Steady-state heat transfer

Dr Farlan Veraitch

UCL 2009/G017

Steady-state heat transfer

Steady-state heat transfer

Lets consider a thermal energy balance for the rate of heat transfer:
Rate of heat IN Rate of heat + OUT Rate of heat = Rate of heat GENERATION ACCUMULATION

At steady-state: all properties of the system are invariant. there can be no accumulation of heat ie
Rate of heat IN Rate of heat + OUT Rate of heat = GENERATION 0

When a fermenter is being heated up to 37C, is this steady-state or unsteady-state heat transfer?
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Steady-state v Unsteady-state heat transfer

Therefore we can define the conditions for steady-state and unsteady-state HT as:

UCL 2009/G017

Steady-state heat transfer

Steady-state v Unsteady-state heat transfer

Applications of steady-state heat transfer
determine insulation thickness in walls , pipes determine the rate of heat transfer for temperature control in a fermenter determine surface area required to achieve a particular heat transfer rate evaluate resistances to heat transfer

Applications of unsteady-state heat transfer

determine heating/cooling times for eg. sterilisation, canning ie how long it takes to reach a particular temperature determine temperature variations during heating/cooling
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Heat transfer between fluids

In many heating/cooling applications, both conduction and convection occur simultaneously Consider heat transfer through the wall of a fermenter or through a pipe in a heat exchanger.
Hot and cold fluids flow on either side of the wall Heat transfer across the wall is by conduction Heat transfer between the fluid and the wall is by convection Each layer represents a resistance to heat transfer
Hot fluid Th T1 wall

T2

Tc Cold fluid

Liquid films UCL 2009/G017 Steady-state heat transfer 5

Heat transfer between fluids

Heat transfer across the wall is by conduction
Hot What affects the resistance to heat transfer in this layer? fluid Th T1 wall

Heat transfer between the fluid and the wall is by convection

Heat transfer by forced convection is rapid in the turbulent core of the liquid Where the fluid contacts the wall, a fluid thermal boundary layer develops at the surface why?... In this thin liquid film near the wall, velocity is low and heat transfer is mainly by conduction However, it is difficult to measure the thickness of the boundary layer, which depends strongly on the flow regime and so a heat transfer coefficient is used in the convection equation What affects the resistance to heat transfer in this layer?

T2

Tc Cold fluid

Liquid films

UCL 2009/G017

Steady-state heat transfer

Heat transfer between fluids

So today well look at
How to calculate the rate of heat transfer by conduction Through a wall Through a cylinder Through multilayers
Hot fluid Th T1 wall

T2

Tc Cold fluid

How to calculate the rate of heat transfer for combined conduction and convection situations
Overall heat transfer coefficient
Liquid films

UCL 2009/G017

Steady-state heat transfer

Conduction through a wall

Rate of heat transfer by conduction:
where A - area normal to direction of heat transfer, m2 T - temperature, K x - distance through which conduction occurs, m k - thermal conductivity, W m-1 K-1

(Fouriers Law)

Separation of variables and integrating gives us:

T1 T2 q x
q

UCL 2009/G017

Steady-state heat transfer

Conduction through a wall

This can be rearranged as:

where R is the thermal resistance to heat transfer by the wall:

Resistance to heat transfer increases if

the wall thickness increases the wall is replaced with a material of lower thermal conductivity

(NB In some textbooks R is defined as

UCL 2009/G017

Steady-state heat transfer

Conduction through a multilayer wall

Lets now consider heat transfer through a multilayer wall made of 3 materials a, b and c of different thermal conductivities and thicknesses When a system contains several heat-transfer resistances in series, the overall resistance = sum of individual resistances And At steady-state, show that ...
a T1 q T2 T3 T4 b c

xA
UCL 2009/G017 Steady-state heat transfer

xB

xC
10

Conduction through a multilayer wall

At steady-state the rate of heat transfer through each layer must be the same So we can write q in terms of x and k

or in terms of R

Solving each equation for T,

a T1 T2 T3 T4 b c

Adding the eqns gives

xA
UCL 2009/G017 Steady-state heat transfer

xB

xC
11

Conduction through a multilayer wall

Question

UCL 2009/G017

Steady-state heat transfer

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Conduction through a multilayer wall

Given:
A = 3 x 6 = 18 m2 xconcrete = 0.15m kconcrete = 1.37 W/m.C qmax = 500W kinsulation = 0.04 W/m. C T1 = 38 C T3 = 5 C xinsulation = ?

Solution:

An insulation of 4.3 cm will ensure heat loss from the wall will remain below 500 W

UCL 2009/G017

Steady-state heat transfer

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Conduction through a cylinder - pipe

Consider a hollow cylinder of inner radius ri, outer radius ro and length L. Rate of heat transfer by conduction through the wall of a cylinder:
where A - area normal to direction of heat transfer, m2 T - temperature, K r - radius, m k - thermal conductivity, W m-1 K-1

Temperatures on the inside and outside are held constant Let the temperature on the inside wall be Ti and on the outside wall be To Show that
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Conduction through a cylinder - pipe

Show that Hints:
Start with: Substitute for A Separate variables and integrate over boundary conditions

UCL 2009/G017

Steady-state heat transfer

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Conduction through a cylinder - pipe

This can be rearranged to the form:

area*

1 / resistance

driving force

This becomes useful when looking at resistances in series

* for area A it is customary to use the outer surface area for thin-walled cylinders
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UCL 2009/G017

Conduction through a cylinder - pipe

Question: A 2 cm thick steel pipe (thermal conductivity = 43 W/mC) with 6 cm inside diameter is being used to convey steam from a boiler to a the jacket of a fermenter for a distance of 40m. The inside pipe surface temperature is 115 C and the outside pipe surface temperature is 90 C. Under steady-state conditions, calculate the total heat loss to the surrounding.
Given
ro - ri = 2 cm = 0.02 m ri = 0.06/2 = 0.03m k = 43 W/mC L = 40 m Ti = 115 C To = 90 C
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Conduction through a cylinder - pipe

Given
ro - ri = 2 cm = 0.02 m ri = 0.06/2 = 0.03m k = 43 W/mC L = 40 m Ti = 115 C To = 90 C

Solution: rate of heat loss =

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Steady-state heat transfer

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Overall heat-transfer coefficient

In many heating/cooling applications, both conduction and convection occur simultaneously. It is often convenient to express heat transfer rate for combined conductive-convective problems as:
Hot fluid wall

where

Th

T1

T2

Tc Cold fluid

where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient, W m-2 K-1

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RECAP Convection - rate of heat transfer

Convective heat transfer coefficient, h, is the measure of how effectively a fluid transfers heat by convection. It is measured in W/m2K, and is determined by factors such as the fluid density, viscosity, and velocity. The rate of heat transfer from a surface by convection is given by: (Newtons Law of Cooling) where
A - surface area of the object, m2 Ts - surface temperature, K - ambient or fluid temperature, K h - convective heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K

The convection heat transfer rate is assumed to be positive if heat is transferred from the surface and negative if heat is transferred to the surface
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h - individual heat transfer coefficient

Hence rate of heat transfer through the thermal boundary layer / liquid film is given by the rate of convection:

where h is the individual heat transfer coefficient, W m-2 K-1 and 1/h becomes the resistance due to the liquid film Values of h cannot be found in textbooks h is an empirical parameter incorporating the effects of system geometry, flow conditions and fluid properties h must be determined experimentally or evaluated using empirical correlations - well look at these next time!
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Overall h.t.c. - wall

Rate of heat transfer through each layer must be constant:

Representing this as a sum of resistances:

Hot fluid Th T1

wall

T2

Tc Cold fluid

Therefore the overall heat transfer coefficient can be written as:

Liquid films UCL 2009/G017 Steady-state heat transfer 22

Overall h.t.c. - cylinder

Rate of heat transfer through each layer must be constant:

Representing this as a sum of resistances:

Th

Tc

Therefore the overall heat transfer coefficient can be written as:

NB For simplicity, here it is assumed that the difference between Ai and Ao is not significant and so A is taken to be the outer surface area UCL 2009/G017 Steady-state heat transfer

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Overall h.t.c.
Can you think of any other layers that might cause resistance to heat transfer eg. between a fermenter and the cooling jacket? Fouling layers
Fermenter side: This is a layer of deposit formed during in situ batch sterilisation of the broth prior to inoculation Cooling jacket side - layer of deposit builds up on the jacket wall over time from the impurities in the cooling water

Resistance to heat transfer in this layer (fouling factor) is dependent upon:..

the thermal conductivity of components as well as the width of the deposit layer

Cooling water is unpurified to maintain low cost of cooling process Typical values of fouling factors for eg. water and steam have been determined.
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Overall h.t.c.
We can write U as comprising of 5 resistances to heat transfer:
For a wall

For a cylinder

where hfh and hfc are the fouling factors on the hot fluid side and the cold fluid side, respectively (W m-2 K-1)

NB For fermenters it is often sufficient to use the simpler equation for the wall (rather than the cylinder) as the other resistances are usually greater than the wall resistance
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UCL 2009/G017

Steady-state heat transfer

Weve looked at heat transfer and how to calculate heat removed from a fermenter (q = UAT) but it has to match the heat load: At steady-state:
Rate of heat IN Rate of heat + OUT Rate of heat = GENERATION m ii 0 P

System
qgen

m io

where
mass flow rate, kg s-1 i specific enthalpy, J kg-1 qgen rate of heat generation by system, W or J s-1 q rate of heat loss from system, W or J s-1

P rate of doing work on system ie power input, W or J s-1

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Steady-state heat transfer - fermenter

For fermenters we have 3 equations for q: Heat loads: Heat loads come from:
rate of heat generated by metabolism (qmet) and rate of heat generated by power dissipated by the impeller (P)

From energy balance:

q = qgen + P = qmet + P

Heat transfer - ie heat removed by jacket / coils: q = UA T Heat transfer to cooling water (energy balance):

UCL 2009/G017

Steady-state heat transfer

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Recap - specific heat capacity

An object's specific heat capacity (symbol Cp) is defined as the ratio of the amount of heat energy transferred to an object to the resulting increase in temperature of the object: Cp = Q/T . q = mCpT N.B. Cp can be a function of temperature
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Steady-state heat transfer - heat exchanger

For heat exchangers: qgen = 0, P = 0

Using this equation with q = UAT you can find missing operating conditions
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