CHAPTER - 1

INTRODUCTION

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 SPRING A spring is defined as an elastic body, whose function is to distort when loaded and to recover to its original shape when the load is removed. The various important applications of springs are as follows: a) To cushion, absorb or control energy due to either shock or vibration as in car springs, railway buffers, air-craft landing gears, shock absorbers and vibration dampers. b) To apply forces as in brakes, clutches and spring loaded valves. c) To control motion by maintaining contact between two elements as in cams and followers. d) To measure forces as in spring balances and engine indicators. e) To store energy as in watches.

1.2 TYPES OF SPRINGS There are various types of springs theses are: coil springs, leaf springs, torsion bars and air springs. 1.2.1 Coil springs: is a mechanical device which is typically used to store energy and subsequently release it to absorb shock, or to maintain a force between contacting surfaces. 1.2.2 Leaf springs: are suspension springs made up of several thin, curved, hardenedsteel or composite-material plates attached at the ends to the vehicle under-body. 1.2.3 Torsion bars: are a long straight steel bar fastened to the chassis at one end and to a suspension part at the other which when twisted provides the spring force. 1.2.4 Air springs: is a mechanical device using confined air to absorb the shock of motion.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 LITERATURE SURVEY This chapter deals with the review of work done related to topic. Firstly the review is on the tensile test which is a standardized mechanical test which is widely used to reveal the mechanical behaviour of lot of materials. It is an important test to ensure that the particular material can withstand the given load and given conditions. Morestin developed a logic which computes the deformation of steel sheet in press forming after spring back. Work hardening of steel involves modifications of the elastic properties of the material, e.g. an increase in its yield stress. It can also be the cause of an appreciable decrease in the Young modulus. However, this property diminishes as the plastic strain increases. The purpose of the experiments with microcomputer-controlled tensile test machine is to indicate that the diminution can reach more than 10%, of the initial value after only 5% plastic strain. In spite of this fact, a lot of elastic-plastic software does not take into account the decrease in the Young modulus with plastification even though it may lead to obvious differences among results. So, as an application they developed the software. The software takes into account the decrease in the Young modulus and its results are very close to experimental values. They noticed a recovery of the Young modulus of plastified specimens after few days, but not for all steels tested. The Young modulus vs. plastic strain allows a better numerical analysis of an elastic plastic phenomenon such as spring back. The introduction of the behaviour in other software simulations of metal forming seems equally as necessary as the correct determination of the general workhardening parameters of the material. Its influence on the shape of the specimen remains to be shown. The recovery shows as well that, for the metals already excited, the apparent Young modulus cannot be used as a permanent damage indicator for plastic strains lower than 15%. 5

CHAPTER 3

SPECIAL PROCESS

3.1 HEAT TREATMENT This is the heating and cooling of a solid metal or alloy in such a way as to obtain desired conditions or properties. The term heat treatment process is in and of itself only a very generic term; it covers all specific methods. Thus emphasis will be made on those forms of heat treatment that are most commonly used in the spring industry these are: Annealing, Normalizing, Hardening and Tempering. 3.2 NORMALIZING / STRESS RELIEVING Heating to a suitable temperature of 225C for 15 minutes, holding long enough to reduce residual stresses, and then cooling slowly enough to minimize the development of new residual stresses. It relieves the stresses that occur as a result of the spring forming operation. It also returns the material to the strength levels prior to the forming operation and can actually increase the strength to levels greater than originally supplied. 3.3 HARDENING (WATER AND OIL QUENCHING) Quenching can be done by plunging the hot steel in water. The water adjacent to the hot steel vaporizes, and there is no direct contact of the water with the steel. This slows down cooling until the bubbles break and allow water contact with the hot steel. Water quenching produces steel with a very high hardness but also results in very brittle and fragile steel with a low tensile strength also. As the water contacts and boils, a great amount of heat is removed from the steel. With good agitation, bubbles can be prevented from sticking to the steel, and thereby pre-vent soft spots. Water is a good rapid quenching medium, provided good agitation is done. However, water is corrosive with steel, and the rapid cooling can sometimes cause distortion or cracking.

3.4 TEMPERING Tempering is usually done after quenching, it involves re-heating of the steel in order to reduce the hardness of the quenched steel and improve the ductility, toughness and strength of the spring. Tempering is usually done hand in hand with quenching and is usually a tradeoff between hardness and toughness/strength of steel. This research is aimed at evaluating the effect of normalizing, hardening and tempering on the impact toughness, hard-ness and tensile strength of springs.

CHAPTER 4

FAILURE MODE & EFFECT ANALYSIS

4.1 FAILURE MODES OF A SPRING Mechanical springs are used in machine designs to exert force, provide flexibility, and to store or absorb energy. Springs are manufactured for many different applications such as compression, extension, torsion, power, and constant force. Depending on the application, a spring may be in a static, cyclic or dynamic operating mode. A spring is usually considered to be static if a change in deflection or load occurs only a few times, such as less than 10,000 cycles during the expected life of the spring. A static spring may remain loaded for very long periods of time. The failure modes of interest for static springs include spring relaxation, set and creep. Cyclic springs are flexed repeatedly and can be expected to exhibit a higher failure rate due to fatigue. Cyclic springs may be operated in a unidirectional mode or a reversed stress mode. In one case, the stress is always applied in the same direction, while in the other, stress is applied first in one direction then in the opposite direction. Figure 1 shows the difference in deflection and stress between these two operating modes. For the same maximum stress and deflection between a unidirectional and reversed stress spring, the stress range for the reversed stress spring will be twice that of the unidirectional spring and therefore a shorter fatigue life would be expected. Dynamic loading refers to those intermittent occurrences of a load surge such as a shock absorber inducing higher than normal stresses on the spring. Dynamic loading of a spring falls into three main categories: shock, resonance of the spring itself, and resonance of the spring/mass system. Shock loading occurs when a load is applied with sufficient speed such that the first coils of the spring take up more of the load than would be calculated for a static or cyclic situation.

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This loading is due to the inertia of the spring coils. Spring resonance occurs when the operating speed is the same as the natural frequency of the spring or a harmonic of the natural frequency. Resonance can cause greatly elevated stresses and possible coil clash resulting in premature failure. Resonance of the spring/mass system occurs when the spring is required to carry a mass attached to its moving end and the combined system is subject to resonance at a much lower cycle rate than the spring alone. Failure modes for dynamic loading of a spring include fracture of the spring material due to shock pulses and resonance surging. Springs tend to be highly stressed because they are designed to fit into small spaces with the least possible weight and lowest material cost. At the same time they are required to deliver the required force over a long period of time. The reliability of a spring is therefore related to its material strength, design characteristics, and the operating environment. Most springs are made of steel and material strength of the spring is usually listed in terms of tensile strength in relation to the expected spring stress. Corrosion protection of the spring steel has a significant impact on reliability and therefore material properties, the processes used in the manufacturing of the spring, operating temperature, and corrosive media must all be known before any estimate of spring reliability can be made. Spring reliability is also directly related to the surface quality and the distribution, type and size of sub-surface impurities in the spring material. Common materials of construction for springs include spring steel, stainless steel, nickel base alloy, and copper base alloy or bronze. Spring steel is any variety of steels that are normally of the high-carbon or alloy type. High carbon spring steels are probably the most commonly used material for springs except for those to be used in high or low temperature environments or for shock or high impact loads. 11

Fig 4.1 Unidirectional Stress

Fig 4.2 Reversed Stress

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4.2 DUCTILE FRACTURE Ductile fracture is been defined as fracture occurring with appreciable gross deformation. Ductile fracture in tension is usually preceded by a localized reduction in diameter called necking. Very ductile metals may actually draw down to a line or a point before separation. This kind of failure is usually called rupture.

Fig 4.3 Stages in the formation of a cup-and-cone fracture.

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The stages in the development of a ductile cup-and-cone fracture are illustrated in fig 4.3 Necking begins at the point of plastic instability where the increase in strength due to strain hardening fails to compensate for the decrease in cross-sectional area. This occurs at the maximum load or at a true strain equal to the strain-hardening coefficient. The formation of a neck introduces a triaxial state of stress in the region. A hydrostatic component of tension acts along the axis of the specimen at the center of the necked region. Many fine cavities form in this region, and under continued straining these grow and coalesce into a central crack. This crack grows in a direction perpendicular to the axis of the specimen until it approaches the surface of the specimen. It then propagates along localized shear planes at roughly 450 to the axis to form the cone part of the fracture Universal Testing Machine is used to conduct the tensile test. Two general types of machines are used in tension testing.

(1) Load controlled machine and (2) Displacement controlled machines.

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4.3 CYCLIC MODES OF SPRING OPERATION 4.3.1 FAILURE MODES Springs of all types are expected to operate over very long periods of time without significant changes in dimension, displacement or spring rate, often under changing loads. Considering these requirements, potential failure modes include yielding, fatigue, corrosion fatigue, fretting fatigue, creep, thermal relaxation, buckling, and force-induced elastic deformation. The operating life of a mechanical spring arrangement is dependent upon the susceptibility of the materials to corrosion and stress levels (static, cyclic or dynamic). The most common failure modes for springs are fracture due to fatigue and excessive loss of load due to stress relaxation. By definition, objects that are loaded under purely oscillatory loads fail when their stresses reach the materials fatigue limit. Conversely, objects that are loaded under purely static loads fail when their stresses reach the materials yield limit yield. For springs that have a mixture of mean and alt stresses, the Soderberg Criterion provides a way to calculate a failure limit. Mean stress is plotted on one axis and alternating stress on the other. 4.3.2 FATIGUE STRESS All springs have finite fatigue limits, the limit depending fatigue stress and the degree of fluctuating loads. The four most common fatigue stress conditions include constant deflection, constant load, unidirectional stress and reversed stress. A spring inside a valve assembly is an example of a constant deflection where the spring is cycled through a specified deflection range. An example of a constant load spring is the use of vibration springs under a dead weight where the load applied to the spring does not change during operation but the deflection will. A unidirectional stress is one where 15

the stress is always applied in the same direction such as used in the return spring of an actuator. A reversed stress is applied first in one direction then in the opposite direction such as used in a regulator valve. The three stages to a fatigue failure include crack initiation, crack propagation and finally fracture of the spring material. Static springs can be used in constant deflection or constant load applications. A constant deflection spring is cycled through a specified deflection range, the loads on the spring causing some set or relaxation which in turn lowers the applied stress. The spring may relax with time and reduce the applied load. Under constant load conditions, the load applied to the spring does not change during operation. Constant load springs may set or creep, but the applied stress is constant. The constant stress may result in fatigue lives shorter than those found in constant deflection applications. A corrosive environment may accelerate the time to fatigue failure, corrosion reducing the load-carrying capability of a spring and its life. The precise quantitative effect of a corrosive environment on spring performance is difficult to predict. Springs are almost always in contact with other metal parts. If a spring is to be subjected to a corrosive environment, the use of inert materials provides the best defense against corrosion. Protective coatings can also be applied. In special situations, shot peening can be used to prevent stress corrosion and cathodic protection systems can be used to prevent general corrosion. The spring material is normally more noble (chemically resistant to corrosion) than the structural components in contact with it because the lesser noble alloy will be attacked by the electrolyte. Surging (resonant frequency response) can occur in high-speed cyclic applications if axial operating frequencies approach the axial natural frequency of the helical-coil spring. If the material and geometry of the axially reciprocating spring are 16

such that its axial natural frequency is close to the operating frequency, a traveling displacement wave front is propagated and reflected along the spring with about the same frequency as the exciting force. This condition results in local compressions and rarefactions producing high stresses and/or erratic forces locally, with consequent loss of control of the spring-loaded object. Surging of a valve spring, for example may allow the valve to open erratically when it should be closed or vice versa

4.3.3 SPRING RELAXATION Springs of all types are expected to operate over long periods of time without significant changes in dimension, displacement, or spring rates, often under fluctuating loads. If a spring is deflected under full load and the stresses induced exceed the yield strength of the material, the resulting permanent deformation may prevent the spring from providing the required force or to deliver stored energy for subsequent operations. Most springs are subject to some amount of relaxation during their life span even under benign conditions. The amount of spring relaxation is a function of the spring material and the amount of time the spring is exposed to the higher stresses and/or temperatures. Static springs can be used in constant deflection or constant load applications. A constant deflection spring is cycled through a specified deflection range, the loads on the spring causing some set or relaxation which in turn lowers the applied stress. The spring may relax with time and reduce the applied load. Elevated temperatures can cause thermal relaxation, excess changes in spring dimension or reduced load supporting capability. Under constant load conditions, the load applied to the spring does not change during operation. Constant load springs

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may set or creep, but the applied stress is constant. The constant stress may result in fatigue lives shorter than those found in constant deflection applications. In many applications, compression and extension springs are subjected to elevated temperatures at high stresses which can result in relaxation or loss of load. This condition is often referred to as "set". After the operating conditions are determined, set can be predicted and allowances made in the spring design. When no set is allowed in the application, the spring manufacturer may be able to preset the spring at temperatures and stresses higher than those to be encountered in the operating environment. A highly stressed spring will set the first several times it is pressed. Relaxation is a function of a fairly high stress (but usually lower then that required to cause set) over a period of time. Creep in the spring may lead to unacceptable dimensional changes even under static loading (set). A spring held at a certain stress will actually relax more in a given time than a spring cycled between that stress and a lower stress because it spends more time at the higher stress. The amount of spring relaxation over a certain period of time is estimated by first determining the operating temperature, the maximum amount of stress the spring sees and how long the spring will be exposed to the maximum stress and the elevated temperature over its lifetime. 4.4 MISCELLANEOUS FAILURE MODES Most extension spring failures occur in the area of the spring end. Extension springs are designed to become longer under load and their maximum length must be controlled for long life. Their turns are normally touching in the unloaded position and they have a hook, eye or some other means of attachment. For maximum reliability, the spring wire must be smooth with a gradual flow into the end without tool marks, sharp corners or other stress risers. The spring ends should be made as an 18

integral part of the coil winding operation and the bend radius should be at least one and one-half times the wire diameter. Other failure mechanisms and causes may be identified for a specific application to assure that all considerations of reliability are included in the prediction. For example, another failure mode to be considered is the hardness of the spring material that can be sensitive to plating and baking operations. Table 1 is a list of failure modes and causes for mechanical springs.

4.5 FAILURE MODE AND EFFECTS ANALYSIS (FMEA) This section provides some guidelines for performing the FMEA for mechanical springs. The FMEA is normally performed by first identifying the failure modes and then estimating the probability of occurrence for each identified failure mode. Failure modes have been discussed in the previous section. Their probability of occurrence depends on the material strength with respect to operating stress which in turn depends to a large extent on the following items: Type of spring Compression, Extension, Torsion. Size of spring Diameter, Length Spring material Monel, Music, High-Carbon, 19

 Wire diameter Loading Static, Cyclic, Dynamic Operating temperature Spring design Spring Index, Bends Manufacturing methods & quality control Tool Marks, Pits Hook design Operating environment

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CHAPTER 5

QUENCHING FUNDAMENTALS AND PROPERTIES

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5.1 QUENCHING OIL FUNDAMENTALS

Quench oil serves two primary functions: 1. It facilitates hardening of steel during quenching. 2. It enhances wetting of steel during quenching to minimize the formation of undesirable thermal and transformational gradients, which may lead to distortion or cracking. When hot metal is quenched, a vapor envelope is initially formed around the hot metal as it is immersed in the oil. The stability of this vapor envelope and thus the ability of the oil to harden steel is dependent on the metal surface irregularities, the presence of oxides, surface wetting agents (which accelerate the wetting process and destabilize the vapor envelope), and the presence of other oil degradation by-products. Upon further cooling, the vapor envelope collapses, resulting in so-called nucleate boiling, which is the fastest heat transfer. Nucleate boiling is a type of boiling that can take place under certain conditions. It is the process of forming steam bubbles within liquid in micro cavities adjacent to the wall if the wall temperature at the heat transfer surface rises above the saturation temperature while the bulk of the liquid is sub-cooled. The bubbles grow until they reach some critical size at which point they separate from the wall and are carried into the main fluid stream. There the bubbles collapse because the temperature of bulk fluid is not as high as at the heat transfer surface where the bubbles were created. Heat and mass transfer during nucleate boiling has a significant effect on the

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heat transfer rate. This heat transfer process helps to quickly and efficiently carry away the energy created at the heat transfer surface. When the temperature of the hot steel interface is less than the oils boiling point, nucleate boiling will stop and convective cooling will begin. Oil degradation is often accompanied by sludge and varnish formation. These by-products do not adsorb uniformly on the steel surface as it is being quenched, resulting in cooling rate variations and thermal gradients. Another source of non-uniform heat transfer is water contamination of the quench oil. Water causes thermal gradients and lower viscosity. Effects of Contaminants. 5.1.1 VISCOSITY Of all the variables that can affect the maximum cooling rate during nucleate boiling, temperature has the most significant effect on the maximum cooling rate. Increasing the temperature increases the maximum cooling rate due to the change in viscosity. At room temperature, the oil is viscous and does not wet the surface of the part well. As the viscosity decreases with increased temperature, the result is better wetting of the part and consequently better heat transfer. 5.1.2 SOOT Soot has the second largest impact on maximum cooling rate. The maximum cooling rate increases as the amount of soot in the oil increases. This is due to the soot particles functioning as nucleation sites for bubble formation during nucleate boiling. Soot also causes the temperature of maximum cooling to increase.

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5.1.3 SALT Salt crystals have an effect similar to soot particles since they do not dissolve in oil and form nucleation sites for bubble formation during nucleate boiling. 5.1.4 WATER Water increases the maximum cooling rate and substantially decreases the temperature of maximum cooling. This increases the chances of distortion of the part by increasing the thermal gradients within the part.

5.1.5 HYDRAULIC FLUID Contamination with hydraulic fluid increases the maximum cooling rate and the temperature at which maximum cooling occurs. Because hydraulic fluids are miscible in quench oil, the properties of the quench oil change. The boiling point of the mixture will likely increase, causing an increase in maximum cooling rate and the temperature at which maximum cooling rate occurs.

5.1.6 OXIDATION Oxidation causes the maximum cooling rate and the temperature of maximum cooling to decrease, which is caused by increases in viscosity of the quench oil. This in turn causes a decrease in wetting. Increase in viscosity also causes bubble formation to become more difficult while the maximum cooling rate and the temperature of maximum cooling is reduced.

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5.2 PRECAUTIONS 5.2.1 PERCENT WATER This contaminant in amounts as low as 1,000 parts per million (ppm) can cause foaming, fires, and explosions.

5.2.2 FLASH POINT This value should be as high as possible. Changes usually indicate contamination or degradation. Low flash points increase the chance of fires.

5.2.3 PERCENT SLUDGE This is the result of oxidation and polymerization.

5.2.4 PERCENT ASH Increased inorganic ash content indicates degradation.

5.2.5 KINEMATIC VISCOSITY As oil degrades, viscosity usually increases. Some contaminants reduce viscosity and flash point.

5.2.6 NEUTRALIZATION NUMBER Increased oxidation causes the oil to become more acidic.

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5.2.7 QUENCHING SPEED Either a GM Quenchometer test or a cooling rate curve should be used to evaluate the cooling/quenching characteristics of the oil.

5.3 QUENCHING BATHS When steel heated above the critical point is plunged into a cooling bath, the rapidity with which the heat is absorbed by the bath affects the degree of hardness; hence, baths of various kinds are used for different classes of work. Clear cold water is commonly employed and brine is sometimes substituted to increase the degree of hardness. Sperm [whale oil] and lard oil baths are used for hardening springs, and raw linseed oil is excellent for cutters and other small tools. The effect of a bath upon steel depends upon its composition, temperature, and volume. The bath should be amply large to dissipate the heat rapidly, and the temperature should be kept about constant, so that successive pieces will be cooled at the same rate. Greater hardness is obtained from quenching in salt brine, and less in oil, than is obtained by the use of water. This is due to the difference in the heat-dissipating qualities of these substances. When water is used, it should be "soft," as unsatisfactory results will be obtained with "hard" water. If thin pieces are plunged into brine, there is danger of cracking, owing to the suddenness of the cooling. The temperature of the hardening bath has a great deal to do with the hardness obtained. In certain experiments a bar quenched at 41 degrees F. showed a scleroscopic hardness of 101. A piece from the same bar quenched at 75 degrees F. had a hardness of 96, while, when the temperature of the water was raised to 124 degrees F., the bar was decidedly soft, having a hardness of only 83.

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The higher the temperature of the quenching water, the more nearly does its effect approach that of oil, and if boiling water is used for quenching, it will have an effect even more gentle than that of oil; in fact, it would leave the steel nearly soft. With oil baths, the temperature changes have little effect on the degree of hardness. Parts of irregular shape are sometimes quenched in a water bath that has been warmed somewhat to prevent sudden cooling and cracking. A water bath having one or two inches of oil on top is sometimes employed to advantage for tools made of high-carbon steel, as the oil through which the work first passes reduces the sudden action of the water. Irregularly shaped parts should be immersed so that the heaviest of thickest section enters the bath first. After immersion, the part to be hardened should be agitated in the bath; the agitation reduces the tendency of the formation of a vapor coating on certain surfaces, and a more uniform rate of cooling is obtained Various oils, such as cotton-seed, linseed, lard, whale oil, kerosene, etc., are also employed; many prefer cotton-seed oil. Linseed has the objection of becoming gummy, and lard oil has a tendency to become rancid. Whale oil or fish oil give satisfactory results, but have offensive odors, although this can be overcome by the addition of about three per cent of heavy "tempering" oil. A quenching solution of a 3 per cent sulphuric acid and 97 per cent of water will make hardened carbon steel tools come out of the quenching bath bright and clean. This bath is sometimes used for drills and reamers which are not to be polished in the flutes after hardening. Another method of cleaning drills and similar tools after hardening is to pickle them in a solution of 1 part hydrochloric acid and 9 parts water. This method is satisfactory for reamers and tools which are not to be polished in the flutes after hardening. 27

Fig 5.1 Oil Quenching

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5.3.1 OIL QUENCHING BATHS Oil is used very extensively as a quenching medium as it gives the best proportion between hardness, toughness and warpage for standard steels. Special compounded oils of the soluble type are now used in many plants instead of such oils as fish oil, linseed oil, cotton-seed oil, etc. The soluble properties enable the oil to make an emulsion with water. A good quenching oil should possess a flash and fire point sufficiently high to be safe under the conditions used and 350 degrees F. should be about the minimum point. The specific heat of the oil regulates the hardness and toughness of the quenched steel, and the greater the specific heat, the harder the steel will be. Specific heats of quenching oils vary from 0.20 to 0.75, the specific heats of fish, animal, and vegetable oils usually being from 0.2 to 0.4, and of soluble and mineral oils, from 0.5 to 0.7. The oil should not contain water, gum when used, have a disagreeable odor or become rancid. A great many concerns use paraffin and mineral oils for quenching, while a few use crude fuel oils. The quantity of steel that can be quenched per gallon of oil depends on the fluidity of the oil, or its draining qualities. The so-called "refrigerating qualities" are really the capacity of the oil to remove the heat from the steel at a fast rate and then radiate its own heat to the atmosphere.

5.3.2 TANKS FOR QUENCHING BATHS The main point to be considered in a quenching bath is to keep it at a uniform temperature, so that each successive piece quenched will be subjected to the same heat. The next consideration is to keep the bath agitated, so that it will not be of different temperatures in different places; if thoroughly agitated and kept in motion, as is the case with the bath shown in Fig.3.2, it is not even necessary to keep the 29

pieces in motion in the bath, as steam will not be likely to form around the pieces quenched. Experience has proved that if a piece is held still in a thoroughly agitated bath, it will come out much straighter than if it has been moved around in an unagitated bath.

Fig 5.2 Tanks for Quenching Baths

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5.4 WATER QUENCHING

Fig 5.3 Water Quenching In Fig 4.3 is shown a water or brine tank for quenching baths. Water is forced by a pump or other means through the supply tube into the intermediate space between the outer and inner tank. From the intermediate space it is forced into the inner tank through holes as indicated. The water returns to the storage tank by overflowing from the inner tank into the outer one and then through the overflow pipe as indicated. The water or brine tank of a more common type. In this case the water or brine is pumped from the storage tank and continuously returned to it. If the storage tank contains a large volume of water, there is no need of a special means for cooling. Otherwise, arrangements must be made for cooling the water after it has passed through the tank. The bath is agitated by the force with which the water is pumped

31

into it. The holes at A are drilled at an angle, so as to throw the water toward the center of the tank. The oil quenching tank in which water is circulated in an outer surrounding tank for keeping the oil bath cool. Air is forced into the oil bath to keep it agitated. Fig. 6 shows a water and oil tank combined. The oil is kept cool by a coil passing through it in which water is circulated, which later passes into the water tank.

Fig 5.4 Ordinary Type of Quenching Tank Fig 4.4 shows the ordinary type of quenching tank cooled by water forced through a coil of pipe. This can be used for either oil, water or brine. It shows a similar type of quenching tank, but with two coils of pipe. Water flows through one of these and steam through the other. By this means it is possible to keep the bath at a constant temperature.

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5.5 OBJECTIVES OF HEAT TREATMENTS

Fig 5.5 Heat Treatments Heat Treatment is the controlled heating and cooling of metals to alter their physical and mechanical properties without changing the product shape. Heat treatment is sometimes done inadvertently due to manufacturing processes that either heat or cool the metal such as welding or forming. Heat Treatment is often associated with increasing the strength of material, but it can also be used to alter certain manufacturability objectives such as improve machining, improve formability, restore ductility after a cold working operation. Thus it is a very enabling manufacturing process that can not only help other manufacturing process, but can also improve product performance by increasing strength or other desirable characteristics.

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Steels are particularly suitable for heat treatment, since they respond well to heat treatment and the commercial use of steels exceeds that of any the material. 5.6 FURNACE Furnace is a device used for heating. The name derives from Latin fornax, oven. In American English and Canadian English usage, the term furnace on its own refers to the household heating systems based on a central furnace (known either as a boiler or a heater in British English), and sometimes as a synonym for kiln, a device used in the production of ceramics. In British English, a furnace is an industrial furnace used for many things, such as the extraction of metal from ore (smelting) or in oil refineries and other chemical plants, for example as the heat source for fractional distillation columns. The term furnace can also refer to a direct fired heater, used in boiler applications in chemical industries or for providing heat to chemical reactions for processes like cracking, and is part of the Standard English names for many metallurgical furnaces worldwide. The heat energy to fuel a furnace may be supplied directly by fuel combustion, by electricity such as the electric arc furnace, or through induction heating in induction furnaces.

Fig 5.6 Furnace 34

5.7 TENSILE TEST. Tensile test is an important standard engineering procedure to

characterizeproperties related to mechanical behaviour of materials. To properly describe the response of the material during the actual loading conditions, the variation in geometry of the specimen has to be considered. Although the behaviour of the material in elastic limit is of considerable importance but the knowledge beyond elastic limit is also relevant since plastic effects with large deformation takes place in number of manufacturing processes. The mechanical behaviour of Corten Steel, used in manufacturing of railway coaches are important properties used in the crash analysis of the component. Finite Element Method being a widely used tool for analysis due to revolution in computer field is used for the analysis of the components. The present work describes the behavior of Corten Steel sheet specimens in plastic range. Finite element method was employed for the analysis of tensile test.

Fig 5.7 Layout of UTM

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The engineering tensile test also known as tension test is widely used to provide basic design information on the strength of material and as an acceptance test for the specification of the materials. Tensile tests are simple, relatively inexpensive, and fully standardized. By pulling on something, it can be very quickly determined how the material will react to forces being applied in tension. As the material is being pulled, its strength along with how much it will elongate can be find out. A lot about a substance can be learned from tensile testing. As the machine continues to pull on the material until it breaks, a good, complete tensile profile is obtained. A curve will result showing how it reacted to the forces being applied. In the tensile test a specimen is subjected to a continually increasing uniaxial tensile force while simultaneous observations are made of the elongation of the specimen. Fig 3.8 shows a typical stress-strain curve for a metal.

Fig 5.8 Stress - Strain Curve For the very small strains involved in the early part of the test, the elongation of a measured length is recorded by an extensometer. The load is increased gradually, and at first the elongation and hence the strain, is proportional to the load and hence to the stress. 36

This relation (Hookes Law) holds up to a value of the stress known as the limit of proportionality (Point A). Hookes law ceases to be obeyed this point, although the material may still be in the elastic state. The point B shows the elas tic limit. If the material is stressed beyond this point, some plastic deformation will occur. The next important occurrence is the yield point C, at which the metal shows an appreciable strain even without further increase in load. For materials showing no definite yield, a proof stress is used to determine the onset of plastic strain After yielding has taken place, further straining can only be achieved by increasing the load, the stress-strain curve continuing to rise up to the point D. The strain in the region from C to D is 100 times the strain in the system from O to C, and is partly elastic (i.e. recoverable), but mainly plastic (i.e. permanent strain). At this stage (D) the bar begins to form a local neck, the load falling off from the maximum un til fracture at E. The proportional limit is the stress at which the stress-strain curve deviates from linearity. The slope of the stress-strain curve is the modulus of elasticity. Plastic deformation begins when the elastic limit is exceeded. As the plastic deformation of the specimen increases, the metal becomes stronger so that the load required to extend the specimen increases with further straining. Eventually the load reaches a maximum value. The maximum load divided by the original area of the specimen is the ultimate tensile strength. For a ductile metal the diameter of the specimen begins to decrease rapidly beyond maximum load, so that the load required to continue deformation drops off until the specimen fractures. Since the average stress is based on original area of the specimen, it also decreases from maximum load to fracture.

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Fig 5.9 The Engineering Stress-Strain Curve An engineering stress-strain curve is constructed from the load-elongation measurements (fig 5.9). The stress used in this stress-strain curve is the average longitudinal stress in the tensile specimen. It is obtained by dividing the load by the original area of the cross-section of the specimen. S = P A0

38

The strain used for the engineering stress-strain curve is the average linear strain, which is obtained by dividing the elongation of the gauge length of the specimen, , by its original length.

The shape and magnitude of the stress-strain curve of a metal will depend upon its composition, heat treatment, prior history of plastic deformation, and the strain rate, temperature, and state of stress imposed during the testing. The parameters which are used to describe the stress-strain curve of a metal are the tensile strength, yield strength or yield point, percentage elongation and reduction of area. The first two are strength parameters; the last two indicate ductility. In the elastic range, strain is measured by an extensometer attached to the gauge length. In the elastic region stress is linear proportional to strain. When the load exceeds a value corresponding to the yield strength, the specimen undergoes plastic deformation. It is permanently deformed if the load is released to zero. The stress to produce continued plastic deformation increases with increasing plastic strain i.e. the metal strain-hardens. The volume of the specimen remains constant during plastic deformation, and as specimen elongates, it decreases uniformly along the gauge length in cross-sectional area. Initially the strain hardening more than compensates for this decrease in area and the engineering stress continues to rise with increasing strain.

Eventually, a point is reached where the decrease in specimen cross-sectional area is greater than the increase in deformation load arising from strain hardening. 39

This condition will be reached first at some point in the specimen that is slightly weaker than the rest. All further plastic deformation is concentrated in this region, and the specimen begins to neck or thin down locally .Because the cross-sectional area now is decreasing far more rapidly than the deformation load is increased by strain hardening, the actual load required to deform the specimen falls off and the engineering stress likewise continues to decrease until fracture occurs. Many varieties of fractures can occur during the processing of metals and their use in different types of service.

40

CHAPTER- 6

FORMULA USED

41

6.1 FORMULA 6.1.1 STRESS AND STRAIN RELATIONSHIP When a specimen is subjected to an external tensile loading, the metal will undergo elastic and plastic deformation. Initially, the metal will elastically deform giving a linear relationship of load and extension. These two parameters are then used for the calculation of the engineering stress and engineering strain to give a relationship as illustrated in using equations as follows

where is the engineering stress

is the engineering strain

P is the external axial tensile load Ao is the original cross-sectional area of the specimen Lo is the original length of the specimen Lf is the final length of the specimen

42

The unit of the engineering stress is Pascal (Pa) or N/m2 according to the SI Metric Unit whereas the unit of psi (pound per square inch) can also be used.

6.1.2 YOUNG'S MODULUS (E) During elastic deformation, the engineering stress-strain relationship follows the Hook's Lawand the slope of the curve indicates the Young's modulus (E).

Young's modulus is of importance where deflection of materials is critical for the required engineering applications. This is for examples: deflection in structural beams is considered to be crucial for the design in engineering components or structures such as bridges, building, ships, etc. The applications of tennis racket and golf club also require specific values of spring constants or Young's modulus values. 6.1.3 YIELD STRENGTH (Y) By considering the stress-strain curve beyond the elastic portion, if the tensile loading continues, yielding occurs at the beginning of plastic deformation. The yield stress, y, can be obtained by dividing the load at yielding (P y) by the original crosssectional area of the specimen (Ao) as shown in equation.

43

The yield point can be observed directly from the load-extension curve of the BCC metals such as iron and steel or in polycrystalline titanium and molybdenum, and especially low carbon steels. a). The yield point elongation phenomenon shows the upper yield point followed by a sudden reduction in the stress or load till reaching the lower yield point. At the yield point elongation, the specimen continues to extend without a significant change in the stress level. Load increment is then followed with increasing strain. This yield point phenomenon is associated with a small amount of interstitial or substitutional atoms. This is for example in the case of low-carbon steels, which have small atoms of carbon and nitrogen present as impurities. This dislocation pinning is related to the upper yield point as indicated in figure 4 a). If the dislocation line is free from the solute atoms, the stress required to move the dislocations then suddenly drops, which is associated with the lower yield point. Furthermore, it was found that the degree of the yield point effect is affected by the amounts of the solute atoms and is also influenced by the interaction energy between the solute atoms and the dislocations. 6.1.4 ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH

TS

Beyond yielding, continuous loading leads to an increase in the stress required to permanently deform the specimen as shown in the engineering stress-strain curve. At this stage, the specimen is strain hardened or work hardened. The degree of strain hardening depends on the nature of the deformed materials, crystal structure and chemical composition, which affects the dislocation motion. FCC structure materials 44

having a high number of operating slip systems can easily slip and create a high density of dislocations. Tangling of these dislocations requires higher stress to uniformly and plastically deform the specimen, therefore resulting in strain hardening. If the load is continuously applied, the stress-strain curve will reach the maximum point, which is the ultimate tensile strength (UTS,
TS).

At this point, the specimen

can withstand the highest stress before necking takes place. This can be observed by a local reduction in the cross sectional area of the specimen generally observed in the centre of the gauge length.

6.1.5 ELONGATION Tensile ductility of the specimen can be represented as % elongation or % reduction in area as expressed in the equations given below in equation 8 and 9.

45

Where, Af is the cross-sectional area of specimen at fracture. The fracture strain of the specimen can be obtained by drawing a straight line starting at the fracture point of the stress-strain curve parallel to the slope in the linear relation. The interception of the parallel line at the x axis indicates the fracture strain of the specimen being tested.

46

CHAPTER - 7

METHODOLOGY

47

7.1 METHODOLOGY Springs represent the most important groupof engineering materials as they have widest diversity of applications of any of the engineering materials. The majority of the specifications are based on the chemical composition of the steels because it indicates the required heat treatment data, i.e. phase transformation temperatures and critical cooling rate of selective material. Therefore, any raw material that will be treated must be firstly analyzed to know chemical composition.

The first step in process is heat treatment cycle of material. The total heating time should be just enough to attain uniform temperature through the section of the part to enable not only the completion of phase transformation, but also to obtain homogeneous stage. First stage of tempering Second stage of tempering Third stage of tempering Fourth stage of tempering Fifth stage of tempering Sixth stage of tempering

: : : : : :

Up to 300C 350C 400C 450C 450C 450C

48

This UTM tests were carried in a material testing centre which was named THIRUMALA MATERIAL TESTING CENTRE, which is at Hosur.

7.2 ABOUT THE TESTING CENTRE The THIRUMALA MATERIAL TESTING CENTRE at Hosur was established in the year 2007. It has accreditation from the NABL NATIONAL ACCREDITION BOARD FOR LABORATORIES. It is run by the CEO Mr. Sridhar Reddy, who did his M.Tech in Metallurgy. Our UTM tests were carried under his supervision. Also his ideas and thoughts helped us a lot in completing the project successfully.

The above specimens were heat treated and they were tested in UTM machine. All the mechanical properties of the specimens like Yield Strength, Tensile Strength and Elongation. The results of the tests were tabulated and they are shown in the table below.

49

TABLE 7.1 - Tabulated values of the Tensile Test.

THIRUMALESA MATERIAL TESTING CENTER

TEST CERTIFICATE - UTM VALUES 8 mm
SL.NO PARTICULARS YIELD YIELD LOAD STRENGTH N N/mm2 46000 920 TENSILE LOAD N 63000 TENSILE YIELD ELONGATION YIELD LOAD STRENGTH STRENGTH % N N/mm2 N/mm2 1260 8 74000 1162

9 mm
TENSILE LOAD N 85000 TENSILE ELONGATION STRENGTH % N/mm2 1335 8

NORMAL MATERIAL STRESS RELEIVING PROCESS (225, 15 MINS) 300 , 1 HOUR, WATER QUENCH

65000

1300

70000

1400

41500

652

83500

1312

57000

1140

67500

1350

10

69500

1092

81500

1280

350 , 1 HOUR, WATER QUENCH

51500

1030

62000

1240

10

62000

974

77500

1217.78

12

400 , 1 HOUR, WATER QUENCH

53000

1060

65000

1300

10

70000

1099.93

82500

1296.35

12

450 , 1 HOUR, WATER QUENCH

73000

1460

74000

1480

73000

1141

88000

1375

500 , 1 HOUR, WATER QUENCH

71000

1420

72500

1450

69500

1086

83000

1297

550 , 1 HOUR, WATER QUENCH

69000

1380

70000

1400

65000

1016

73000

1141

300 , 1 HOUR, OIL QUENCH

47500

950

67000

1340

81000

1272.78

88500

1390.63

18

10

350 , 1 HOUR, OIL QUENCH

45000

900

62000

1240

14

70000

1099.93

81000

1272.78

14

11

400 , 1 HOUR, OIL QUENCH

52500

1050

63500

1270

10

64000

1005.65

79000

1241.35

10

12

450 , 1 HOUR, OIL QUENCH

68000

1360

70000

1400

74500

1164

91000

1422

13

500 , 1 HOUR, OIL QUENCH

65000

1300

66500

1330

71000

1111

84000

1313

14

550 , 1 HOUR, OIL QUENCH

625000

1250

63700

1274

68000

1063

77000

1204

50

Fig 7.1 UTM Machine

Fig 7.2 Specification of the UTM Machine

51

7.3 GRAPHS Various graphs were plotted against the temperature. The change in behavior of the specimens for various temperatures can be clearly seen in the graphs plotted.

The various graphs are Yield strength vs. Temperature (8 mm & 9 mm) Tensile strength vs. Temperature (8 mm & 9 mm) Elongation vs. Temperature (8 mm & 9 mm)

52

7.3.1 GRAPHS FOR DIAMETER 8 MM

Fig 7.3 YIELD STRENGTH vs. TEMPERATURE, DIA 8

Fig 7.4 TENSILE STRENGTH vs. TEMPERATURE, DIA 8

Fig 7.5 ELONGATION vs. TEMPERATURE, DIA 8

53

7.3.2 GRAPHS FOR DIAMETER 9 MM

Fig 7.6 YIELD STRENGTH vs. TEMPERATURE, DIA 9

Fig 7.7 TENSILE STRENGTH vs. TEMPERATURE, DIA 9

Fig 7.8 ELONGATION vs. TEMPERATURE, DIA 9

54

7.4 SOFTWARE ANALYSIS

The values obtained from the experiment were tested in software and both practical and analytical results were compared. The software SOLIDWORKS was used to get the analytical report. Obtained analytical results are shown below for diameter of 8 mm and 9 mm.

55

7.4.1 ANALYTICAL REPORT FOR DIA 8 MM

300C, OIL QUENCH

350C, OIL QUENCH

400C, OIL QUENCH

450C, OIL QUENCH

500C, OIL QUENCH

550C, OIL QUENCH

Fig 7.9 Analytical Diagram for Stress Analysis dia 8mm 56

7.4.2 ANALYTICAL REPORT FOR DIA 9 MM

300C, OIL QUENCH

350C, OIL QUENCH

400C, OIL QUENCH

450C, OIL QUENCH

500C, OIL QUENCH

550C, OIL QUENCH

Fig 7.10 Analytical Diagram for Stress Analysis dia 9 mm 57

CHAPTER - 8

COST ACCOUNTING

58

8. COST ACCOUNTING

Material Cost for Dia 8 mm Material Cost for Dia 9 mm Straightening Cost Cutting Charges UTM Tests Other Costs

800 1200 300 200 4800 500

Total Cost

7800

59

CHAPTER - 9

CONCLUSION

60

9. CONCLUSION With respect to the experiment that was carried out, the readings were observed and it was found that the heat treated specimen with a temperature of 450C can withstand maximum load when compared to all other specimens. The commonly used stress relieving method of 225C with 15 minutes can withstand a maximum load of 70000 N. On the other hand the specimen heat treated for 450C can withstand a maximum load of 74000 N. There by the 6% increase in load can be seen clearly. So, we suggest the Spring Material of Grade III with heat treatment of 450C can be used to for many industrial and automobile applications.

61

CHAPTER - 10 REFERENCES

10. REFERENCES 62

1. Min Shan HTUN1, Si Thu KYAW2 and Kay Thi LWIN3, (July 30, 2012) Journal on Effect of Heat Treatment on Microstructures and Mechanical Properties of Spring Steel

2. HOU Weiguo, ZHANG Weifang, LIU Xiao, WANG Zongren, and DING Meili, (21 February 2011) Journal on Failure Analysis of Aviation Torsional Springs

3. ChokriCherif, Andr Seidel, AyhamYounes, Jan Hausding (No4, December 2010) Journal on Evaluation of a Tensile Test for the Determination of the Material Behaviour of Filament Yarns under High Strain Rate

4. GurpreetKaur - Thapar Institute Of Engineering And Technology. Journal on Experimental And Numerical Analysis Of Tensile Test 5. Morestin, F., and Boivin, M., On the Necessity of Taking into Account the Variation in the Young Modulus with Plastic Strain in Elastic-Plastic Software,Nuclear Engineering and Design ,Vol.162.pp.107- 116,1996. 6. The Design Data Book by PSG Tech. 7. R.S. Khurmi - Book on Theory on Machines

63