These student teams are also created so as to facilitate diversity in achievement level, usually containing a high-achieving student, one or two average students, and a lowachieving student. These kind of student teams have been shown to greatly improve the performance of children and adolescents with LDs and are easy to implement in any classroom (Harper & Maheady, 2007). Informal Reading Inventories are an educational tool consisting of short reading passages or lists of words scaled by level of difficulty that can be used to assess a childs progress and determine at what reading level that child should be placed at. Using this teaching tool helps the instructor keep track how well a child with an LD is progressing in a certain area and whether or not they should be placed at a higher or lower level of difficulty. Reciprocal teaching creates a dialogue between the teacher and student that wherein the teacher begins instructing the student in a concept until the student begins to understand it and can participate in educating him or herself in the concept. This method is especially useful for children with LDs because it involves a form of self monitoring and allows for a deeper understanding of what is being taught (Hallahan et al, 2012). Direct Instruction (DI) is a strategy that is centered on the process of teaching and involves the breaking down of tasks or problems into smaller key components that the child can later assemble together. This method allows a child with an LD to have a better understanding of a concept without having as much difficulty with processing the information pertaining to the concept. Research has long since shown the effectiveness of DI; however, Sayeski stresses in her analysis that the importance of teachers receiving extensive training in DI to achieve positive results cannot be overlooked (as cited in Hallahan et al, 2012) Mnemonics are a learning strategy that aid in the retention and recall of necessary information, sometimes through the use of a catchy phrase or jingle, like Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally (a mnemonic used to remember the order of operations in mathematical equations). Mnemonics can be used to help students with learning disabilities remember words they are unfamiliar with by associating them with a visual image or another more familiar word. Studies have shown that children with LDs that utilize mnemonics have a much better comprehension of the information related to the mnemonic (Hallahan et al, 2012).
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Ghotit: software that utilizes intuitive technology to make an easy-to-use spelling and grammar checker to aid people with LDs with writing on a computer in various programs. Ghotit can be purchased for a $14.99 monthly subscription or for $129 for lifetime use. AIM Explorer: an application created for collaborative use with a reader and a teacher that aids in reading fluency and comprehension for children with an LD. AIM Explorer is free to use but requires Adobe AIR to run. MathTV: a website with videos, textbooks and tutorials in mathematics specifically created for children and teens with an LD. It is available for an annual subscription fee of $30.
Web Resources
For Teachers:
LD online resources for educators: resources from LD Online such as instructional strategies and materials. Reading Rockets For Teachers: a website that educators can use to help children with LDs augment their reading skills.
For Parents:
LD online for parents and family: articles and resources for parents and family of a child with an LD. Advocating for Your School-Aged Child: suggestions for helping improve your childs educational experience.
For Students:
LD Online for kids: a section of LD online with pictures, activities and shared stories from other children with LDs. Be Your Own Advocate: an article that suggests ways of participating in your own IEP and becoming more involved with your
education.
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Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Introduction
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, also knows as ADHD or sometimes by the older term, ADD, is a disorder in which the ability to stay focused on tasks and curb impulsive and/or restless behavior is impaired. ADHD has three subtypes which children commonly fall into: inattentive type, hyperactive-impulsive type, and combined type. The main causal factors behind ADHD is thought to be an imbalance of brain chemicals and the inactivity in the prefrontal cortex, portion of the brain which aids in the self-regulation of behavior. The following sections contain a fact sheet on ADHD and some information on the organizations and services, evidence based teaching practices and assistive technology, followed by a list of web resources.
Facts About Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is defined as an individual exhibiting certain characteristic behaviors over a period of time of 6 months or longer and that they display them before the ages of 7 [Side note: The DSM-V is considering raising the age to 12(as cited by Hallahan et al, 2012)]. These behaviors include but are not limited to:

distractibility (poor sustained attention to tasks) impulsivity (impaired impulse control and delay of gratification) hyperactivity (excessive activity and physical restlessness) (Jaska, 1998)
According to Barkley, it is estimated that 3 to 7 percent of children from 5 to 18 have ADHD in some form. It is also more prevalent in boys, and that girls are more likely to be diagnosed as inattentive type whereas boys are more likely to be diagnosed as hyperactive type (as cited by Hallahan et al, 2012). ADHD is categorized under Section 504- Other Health Impairments (OHI) of IDEA, but many speculate that fewer than half of students with ADHD are receiving special education services (Hallahan et al, 2012). ADHD is most likely caused by neurological dysfunction, specifically with an imbalance in neurotransmitter activity, and not by minimal brain injuries as was once believed. It is also likely that ADHD runs in families and may be linked to genetic factors, as the probability of an individual being diagnosed with ADHD rises to 25 to 35 percent if another family member has ADHD, as opposed to a 4 to 6 percent probability for the general population (Jaska, 1998). ADHD exhibits comorbidity with other disorders, particularly with learning disabilities and emotional or behavioral disorder (such as, extreme aggressiveness, anxiety or depression). There is a 10 to 25 percent overlap with learning disabilities, and a 25 to 50 percent overlap with emotional or behavioral disorder. In fact, according to Schatz and Rostain, 15 to 35 percent of children with ADHD exhibit some form of anxiety, and are more susceptible to having multiple anxiety disorders than children without disabilities.
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Children with ADHD often socially ostracized, more so than with children with any other kind of disorder, most likely due to problems with impulsivity and behavioral control. In addition, children and adults with ADHD experience some level of difficulties with adaptive behavior as well (Hallahan et al, 2012). ADHD is commonly treated with psychostimulant medication such as Ritalin, Adderall, Concerta, or Vyvanse. A nonstimulant medication, Strattera, is also commonly used to treat it. Though the use of stimulants to curb hyperactivity seems counterintuitive, in fact studies shows that the stimulants are helping with the activation of brain chemicals in the areas of the prefrontal cortex that regulate impulse and behavior control. Though there has been a negative backlash against the use of medication in treatment of ADHD, the majority of studies show positive results with regards to the effectiveness of the stimulants (Hallahan et al, 2012). Some critics posit that when children are medicated for their ADHD, they are more likely to become substance abusers as teens; however, there is little basis behind this belief, and studies show that substance abuse is less likely to happen when a child has treated for ADHD with medication. (Hallahan et al, 2012). Behavior management is also a treatment for ADHD, but it has been shown to be most effective when paired with medicationindeed, the most effective treatment of ADHD is a combination of the two with close monitoring of the effects (Hallahan et al, 2012). Though it was a long-held belief that ADHD was a childhood disorder, studies have shown that ADHD does persist into adulthood, though symptoms may be reduced or less pronounced in comparison (Hallahan et al, 2012).
ADDA: The Attention Deficit Disorder Association was founded in 1987 and has since become a leading source of information for ADHD, particularly for adult ADHD. It hosts numerous resources and advocates for legislation that will benefit people with ADHD. In addition, it promotes public awareness of ADHD and hosts conferences and online seminars to educate people about ADHD and give support to professionals who have ADHD. TAMU ADHD Clinic: The Texas A&M University ADHD Clinic is a part of the Counseling & Assessment Clinic, which has been in service since 1984. The clinic is located at College Station and works with both children and adults with ADHD. Some of the programs that the clinic offers include comprehensive assessments and intervention services for children, teens, and adults with ADHD, as well as support services for their families. ADDA-SR: Texas is included in the Attention Deficit Disorder Association for the Southern Region, which works more closely with people in the region than the national ADDA organization. ADDA-SR also hosts online seminars, provides basic information about ADHD and a list of support groups available in the region for people with ADHD and their families. CHADD: Children and Adults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is a non-profit organization founded in 1987 by parents of children with ADHD. Not only does CHADD provide a wealth of information on ADHD, but it also provides resources and support to families and hosts annual conferences. It also publishes Attention magazine, a free newsletter, and several other publications specifically for professionals, parents, and educators available for members.
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CEC: While the Council on Exceptional Children does not have ADHD placed in a specific division, the main organization maintains a large collection of materials related to ADHD, including a list of useful resources pertaining to the disorder, some of which are personalized for educators and some for families. Disability Rights Texas: This state organization advocates for the legal and educational rights of people with disabilities. They provide numerous legal resources and documents pertaining to legal action having to do with disabilities, such as how to file a complaint under the ADA. Their brochure is available here for more information. NICHCY: The National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities is a large organization founded in 1980, focused on promoting public awareness of disabilities and providing information to families, educators and the general public. They also provide a searchable database of information, publications, and other organizations that deal with disabilities as well as a bulletin with contact information.
Self-monitoring is a teaching strategy wherein the child is obliged to keep track of and assess their own behavior and academic performance. Using this strategy gives the teacher a physical record that they can use to observe how a child is progressing. By showing a child with ADHD how to self-monitor, a teacher is not only giving them a useful tool for learning, but also helps them regulate their behavior both inside and outside the classroom (Hallahan et al, 2012). Momentary time sampling is an instructional practice that a teacher can use to record and assess behaviors of a child with ADHD, specifically in regard to impulsive or inattentive behaviors. A set period of time is determined and divided into intervals that are then used to observe and collect data on the child. By using this to assess the behavior of a child with ADHD, a teacher may determine which areas the child needs support. Adapted lesson plans in the general classroom can be used in the teaching of children with ADHD in a supportive way while maintaining a quality level of instruction for students without disabilities. Breaking the lesson into smaller key sections, explaining goals and modeling instructions, having both guided and independent practice followed by a review of the lesson can greatly aid children with ADHD in comprehending the lesson and performing tasks related to what they learned (Hallahan et al, 2012). Contingency based self management is a similar instructional method to self-monitoring, but also involves the use of a reward and consequence system in order to promote appropriate behavior while curbing inappropriate behaviors. Contingency based management can also be used in groups to foster cooperation and interdependence, and both types are effective strategies for teaching a child with ADHD. According to a study done by Davies and Witte, children with ADHD were shown to greatly reduce inappropriate behaviors within a group contingency through self-management (as cited in Hallahan et al, 2012). Reduced unnecessary stimuli is an educational tool for instructing children with ADHD that involves reducing extraneous
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stimuli that may distract a child from the task at hand while simultaneously providing them with stimulating academic materials. This method is particularly effective for use during testing, as the reduced stimuli will allow the child with ADHD maintain better focus and perform better than they might otherwise. The idea behind this tool was originally a component of William Cruickshanks educational program for children with ADHD, and has proven to be especially effective with younger children (Hallahan et al, 2012).
SparkTop: an interactive website with educational material and games aimed at children with ADHD and LDs. This website helps foster skills in children with ADHD that they may then apply at school. SparkTop is free to play, but requires an adult to create an account and another for their child. Sonocent Audio Notetaker: software that aids in note taking by allowing the user to dictate notes or have notes read back to them, this is especially useful for children with ADHD because it helps them maintain focus and monitor their own participation in class. Sonocent is available for an individual user license at $149 and for a multi-user license at $599 to $2100. ChoreWars: an online roleplaying game that lets you gain experience by doing real world chores or tasks. This is especially useful for children with ADHD because it utilizes a form of contingency based self management by rewarding the child for accomplishing tasks. ChoreWars is free to play, but a Gold Account with more available options can be purchased for $10.
Web Resources
For Teachers:
Helping Children with ADHD Succeed at School: suggested teaching strategies for use with children with ADHD How to Help and Support Impulsive Students: tips on how to properly support a child with impulse control problems, such
as ones caused by ADHD
For Parents:
Parenting a Child with ADHD: a downloadable guide for parents of children with ADHD How is parenting a child with ADHD different?: an article that explores what challenges a parent of a child with ADHD
might experience
For Students:
Info for Teens: informational brochures that can help a teen better understand their ADHD ADDitude Magazine: an online magazine for people with ADHD and their families
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References
American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD). (2012 August 1). FAQ on Intellectual Disabilities. Retrieved from http://www.aamr.org/content_104.cfm Cihak, D. F, & Grim, J. (2008). Teaching students with autism spectrum disorder and moderate intellectual disabilities to use counting-on strategies to enhance independent purchasing skills. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 2(4), 716 727. doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2008.02.006 Evmenova, A. S. & Behrmann, M. M. (2011). Research-based Strategies for Teaching Content to Students with Intellectual Disabilities: Adapted Videos. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 46(3), 315-325. Retrieved from http://daddcec.org/Portals/0/CEC/Autism_Disabilities/Research/Publications/ Education_Training_Development_Disabilities/2011v46_Journals/ETADD_2011v4n3p315-325_Researchbased_strategies.pdf. Ebbels, S. (2007). Teaching grammar to school-aged children with specific language impairment using Shape Coding. Child Language Teaching & Therapy, 23 (1), 67-93. doi:10.1191/0265659007072143 Hallahan, D. P., Kauffman, J. M., & Pullen, P. C. (2012). Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special Education (12th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education Inc. Harper, G. F., & Maheady, L. (2007) Peer-Mediated Teaching and Students With Learning Disabilities. Intervention in School and Clinic, 43(2), 101-107. doi: 10.1177/10534512070430020101 Horowitz, S. H. & Golembeski, K. (2011, May 11). Learning Disabilities Basics. Student Success Collaborative Podcast. Podcast retrieved from http://ncld.org/ld-basics/ld-explained/basic-facts/learning-disabilities-basics Leblanc, L., Richardson, W., & Burns, K. A. (2009). Autism Spectrum Disorder and the Inclusive Classroom: Effective Training to Enhance Knowledge of ASD and Evidence-Based Practices. Teacher Education And Special Education, 32(2),
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166-179. doi:10.1177/0888406409334279 Jaska, P. (1998). ADHD Fact Sheet. Retrieved from http://www.add.org/?page=ADHD_Fact_Sheet National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (NICHCY). (2012). Intellectual Disability Fact Sheet. Retrieved from http://nichcy.org/disability/specific/intellectual National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD). (2012 July 30). Specific Language Impairment. Retrieved from http:// www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/voice/pages/specific-language-impairment.aspx . National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). (2011). A Parents Guide to Autism Spectrum Disorder. Retrieved from http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/ publications/a-parents-guide-to-autism-spectrum-disorder/parent-guide-to-autism.pdf
This notebook was compiled in 2012 by Kristen Morales for Educational Aspects of Exceptional Learners (EDSP 3210) at the University of North Texas and for use as an educational resource. All images are stock and copyright their original owners. Contact: kristenmorales@my.unt.edu
University of North Texas
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Facts About Intellectual Disabilities

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Organizations and Services

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Evidence Based Teaching Practices