1.Basic notions of morphology: the morpheme, the allomorph, the word-form, the word.

Differences between form-building and word-building affixes. Morphology is a branch of linguistics that studies morphemes. American linguist Bloomsfield defined the morpheme as a minimal meaningful unit. But this definition is considered to be defective as it doesn't specify what meaning it meant, we don't know if the word or form building morphemes are meant. According to Gleason a morpheme is a minimal unit in the plane of context which relates to some units in the plane of expression. Morpheme is a minimal unit of grammar. But morphemes in English are mostly word-building morphemes, so a grammatical morpheme is not defied here either. A for-building morpheme may be defined as an element of the word which signals the kind of grammatical meaning attached to the word by the presence of the morpheme. The morpheme itself has a purely relational grammatical meaning which is revealed only by contrast with some other morpheme or word-form. A morpheme is an exponent of a grammatical category. In speech morphemes are represented by allomorphs: phonological and morphological. E.g. morpheme of plurality Cats [s], Dogs [z], Houses [iz] E.g. morphologically -ren - children, -en - oxen, - sheep, deer All kinds of environment in which a morpheme can occur are called -distribution. Morphemes Roots affixes Functionally are divided Word-building Form-building By the place are divided Prefixes suffixes The root- the morpheme that conveys lexical meaning of a word, the basic part of the word. The word-form and the word The WF may be equivalent to the word but it presents an isolated unit. A WF is never part of a word. A WF is always a carrier of grammatical information. When we describe a WF we never think of its lexical meaning instead we concentrate on its grammatical meaning. E.g. When we mention the WF speaks we know it shows 3 person Sg, Present Tense. We can identify the WF in such a way due to the existence of such opposed forms as is speaking, speak, spoke. Obviously the latter group carries some other grammatical information and represents other grammatical meanings. => Gr. Meanings have relational property. Affixes can be used to create new words - derivational or word-building affixes. E.g. govern + ment They create lexical subclasses of words, cover a narrow range of words Form-building affixes (=inflectional) are used to build up forms of words. They are wider in employment. E.g. -ed covers the whole class of regular verbs. Prefixes in English are NEVER used to build up forms of words. 1.Basic notions of morphology: the morpheme, the allomorph, the word-form, the word. Differences between form-building and word-building affixes. Ps S = parts of speech; Ms = morphemes; W Fs = word forms; Mg = meaning; S = sentence; L = language; Lgs = linguistics Morphology is a part of grammar which deals with the forms of words. Morphological units. Morphemes are smallest indivisible meaningful gr units. In speech morphemes are often represented in one of the possible variants (called allomorphs). Allomorphs can be: 1.phonological ( morphemes of plurality s: s/z/iz ) 2.morphological (mouse mice) Their material form in speech depends on the phonetic environment. Ms are divided into roots (lexical meaning of w) and affixes : prefixes and suffixes. They can be derivational (word-building) and inflectional (formbuilding). The scale of application of derivational affixes is limited. The sphere of application of inflectional affixes is broad. Morpheme (form-building) may be defined as an element of a W which signals the kind of grammatical Mg which is attached to the W by the presence of this element. The M itself has a purely relational gr-l Mg which is revealed only by contrast with some other M. or W F which exposes a contrastive gram-l Mg. a boy - noun in singular which ends with a zero M is opposed to the noun boys where the presence of the suffixes- signals the opposite gr-l Mg of plurality. M is a marker of some gr-l category. The W F may be equal to a W, but at any rate it makes an isolated unit. It is never part of a W. A W F is a carrier of gr info. Speaks indicates the 3d person Sg. We can establish this fact only because there exist othe r Ws of the same verb which are devoid of this gr-l Mg. We can oppose speaks to spoke. The W. When we discuss the W in morphology we are interested in the following. The first question concerns the possible paradigms that W can have in keeping with the gr-l categories it possesses. Secondly, discussing the W in morphology we are to place it as a certain part of speech. 2. Grammatical structure of the L. Grammatical meaning and grammatical form. Grammatical category. GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE In speech words are arranged into sentences, which further become utterances. There are special means to build up sentences. In English there are 4 means that form the grammatical structure of any sentence: 1. Word-change see - saw - seen; read - reads 2. Word-order The dog bit the man. - The man bit the dog. 3. Function words: auxiliary verbs, articles, prepositions They live in/outside London I bought/have bought a book. 4. Intonation They are idiots? =>the system of these 4 means, which signal relations between words in a sentence, forms the grammatical structure of the language.

GRAMMATICAL MEANING + GRAMMATICAL FORM In every sentence every word has a certain lexical meaning. We can also say that every word has some more general meaning. For example: set1 set 2 kiss kisses boyfriend - boyfriends partner - partners kisses kissed touches - touched holds - held

The words in both groups have different lexical meaning. But in set 1 the meaning of oneness is opposed to the meaning of plurality. In set 2 the meaning of the 3d person Sq in the present tense is opposed to the meaning of the past tense possibly in the same person. => Such general abstract meanings are called grammatical. The forms that express them are grammatical forms (they are exponents of grammatical meaning). GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY (GC) There is no uniform opinion as to how this notion should be universally described, because it is hard to say what units of L represent exponents of grammatical categories. Characteristics of GC: 1.The notion of GC applies to the plane of content ( ) of morphological paradigmatic units. (= , ) 2.The general notion for any GC is grammatical meaning. 3.GCs do not nominate things but express relations. For example: the category of number is studied in terms of singular forms as opposed to plural forms: Sg = oneness vs PI = more than oneness 4.GCs of a L represent universal categories of human thinking. 5.GCs are not uniform. They differ in accordance with the part of speech and the possible meanings. 6.Any GC is a unity of form and meaning. 2. Grammatical structure of the language. Grammatical meaning and grammatical form. Grammatical category. We use the term Grammar : 1. To denote the structure of L. 2.To denote the science of the structure of L. 1. Gr is part of L which exists independently in Lgs. All Ls have grammar. All L- users possess the knowledge of Gr. 2. Gr is part of the linguistic theory. Exists only for those Ls which have been theoretically investigated and described. Most native speakers lack knowledge of Gr as academic subject. Traditionally, Gr has been subdivided into morphology (Ms, W Fs, Ws, Ps S) and syntax (W comb-s, sent-s, texts). Phonology and semantics are included by foreign linguists. There exist several ways of looking upon language which is connected with different types of schools: 1) Formal (deals with structure) 2) Semantic (deals with meaning) 3) Formal+Semantic approach (considers both structure and meaning) 4) Functional approach (there are 2 possibilities: form=> function; function=>form) The grammatical structure Words are arranged into utterances base on sentences. There are different means of building sentences. 4 means that form the gr-l structure of the sentence: 1) W change (I see-saw-seen (tense), read-reads (person)) 2) W order (The dog beat the man The man beat the dog (changes Mg)) 3) Function Ws ( ) auxiliary Ws, prep, art, etc. (He lives in / outside London) 4) Intonation (You are students? ) The system of all these 4 means signaling relations between Ws in a S forms the gr-l structure of a L. Sometimes all the 4 means are employed. In Russian intonation, word order. Gr-l meanings and gr-l forms. Every W in a S has a certain lexical Mg, Many Ws when used in a S possess a more general, more abstract Mg, The abstract meaning is extracted from the lexical Mg. (book-books, dog-dogs, boy-boys; sees saw, sends sent, works- worked) Such abstract Mgs that can be analyzed using the opposition are called Gr-l Mgs. W forms which can be characterized by having a Gr-l Mg are called Gr-l forms. The notion of gr-l category is widely discussed in classical and modern grammars and appears one of the most complicated problems. There is no uniform opinion as to what units of L can represent a Gr-l category. Productive opinion in modern gr-l theories. Its main advantage is that it takes into consideration both form and Mg of a grammatical unit in their interrelation. Thus, it registers both sintagmatic and paradigmatic relations of linguistic units. The basic ideas of g.c.: 1) The notion of gr-l category applies to the plan of content of morphological paradigmatic units. 2) The general notion. One form has a marker, the other doesnt. G.c. includes both form and meaning, but the grammatical meaning is considered to be the basic item for discussion. 3) Gr-l categories dont nominate objects. They express relations, thats why gr-l categories are studied in terms of opposition. 4) Gr-l categories are not universal. Every language has particular g.c-s. Existance of g.c-s reflects universals of human thinking. 3. Means of form-building. Synthetic and analytical forms. 1. Suffixatlon s we employ it to create: a) plural of Ns (dog-dogs) b) genitive of Ns (John - John's) c) 3 rd pers sg in Vs d) the absolute form of [s][z ][lz] possessive proNs (hers)

-ed [d][t][id]

a) the past tense of regular Vs b) past participle

- ing -er -est -en -ren -ne -m

the present participle and the qerund comparative degree of adjectives superlative degree of adjectives a) only in 'oxen' b) sometimes - past participle of irregular Vs (spoken) Children Mine in the objective case of personal proNs 'he'&'they' (him, them)

1-5: productive suffixes, the rest: non-productive, their use is confined to 1-2 Ws Their general characteristics: 1)small number of inflectional suffixes, high frequency of use 2)broad application 3)many homonymous suffixes 4)many English W-forms are characterized by absence of any suffix (this is considered significant by some gr-rians, eg : no special mph in the sg but meaning of 1ness is nevertheless present - the zero mph. To create a pl form we employ suffixes, so the gram meaning of pl-ty is expressed by this mph) 2. Morpho-phonemic alteration (MphA) A meaningful change of vowel or consonants within a mph. MphA occurs within a root of a W. Used to express a certain gr meaning. Foot - feet, take - took Not productive in modern English - majority of new Ws tend to employ suffixation. 3. Supplition (Sp) The extreme case of MphA. The phonetic root of the W changes completely. Not productive, limited to the Ws: Be - was/were - been Go - went - gone Good - better - best Bad - worse - worst I - me We - us She - her All the means of W-building are synthetic by nature, they show relations btw Ws by the change of the W itself. A W-form can be analytical by str-re (consists of more than 1 W: is going). Equivalent to 1 W, expresses one unified content of a W (from the point of view of both gr and lex meaning). Distinctive sign of an analytical form is discontinuous mph Eg: perfect forms (have+ -ed), Continuous (be+ -ing), Passive (be+ -ed) 3.Means of form-building. Synthetic and analytical forms. Form-building morpheme is always a member of opposition [s (pl) 0 (sg)]. The definition of morpheme is hard to produce. Bloomfield: defined morpheme as a minimum miningful unit. But this definition is defective as ir doesnt specify the kind of meaning we are discussing. Greasen: morpheme is a minimal unit in the plain of expression which relates to some unit in the plain of content. But morphemes in Eng are mostly lexical. In moderm grammar the following definition has become popular: A form-building morpheme is an element of the word which signals the presence of grammatical meaning attached to the word by the presence of this morpheme. The morpheme has a relational grammatical meaning. Form-building morpheme is always a member of opposition [s (pl) 0 (sg)]. A morpheme has an exponent of a grammatical category. A word form may be equivalent to a word (see, saw) or it may take up more than a word (has been doing). A word form is an isolated unit of grammar, since it carries some grammar information. The lexical meaning becomes irrelevant when we want to define its status. !!! . I. Suffixation. The number of inflectional suffixes in modern English is very small. They are as follows: 1)-s (s/z/iz) 1. plural forms of countable nouns boys. 2.the genitive case in animate nouns girls. 3.the absolute form of possessive pronouns ours, hers. 4.the 3d person Sg Pr tense the Ind Mood says 2)-ed (t/d/ed) 1.the past indefiniteof the regular verbs in the Ind Mood cried. 2.Past Participle of regular verbs 3)-ing - 1.continuous aspect 2.gerund 4)-er , - est - the comparative and the superlative degrees of adjectives and adverbs. 5)-en -1.plural form: ox-oxen. 2.Past Participle of irregular verbs - taken 6)-ren - child children 7)-ne - absolute form of the pronoun my mine 8)-m - the objective case of personal pronouns he and they him and them Suffixes 1-5 - are productive ( frequently used). The rest non-productive (confined to 1 or 2 Ws). Inflectional suffixes in modern E are characterized: 1) The number of form-building suffixes in Eng is small, but the frequency of the use is high. 2) Their application is broad. 3) There are characterrised by homonymy. 4) Many Eng word forms are characterized by the absence of inflectional suffixes. However this fact is considered significant by many grammarians. There is a special term zero-morph. Barkhudarov analysed the use of suffixes when he built up the Pl f and he compared the presence of the suffix to the absence of the suffix in the Sg f. In the Sg f there is no special suffix, but the Mg of oneness is nevertheless expressed in the W. Thus he calls the meaningful absence of the M a zero morpheme. Theres an opposite opinion as well. Many modern grammarians consider the absence of morphemes a universal phenomenon in modern E thats why it isnt necessary to single out a special zero morpheme. II.Morpho-phonetic (other scientists morphophonemic) alteration - a foot feet; take took. It is a meaningful change of vowels or consonants within a morpheme. This alteration takes place within the root of a W. This means is non-productive. Its called so because its used to express a certain gr-l Mg of a W. III.Suppletion. Its the extreme case of morpho-phonemic alteration. It completely changes the phonetic form of the root. Non-productive and is limited to a few words: to be was; to go went; good better; bad worse; I me; we us; she - her. Synthetic forms(affixation, suppletion, morphophonetic alteration). Analytical forms. 4. Principles of classification of words into parts of speech. Functional and notional parts of speech. The problems of parts of speech (interjection, statives, pronouns)

Parts of speech are lexical-grammatical word classes characterized by a general abstract grammatical meaning expressed in certain grammatical markers. It means that within certain classes of words certain grammatical features are common to all words of the class. Functionally all parts of speech fall into two large groups: notional words and functional (form) words. 1. Notional. There are 6 notional parts of speech, 4 are the main ones: noun, verb, adjective, adverb. They cover 93% of the English lexicon. They fill all the main positions in the sentence. These words are very often called autonomous, autosemantic, content words - means they possess an independent notional meaning. Plus usually grammarians refer pronouns and numerals to notional ps of sp. Notional words are characterized by a clear-cut lexical meaning plus they also have a distinct gr meaning. They can perform various syntactic functions. 2.Functional. Other parts of sp serve as connectors between the main ones. They are often called syn-semantic, syntagmatic words. These dependent words are prepositions and conjunctions. Prepositions act within one clause, conjunctions may connect words, clauses, separate sentences. So function words express relations but they never denote objects and notions. However, the relations they denote are not purely formal, because each preposition and conjunction has a definite lexical meaning. - Their use is sometimes obligatory: depend on. - They are never used alone in the sentence (without notional words). Sentences containing only notional words are possible: Mary came home late last night. - The number of FWs is limited (150). They occur quite frequently. The interjection clearly falls out of the system. Semantically they express emotions, the attitude of the speaker to the special situation. They are unpredictable and difficult to define. Functionally it's difficult to distinguish them from Ws and WCs. Interjections are imitation of sounds, of nature, reflections of surprise, indignation. Sometimes interjections draw from notional words: well, my. The number of these elements is limited. Grammarians suggest terming them as emotional elements, discourse particles, without specifying which part of speech they belong to. In general now there is a tendency to enlarge the traditional number of parts of speech by including some new items, for example: Words of the category of state: alive, ajar, asleep. These words are similar to adjectives which can express states and function as predicatives. Grammarians say that this is a subclass of adjectives limited to the predicative function. Pronouns - are they a different part of speech? NO: - Sweet, Sherba classical school but - Jesperson: can't be applied to all WCs YES: Are they notional of functional? Notional: classical school, functional: present day.Barhudarov: structural Ws. Principles of classification. The modern classification is traced back to ancient Greece. Though criticized, it's natural and easy to remember. Principles: 1.Semantic. Has been criticized a lot. Jesperson: Traditional grammar says that by means of the verb something is said about sth/sb. But! "You 're a scoundret" - it's the words scoundrel that says sth about sb. Using this principle we should treat this word as a verb! Nouns denote things, objects. Verbs - action, state Adjectives- qualities, properties But! Words as 'action', 'flight' denote actions. Whiteness denotes quality. So this principle alone is not reliable. 2. Formal approach. The form of a word. In this case the noun should be defined as a word which has a plural -s or in the possessive case 's. But then the invariable parts of sp should be classed together in a strange group: must, for, sheep. One of the famous classifications was worked out within this approach (H. Sweet). He was the 1st grammarian who represented the facts of English beyond the framework of Latin grammar. 1) Declinable: - noun-words: infinitives& gerunds, noun numerals, nouns proper, noun pronouns adjective-words: adjectives proper, adjective pronouns, adjective numerals, participles - verbs: verbs proper, verbals. 2) Indeclinable: adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections. The principles of Sweet's classification are not unified. This happened because Sweet worked under the strong influence of the rules of classical grammar. He starts from form, taking into consideration the ability of words to have inflexions. That's the origin of his division, but it's easy to notice that adverbs and numerals are indeclinable and pronouns have few formal exponents. So Sweet declares his own basic principle. Russian Soviet Linguistic School. Originally the classification developed by this school aimed at describing the Russian language. But it turned out that the principles of this classification appeared universal - can be applied to all European languages. 1.Semantic. The general meaning of a part of speech doesn't coincide with individual lexical and grammatical meanings of words which belong to it but the general meaning is closely connected with these meanings. The general meaning of a part of speech is called lexical-grammatical. # The general meaning of a noun is that of substantivity. Verbs denote actions or states and taken together denote processes. 2. Morphological a)Morphological categories. Each part of speech possesses some morphological categories which are not to be found in any other part of speech. # Nouns have number and case. Verb is characterized by several grammatical categories. This principle can be applied to the parts of speech which have certain grammatical categories and which have special form-building means of expressing such categories. b) Word-building affixes. Certain word-building affixes are typical of this or that part of speech only. # Nouns: -dom-, -ness, -ion. But! Only few English words contain derivational affixes which help to list them as this or that aprt of speech. Most word-building affixes in modern English are ambiguous. They can be found in several parts of speech at a time. # ly -friendly - adj, daily - noun, kindly - adverb, etc 3.Syntactic. a) We are to consider the syntactic role of a word in a sentence. Different functions of a sentence are typical of different parts of speech. b) The combinability of words. # Nouns can combine with articles, prepositions, adjectives. 4. Functional A part of speech is described as a lexical-grammatical field which has a core and a periphery. 4. Princpls of the part of speech classsification. Notional & funct-l Ws. proN, interject, statives. POS lexico-grammatical word classes which are characterized by a general abstract lexical meaning as well as general abstract grammatical meaning expressed by certain grammatical markers. Within one and the same class there are certain grammatical features common to all the words of this class. POS present a mixed lex-l & Gr-l phenomena (words of one part of speech have the same grammatical features). Principles of classification are very unspecified.

Different amounts of words represent this or that part of speech. The greatest amount nouns and verbs because in speech they become the subject and predicate, and the structure of a sentence represents the peculiarity of human thinking. The noun is subjected to inflections ( ; , ). The verb is subjected to conjugation (). In the sentence they seem to be opposed. The subject represents the known information; the verb introduses new information. Functionally, all parts of speech fall onto two groups: Notional (6) and Structural (Functional). Notional parts of speech: 4 main: Noun, verb, adj, adv 93 % of the Eng vocabulary. They possess an independentvnotional meaning of their own. +numarals, pronouns. Structural (Functional) parts of speech: Connections between the main ones. Syntagmatic. They dont have their own sense. They perform the function of linkage. Prepositions (act within one clause), conjunctions (unite words, clauses, separate sentences). Express relations but never denote objects or notions. Dividing parts of speech into notional and functional, we can say that notional words are characterized by distinct, clear cut lexical meaning. They can perform different syntactic functions in sentences. Functional words have a less distinct lexical meaning, they dont perform any syntactic functions.They only help express relations. Their use is someties obligatory. Functional words are not used in sentences independently. The number of functional words in sentences is highly limited (150). The ninths part of speech is injection. The injection falls out of the system of parts of speech. It represents a peculiar phenomenon because: 1) injections express emotions 2) the form of injections is unpredictable 3) some of injections are similar to word combinations (My God!) 4) phonetically, they are sounds of surprise etc. Some of them are pause-fillers 5) many injections draw from notional words which usually accuire a different meaning in the emotive function (well used to be a n adv.; my a pronoun). 6) some injections are absolutely indistinct. There are some debatable questions: 1) words of category of state (awake, ajar) Semantically they express state, but some grammatitians argue that they should be grouped separately. Adj-s always express state. 2) some grammatitians suggest that we should treat modal words as a separate part of speech (certainly, possibly). In fact, they appear to be functionally and structurally close to adverbs; though they have certain peculiar positional characteristis. 3) particles (only, merely). By nature, they seem to be modifiers. If we analize their use in actual speech, we will see that they are a subclass of limiting adv-s. 4) articles (. ) Princilpes of classification of words into parts of speech remain unspecified. Many grammatitians try to present the system of parts of speech in which they tried not to imitate the Greek classification. These attempts were productive with languages which were different from Greek. These attempts can be distributed among known approaches of language description. I. Semantic approach The noun denotes objects. The verb denotes actions. It is not satisfactory. Jespreson: traditional grammar says that by means of the verb some thing is said about sth or sb but :(You are a scounderl) it is the noun scoundrel that says sth about sb. scounderl verb. The noun denotes object. Functional criterion. Some grammatitians believe that the only criterion is functional. So words can only be devided into parts of speech depending on their ability to take inflections. Noun the word that takes the plural inflection -s, the inflaction s in the genitive case. Among words we will have to classify different invariable parts of speech (than, for, etc). One classification was worked out within this approach. H.Sweet worked out a classification in which he tried to stick to the form of words. Besides, he tried to break from the traditions of classical grammar. He claimed that he represented the facts the way they really existed. Declinable and indeclinable words. Declinable words: () 1) nouns n-pronouns, n-numerals, infinitives; gerunds, noun proper. 2) adjectives adj-proper, adj-pronouns, adj-numerals; participles 3) verbs finite forms; verbals. Indeclinable words() Adv., prepositions, conjunctions, interjections. The principles were inconsistent. He started from form (the ability of a word to take inflection). But adj and numerals are indeclinable. Pronouns have few formal exponents. So he violates his basic principles here. He made an attempt to show the double nature of verbals. By him, verbals get into different groups depending on their syntactic features. With numerals and pronouns, he also considered their positions in word-combinations. So words get into different morphological clases depending on their combinability. His classification presents a mixture of formal and meaningful features. It is hardly possible to creat an idea of an independent word classification II. Form, meaning, function This idea found its way into grammar through a famous Danish grammatitian Otto Jespreson. It is necessary to study the morphological characteristics of words as well as their syntactic position (abilities). He produced the third rank theory. It was based on mutual relations of words in sentences. When he illustrated his theory, he used the following patterns: 1) an extremely hot weather 2) a furiously barking dog Describing relations between the words that: weather, dog should be called primary word hot, barking secondary word extremely, furiously tertiary word. He considered the morphological features of Eng words under the general title of syntax. But this theory was new at that time, and it was widely employed by the scholars of his school. This theory doesnt cover the relations of all the main word classes. This theory left out the most important part of speech the verb. His idea that words should be used in sentences was so popular, that some grammatitians tried to work out a p.of sp. classification based on syntactic criterion only representatives of American school of describing linguists (Charles Freeze).

To classify words it is not enough to rely on the description of elements in the sintagmatic chain. Meaning is to be taken into consideration. But his understanding of meaning is not traditional. Structural meaning ~The man gave the boy the money. It conveys the following information: who preformed a certain action. How many men were involved in the action. The time of the action. See whether the situation is presented as a fact or as sth desirable. Sth state, required, desired. All this information (mostly grammatical) doesnt coincide with the lexical information; it makes the structural meaning of the sentence. He states that no sentence can be acceptable if it lacks either structural or lexical meaning. Then he claims that grammar is a system of devices that signals structural meanings. Formal devices that can be given to different word-groups. His starting point is purely formal. He aims at analyzing formal exponent of grammar. He takes into account ordering of elements in syntagmatic chains. He declared that a part of speech is a functional pattern. To illustrate the patterns he introduced the minimal free utterance test frames. a) the concert was good (always) b) the clerk remembered the tax (suddenly) c) the team went there. Each word within the frames represents a particular slot (, ). All words that could fill the same slot as with no change of structural slot as with no change of structural meaning class I words. In frames b) and c) Class I words are identified by means of substitution. Clerk names of presons. He also introduced a so-called adjective frame for the plural form of the noun. ~The concerts were good. The idea of substantivation was further applied to the other word in the frames and thus he signaled out class II words (remembered). Went + class III words there Good + class IV words always. He never provided any differences. He simply enumerated words belonging to this and that class. He never included other words in his frames. Instead of describing these words, he introduced the term function words, and grouped them into 15 groups, and ascribed the leters to them. Group A (= marker of class I words) included determiners which can have the position of the definite article in frame a) (no, both, few, Johns, most, one). Viewed traditionally, determiners are represented by pronouns, adj, numerals, nouns in the possessive case. Group B (= markers of class II words) is formed by the substitutes in the adjusted frame. ~The concert may be good. (must, should, come, got). Group C (not) Group D comprises words we can use instead of very. ~The concert was very good. His grouping of functional words appeared as a result of using the semantic principle. Freeze claims that functional words must be learnt separately as peculiar signs that signal particular structure means. Among finctional words there are modal verbs, auxiliary words, modal verbs are treated as separate words viewed apart from class words. He also grouped modal verbs and auxiliary verbs in groups. If it is so, we cannot divide verb forms into synthetic, analytical. Synthetic and analytical forms show different grammatical categiries (tense synthetic; aspect - analytical). Freezes classification is inconsistent. It is claimed to be fomal but in many cases he relies on meaning. His classification is based on 2 principles: 1) He analyses functioning of words of the 4 major classes. He studies their meaning including them into functional words. 2) His classification never explains the grammatical difference between classes of forms, functional groups, notional goups. The grammatical school of Russian Soviet linguists has made a serious input in the problem of p.of sp. classification. All the known principles have been taken into consideration, and put in a reliable system. To divide words into p-s of sp., 3 ideas are to be applied to a word: 1) semantically, lexico-grammatical meaning of a word is to be considered. Taking into accout that the lexico-grammatical meanings are different but are closely connected. Thus words known as nouns show signs of substantivity. Verbs denote actions and state which are different aspects of the process. 2) The morphological principle is described as the aspect of the formal view of grammatical phemonena. It has 2 sub-principles: a) describing a word, we are to consider its morphological categories. Each p.of sp. possesses certain morphological categories which are not found in other p.pf sp. This principle is applied to words that have certain form-building means to signal the presence of categories (changeable words). b) word-building affixes. There are affixes typical of this or that p.of sp. Of the 2 sub-principles, the first is more important because most word-building affixes are ambiguous (). (friendly, homely, kindly, safely, possibly, merely) 3) Syntactic principle. a) we rely on the syntactic role of a word in a sentence b) we consider the syntactic description of words in phrases, sentences. Semantic principle: each class (the N, V, Adj) has a unified abstr m-ng): N denote substances, V process, act; Adv properties of act; Adj prop-s of substances, qualities. Though POS posess Gr m-ng and material shape in language they form an independent system and may contact in speech. Many parts of speech have their own special sets of morphological categories and form-building morphemes that signal those categories (grammatical paradigme). 5. The status of the Article in language str-re. The number of Articles. The meanings and functions. The status The ground is that the Article isn't inflected (e/g in German Article is a word).Some Grammarians speak of the morphemic character of the Eng Article. By them, the Article is a structural element building morphemes. The article can change its position in reference to a Noun (e/g a dog; a black dog; a lovely black dog) The A can be substituted by other Ws (the dog = this/ my dog) => such features aren't characteristic of the morphemes. Most linguists say that Article is a separate word. Several points of view: Place Article among other Ps of speech: 1. Classical Eng Grammar - Article = adj or more often a pronoun. It reminds of a pronoun b/c "the" has originated from the Old Eng. Pronoun "se" 2. The grammarian Kruisinga include indef A - indefinite pronoun, definite - demonstrative pronoun 3. Jesperson & Sweet Article = pronoun 4. Curme A = pronominal attribute 5. Structural Gr Article = function W (determiners) 6. Soviet Linguists A= functional P of Sp The number of Articles The older Grammatical Tradition spoke about 2 As. BUT: e.g Language is a means of communication, we use the term ZERO ARTICLE. The idea of a zero article originates from the notion "zero morpheme". Modem Eng = 3 Articles ( , )

The notion of a zero morpheme has been applied to the Article on the grounds that, when there's no Ab4 a noun- reminds of the absence of inflexion in such forms as cat-cats. This point of view is opposed by some Grammarians. They argue that we can speak about a zero Art if we treat the A as a morpheme. Meaningful absence of the Article - significant meaningful absence of the article. But the omition of the A but this term describes a different phenomenon typical of newspapers, acts, etc. (winner gets prize) Functions of the Article Whether the Article has meanings or functions? Barhudarov => The M of the A is highly abstract, it's more proper to speak about functions. Different spheres of Grammar - different functions Morphologically - to serve as the formal indicator of a Noun. : to indicate substantivity. The presence of the A signals that what follows is a noun or what has acquired some nominal characteristics. (e/g black - a black ( 1 ), the black () From the syntactic point of view - a) to separate the noun phrase from other members of the sentence. What stands btw the A and the noun is one and the same member of the sentence( e/g I bought a think English book) b) to connect different Sentences e/g We saw a man. The man was approaching us. Semantic role consists in relating a given utterance to a given speech situation. (=actualization). Ws denote many things, they have different meanings but when speaking, people choose one aspect of the thing. * Barmina, Verkhovskaya "The Eng Article": A has category of definiiteness / indefmiteness A = the determiner of the N or a noun-phrase. Determiners= formal means of expressing this category. This category presents the object as known/unknown, general/individual, identifiable/ non-identifiable. In Eng article is the main means of expressing this category, besides possessive, demonstrative, indefinite pronouns, Ws denoting place,. numerals and some others. 5. The art (A), of A, def & indef A. The noun is usually preceded by the A. Problems: ~the number of As; ~the status of the A; ~meanings/functions The status of the A in modern Eng. 2 aspect of the question: 1) Is the A a morpheme or is it a separate word? If we compare Eng to Germanin German the A is a word, it has different forms, each form will find reflection of the categories of gender, number and case. Every form of the A in German contains the root morpheme and the inflexion morpheme. Some grammarians mentioned morphemic character of the Eng A. They term the Eng A a structural element of the noun. They say that the indefinite A with the noun cat signals singularity (as the morpheme s[cats] signals pluraliry). The A can change its position in reference to the noun (a cat, a blafck cat, a lovely black cat). A-s can be substituted by other words (the catthis cat, my cat). Such features are not characteristic of morphemes most Eng grammarians treat the A as a separate word. 2) If the A is a separate word, is it a separate p.of sp. or is it not such? If not, the A is to be described among other p-s of sp. Class-cal Eng grammars treat the A is an Adj; or more often as a pronoun. The idea that the A is sort of a pronoun originates from the fact that in Old Eng, the As were derived from pronouns. This is true only of the (sethe). includes a among the indefinite pronouns and the among the demonstrative pronouns. Jesperson and Sweet also treat As as pronouns. Kerm a pronominal attribute. Representatives of structural grammar (Freeze) treated the A among the structural words called the determiners. Russian linguists treated the A as a functional p.of sp. because different A-s have specific meanings and functions. The number of Eng A-s The older grammatical tradition spoke of 2 A-s(the, a). But practical use of language showa that in speech nouns can be used in 3 different ways: ~(1)Language is a means of communication. ~(2)Everone ahould learn a foreign language. ~(3)She speaks English. Do you know the langage? In the 3 cases the word language has different meanings: (1) the zero A. This term was introduced by and . the, a, 0. The idea of the zero article originates from the notion of the zero morpheme. Sometimes the absence of the grammatical marker is meaningful, and it doesnt necessarily happen in the analytical language (, no case marker). We can speak about zero A-s if we accept the point of view that an A is a morpheme. argues that we cant stick to this term for its essentially incorrect. We can prove it easily that an A is a word, and no word can be a zero. He proposes to interprete the phenomenon of the absence of the A as meaningful, and he introduces another terminological interpretation significant meaningful absence of the article. He also notes that such cases are very different from the cases when the A is omitted. Omition of the A is a stylistic phenomenon found in newspapers, telegrams, advertisments, printing. Functions of the article The number of meanings and functions ascribed to the Eng A is great. Its next to impossible to enumerate all the existing points of view. We mention only those that are widely accepted both in Rissian and foreign linguistics. Conserning the meanngs of the A, we can say that it is abstract and hard to define. : the best term to describe it as identification. We identify whether the object is presented as definite or indefinite. We can also consider meanings of the A form the point of view of morphology, syntacs, semantics: 1) morphologically, A-s serve as formal indicators of nouns;as puts it, A-s indicate substantivity. The presense of an A shows that the W that follows it is a N or it accuires features of a noun ( black Adj, but a black = nigger). In some lang-s the motphological role of the A is to show the gender, number; German gender, number, case 2) Syntactically, the role of the A is to separate a N phrase from other members of the sentence. What stands between an A and a noun is one and the same member of the sentence. ~A book ~I bought a thick black book. ~I bought a thick book. ~I shall never forget the one fourth serious and three fourth comical astonishment. The syntactic role of the A is also manifested in its use as a connecting element between 2 or more sentences. ~We saw a man. The man was approaching us. 3) Semantically, the role of the A is to relate a given utterance to a given speech situation. This approach is called actuialisation. Words are signs of language. And potentially, they can denote a variety of things. When speaking, people consentrate on the meaning or one aspect of the notion described by the chosen noun. Thus the object we speak about can be represented as an abstract notion (Language is a means of communication), as an object belonging to a class of similar objects (Everyone should learn a foreign language), we can also treat the object in particular(3). Actualisation is achieved by using proper A-s, though some other means are employed. The A-s or their absence have particular meanings. The main ones are as follows:

The :1) the individualizing, or particularizing meaning. We present a noun as individual, besides the use of the definite A, there exist other means of individualization. ~The use of limiting attributes ~Previous mention of the object ~The uniqueness of the object ~and some others 2) the generic meaning The object is described as having the common features of the qhole class. Thus this noun stands for all the genus. ~The rose is the queen of the flowers. A: 1) the nominating function ~A gerl enters the room 2) the classifying function ~She is a student. The object is presented as belonging to the whole class, as one of many. The noun accompanied by a iin the classifying function is used predicatively. 3) the generic function ~A cow is a domestic animal. The object represents the whole class because it is like any othe object within the class. 4) the uneric function It can be substituted by the numeral one. ~a thousand=one thousand 0: 1) the nominating function What is presented by the object is viewed in its widest sense as a notion (. . /) (indefine definite reference look seminar 8 supplementary 1). 6 General characteristics of the noun as a part of speech. The problem of gender. Means of expressing gender. Noun is regarded as a part of speech by all grammarians. It is distinct semantically, morphologically and syntactically. 1.The noun denotes substance 2.It is characterized by the categories of number and case. 3.It performs the function of the Subject Object Attribute Adverbial modifier Predicative Combinability of noun can be modified by adjectives, nouns, articles and other. Nouns can be either preceded of followed by prepositions or other nouns. The category of gender in English disappeared completely by the end of Middleenglish period. So only lexical and derivational means are used to express gender: E.g. boy - girl lion - lioness he-goat - she-goat Cock - hen waiter - waitress Bull-cow And the same tendency can be seen in some Indo-European languages E.g. - Lehrer-Lehrerin B, Strang, the author of the book "Modern English Structure", and some other grammarians consider that the category of gender exists in English as a noun can be substituted by a pronoun that can express gender: he, she it. But this point of view is considered to be wrong as in this case we speak of the substitution of a noun by another part of speech and thus we transfer the feature of another part of speech to the noun which doesn't have this feature. And even in this case the meaning of gender of the pronoun is purely lexical but not grammatical. 6.General characteristics of the noun as a part of speech. The problem of gender. Means of expressing gender. The N as part of speech is recognized by all libguists. A notional POS. Semantically, n-s have the m-ng of substance (express substantivity), names of objects. Morphologically, the n has 2 grammatical categories: & case(common & genitive); possesses typical word-building suffixes (friendship, freedom,, whiteness) Syntactically, Funct-ns: a) comb-ng with Ws to form phrases, with preceding & follow. Adj ( large room; times immemorial), with a preceding N in common & g-ve case ( iron bar; boys map), with Vs (play games), Adv (the man there; the then president ), prep (in a house, house of rest), is preceded by art (the/a map). In a sent can be the subj or the pred-ve or an obj, an attr & adv. modif. It can also make part of each of thesePOS preceded by a prep. Right-hand combinability: infinitives, a finite verb form (a n and a finite verb form build a clause when taken together). Gender (G). In En is not richly developed, some say it doesnt exist. It is defined in terms of the proN substitute he, she, it, which may be used in its place. G involves not only substit-n but also concord. G a set of syntactic subclasses of Ns controlling concordance. G is based on 2 oppos-ns: 1 functions in the whole set of Ns, dividingem into person/non-pers Ns; 2nd in the subdivision of pers Ns- masc & feminine Ns. 3 G-s: the neuter (nonpers), the masc ( man, boy), femin ( woman, bride). Person Ns-boy , non-pers tree, love, cat, crowd). Pers Ns can have common G (person, friend, doctor). En Ns can show sex of the referent either by means of being combined with certain notional Ws used as sex-indicators or by suffixal deriv-n ( boy-fr, washer-man; he-bear, she-bear, actor, actress). 7. The category of number of nouns. The meaning of the singular and the plural number in Modern English. The category of number is represented by the opposition of 2 forms: Sq vs PI. They show whether the noun denotes one object or more. Formally the category of number is expressed by the opposition of 2 morphemes: 1) The morpheme of singularity = the zero morpheme 2) The morpheme of plurality => there are variants: a) productive morphemes: the phonologically conditioned allomorphs b) non-productive: oxen, children THE MEANING OF Sg AND PI

The meaning of the category of number is often described as "oneness or more than oneness". BUT: Grammarians agree that the grammatical meaning of a plural form is more than oneness: boys, boys, boys. But a singular form doesn't always denote oneness: Silence fell. He doesn 't like tea. The telephone was invented by me. -> Though the nouns are used in the Sg they don't denote one object. They denote abstract notions/ materials which cannot be counted (= uncountable). => It is more logical to say that the gr. meaning of a noun in the Sg is not oneness, but it is opposite to plurality. => suggested the term "non-plurality". Good for him. So the meaning of non-plurality includes the following meanings: 1.oneness proper a boy, a man, a club 2.uncountability love, sex, profit 3.generalization The lion roars and eats lazy girls. => The meaning of the unmarked form in the category of number (Sg) is very broad and less definite than the meaning of the marked form (Pl). 7.The category of number of nouns. The meaning of the singular and the plural number in Modern English. The cat of is presented by the opposition sing (grammatically unmarked) & pl (grammatically marked by the morphemes of plurality). The 2 opposed forms denote whether the n denotes one object or more than 1 object. The forms show whether we deal with the grammatical meaning of oneness or more than oneness.Formally, the category of number is expressed by 2 morphemes: 1) the zero morpheme (=the morpheme of singularity) 2) the morpheme of plurality is represented by a number of variants. The preoductive allomorph here is the morpheme -s in its variants:[s], [z], [iz] and the non-productive morphemes -en (oxen) and some other variants. Regular formation of PL: base+-s [s], [z], [iz] ( boy-s). irregular.form-n: -en (oxen); zero (deer, fish); alternates of the base (man-men); phonemic alteration of the bs (wife-wives); borrowd alteratons: a/ae, on/a. !!the variant [z] of the morpheme -s has the highest frequency of occurrence, as it is found after all phonemes except sibilants ( ) and voiceless consonants. The meaning of the category of number. In many grammars it is defined as oneness more than oneness. However, not all grammarians find the definition convincive. The meaning of the plural form is more than oneness. But a singular form not always denote one object. ~Silence fell in the room. ~He doesnt like tea. ~The phone was invented by Alexander Bel. The nouns are used in the sg., but they dont have the m-ng of 1ness, as they dont convey the idea of 1 object. They denote abstract notions that cant be counted. Thus they essentially are uncountable. m-ng opposite to pl-ty non-pl-ty (). : non-plurality as a categorical meaning includes several meanings: 1) oneness proper (I saw this film. Give me a pen.) 2) uncountability (see: silence, tea, telephone.) 3) generalization (the lion lives in Africa.) The m-ng of the unmarked Sg form of the opp-n which represents the cat of is broader and less definite than the meaning of the marked form. By , it is to be defined in negative terms as opposite to the m-ng of the markd form. There are some Ns standing apart from the point of view of the category of , they have 1 f: sg/pl Ns of the Tantum group. The singularia tantum nouns ( info, advice, hair), pl(clothes, scisors). Such nouns denote notions which are outside the meaning of the c. of . They dont convey any idea of number as they cannot reflect any relations of objective reality.The reference of different Ns to either group is oppotional. In various languages their equivalents can get into the opposite tantum group ( outskirts , advice). The reason for the existence of Tantum groups is one of the characteristic features of a language. The idea is that within a grammatical category, any noun must have number and have a morpheme of number. Thus, even those nouns whose meaning contradicts the idea of countability is referred to one of the form classes within the category. even if their m-ng contradicts the idea/m-ng of countability. 8. The category of case of nouns (Ns). The meanings of the common and the genitive case. Different points of view on the number of cases in Modern English. Case = the form of a N which shows the relations of this N to other Ws in a sentence. Case helps to define the syntactic function of a W in a sentence. In English case is a morphological category, for it is represented by 2 different forms of a noun: 2 cases. 1) the common case (the form is unmarked) 2) the possessive case (genitive) (marked by s. In speech - phonologicaliy conditioned aliomorphs) In plural nouns the case morpheme & the morpheme of number often coincide. The presence of the genitive case is shown by only (boys'). Common case (CC): the meaning is broad, shows that this or that N is not genitive; can be used in any syntactic f-n in a sentence. Frequent use of Ns in CC (98% of ail Ns). Genitive case (GC): 1. Mainly applied to Ns denoting animate objects. BUT: often used with Ns denoting measure/space {a year's absence) 2. Ns in GC are mainly used as attributes to other Ns. Can be used as subject {John's is a nice car). NB Animate objects: can be called 'he/she' and referring to them we. can use 'who'. BUT: a car, a ship - can be replaced by 'he/she', but no 'who'. Ns which can be substituted only by 'it', BUT can form GC {the committee's report). The meaning of GC is difficult to define. Several types (transformational method): meaning Example Analysis 1. possessive genitive 2. subjective genitive 3. objective genitive John's car My friend's room the doctor's advice Mary's beauty John's surprise The man's release key-W - 'to have' (John has a car). Most frequent M = the doctor advised Mary is beautiful 1) John was surprised The man was released 2) sb surprised John sb released the man

4. adverbial genitive 5. equation genitive 6. genitive of destination

Two hours' work A month's absence A mile's distance An arm's length Children's books Ladies' dresses

Sb worked for 2 hours Sb was absent for a month Distance is a mile Length is an arm Books are for children Dresses are for ladies

Other meanings of GC are difficult to define and may be individual in each case {yesterday's paper, father's generation, Beethoven's symphony). The number of cases in modern English: 2or3? 3-case system: in Old English - a universal 3-case system for Ns and proNs (nominative: boy, he: genitive: boy's, his; objective: boy, him) BUT: the gr sys of English has changed a lot, if proNs retained their 3-case sys, not necessarily Ns have it. The form 'his' can hardly be considered to be a case form of a personal proN. Curm: case = a form of a N which shows its syntactic function in the S. Includes here certain relations which are shown by prepositions/context/position in the S. Various syntactic functions of a N. Uses old English: there syntactic functions were signalled by inflections, now theyve disappeared not clear why the position of a N should be regarded as its case form. Confuses morphological and syntactic factors as well as facts of modern and old English . . ; non-traditional point of view on the number of cases of N - the category of case doesn't exist; s - "a formant s" (). Reasons: 1.the use of `s is not obligatory/ can be substituted by an of-prase. In Russian inflections are obligatory, 2.the formant `s can be added to a limited number of Ns, mainly denoting living beings. In Russian all Ns have case inflections. 3.is not added to plural Ns ending in -s 4. `s can be added to Ns and some adverbs (yesterday's paper), but adverbs in English are indeclinable 5.`s can be used with 'group possessives' (Peter and Paul's father) All this makes `s different from real case inflections, reminds rather of a function W, very similar to preposition (expresses a certain type of gram relations) but placed after the W and not before = postposition (). : 1. `s is mainly added to nouns => a case inflection 2. in group genitives words are so closely connected that they can be treated as compound Ns 3. `s can hardly be called a word at all, because it consists of 1 consonant. It can be assimilated in speech. Assimilation is typical of morphemes. Analytical cases Regular use of certain prepositions to express case relations: To go to London To arrive in London To leave for London BUT there are no analytical cases: 1) case is a morphological category and prepositional phrases belong to the sphere of syntax 2) the amount of meanings expressed by prepositions and the meanings of cases do not coincide completely 3) combinations of nouns and various prepositions are too numerous to be interpreted as case forms, so the number of cases becomes practically unlimited. 8.The category of case of nouns. The meanings of the common and the genitive case. Different points of view on the number of cases in Modern English. C the form of a N which shows the rel-n of that N to other Ws in the s-ce, helps to define its syntactical funct-n in the s-ce. C morphology-l cat-ry as its represented by diff f-s of 1 & the same W. The terms for the Cs r: common(CC) & genitive (GC) opp-n betw them. The form of the GC is marked. The formal markers m-me s which has the corresponding phonological var. The form of the CC is unmarkd zero m-me. In pl form of the GC & the CC the of m-mes coincide (boys-boys) The m-ng of the CCs broad. It shows that the N is non-G. The use of the N in CCs very extensive. The use of the N in GCs restricted: 1) GCs mainly pos with N which denote animate obj. (we can substitute the W with 1 of the proN he, she, who man, girl, dog. Yet GCs used with Ns denoting measure & space (a years absence) 2) N in GC can only be used as attr to other N in the CC & they r alw placed in prep-n (B ills room)There r Ns which can be subst-d by such proN as he, she but not by who ( sheep, sun, car). We can use them in the GC but cant say theyr strictly animate. On the oth hand there r N which can be replaced by it & they have m-ng of animate ( the committees report, partys conference ). If we can analyze the means of the GC through transormat-l analysis. I) Possesive G (jacks car, the birds nest). These W-cob-s r transfermed into s-ce with the V to have (Jon has the car, The bird has a nest ). II) Subjective G. (the Drs advice, the husbands arrival// the Dr advised, the husband arrived ) III) Obj-ve G (Jons surprise, the mans release 1st stage: J was surprised; 2nd: Sb surprised J. IV) Adverbal G (a months absence The absences a month. Sb was absent 4 a month (how long). V) G of destination (ladies dresses (dresses 4 ladies) VI) G of authorship (Dickens book= by Dick) The of Cs in En. In OEn there was 1 sys of Cs for N & proN ( N: Nom boy, Gen boys, Obj boy. proN: Nom he, G his, Obj him). Those who object: 1) If personal proN have 3 Cs that doesnt mean N also have 3 Cs Poss-ve proN Adj proN: he, his, him r not f of one. He is a N proN & his - adj.proN. states that the criter of C doesnt exist cause by her s is not a C inflex-n but the formant s. 1) the use of the infl-n s is not obligatory, we can substitute its use by an of-phr (the mans ? the ? of the man ) 2) the infl s can be added to a limited of N, theyre to denote living beings ( the boys leg, but the leg of the table). It isnt added to the N in the pl, we have only the . 3) s can be add to N as well as to Adv ( yesterdays paper). In all European l-ges adj r indeclinabl. 4)s is used to form group poss-ve (the king of Englands daughter) C is not real, its a funct W similar to a prep &it performs the same funct-s of exrp-n gr rel-s in a s-ce but not placed in prep, it alw follows should be calle postposit-n. Analytical Cs. The notion of AC is connect with the regular use of some prep to expr C rel-ns. The prep of is very typ of GC, it expr the idea of posses-n. Many say AC not exist: 1) the amount of m-ng expr-ed by the prep & the m-ng of C infl-n do not complete by coincide 2) Comb-n of diff prep & Ns r too numerous to be interpreted as forms of cat of case the of Cs can become unlimited 3) C is a morphol-l cat-ry & comb-n of prep & Ns belong to the sphere of syntax. 9. The general characteristics of the verb as a part of speech. The categories of person and number Usually a verb is defined as a part of speech that denotes an action, In modern English the verb is the only part of speech which has a developed system of categories: - tense voice - mood

10

- aspect - number - person - phase It's the only part of speech that has analytical forms, plus it has some specific forms (verbals or non-fmites) which don't share all the features of this part of speech as a whole - the infinitive, the gerund, the participle. The verb combines with nouns, adverbs, prepositions in prepositional noun phrases. The categories of person and number are closely connected with each other. In the English language the categories of person and number are expressed very poorly ( ) In Modern English there are only a few forms indicating person and number in the synthetic forms of the verb: 1.In the present tense the expression of the category of person is divided into three peculiar subsystems: - the first subsystem includes modal verbs that have no personal inflexions: can, may, must, shall, will, ought, need, dare. So, in the formal sense, the category of person is left unexpressed. - The second subsystem is made up by the verb be. It has suppletive forms for different persons (singular and plural) I- am, was He - is, was They, you, we - are, were - The third subsystem presents the regular expression of person. The personal mark is confined here to the third person singular -(e)s [-z, -s, -iz], the other two persons (the first and the second) remain unmarked, e.g. comes come, blows blow, chooses choose 2. The Future Simple -1 shall They will ( ) The grammatical expression of number is hardly featured at all. We usually derive it from a personal pronoun. 9.General characteristics of the verb as a part of speech. The categories of person and number. POS expr process(action and state). V has synthetic and analit-l forms and special non-finite forms Morphol-ly V has several Gr categ-s(tense aspect voice phase mood number person) and non-f forms have categ-s of voice aspect and time correlation. the V is charact-ed by the of inflxnz. It has cert W-buil aff-s (-ize, -te, -en, -ify, re-, un-, mis-, dis-, out-, over-, under ). Syntact-ly the finite Vs can play func of predicate, the non-finite can perform all the poss func-s but not simp verbl predicate. V can also have a cert combinability (can be modified by adv, take direct/in~ obj, combine with N-phr, with proN ( I go to the country). V is a POS which has a developed mprpholog-l sys which comprises both synthetic & analit-l f-s. Cat of per & r in close conn-n (a m-me expr p also expr The cat of p: 1st person (represents the speaker or a group in which the sp-r makes a part),2 -d( the p spoken to),3 rd (the p whichs neith 1 nor 2). = the quantity of the subj-s (1,more than 1). 1,2,3rd p sg& pl (look above). BUT this sys isnt good for the Modern En V: 1) no distinction of p in the pl (live in pl can be of any p)2) no dist-n of s on the 1& 2nd p (live may refer both to 1 & to > than 1 subj) 3rd p sg lives, all the rest live. 1st item of the opp-ns marked both in m-ng (3 rd p sg) & in f (-s) & the 2 nd is unmarked both in m-ng (everyth exept 3 rd p sg) & in f (zero-inflxn). + -s-inflxn in Vs conveys 4 m-ngs 1) 3rd p sg, 2)sg 3)Pres T 4)indicative mood.// Some Vs dont fit this sys (can, may, shall, be). Can takes no s-inflxn doesnt have the cat of p & at all. Be has a sys of its own.. 10. The Category of Voice. The number of voices in Eng. Types of passive constructions. Reasons for the frequent occurrence of the Passive Voice. Voice is the category which characterizes the relations btw the doer of the action and the object of the action expressed by the form of the predicate verb 1. Sometimes the subject of the active construction can't be regarded as the doer of the action due to the lexical character : e/g He lost his father in the war. There's a disagreement btw the grammatical form of the predicate verb and the lex meaning. The meaning is passive. The subj of the sentence isn't the doer but the sufferer. Yet, such examples are treated among the active voice b/c of the form of the verb. 2. The verb in the Active Voice denotes an action/process that is going on in the subject itself middle passive. e.g The concert began The door opened The book sells well 3. The Subject denotes the doer and the object of the action (they are the SAME) - reflexive passive e.g The boy washed John shaved 4. The subject is plural and the doer and the abject are DIFFERENT persons - reciprocal passive () e/g They kissed John and Nelly met in the street We can see that the classification is based on the MEANING. BUT! The Soviet Linguists put forward their own arguments against this theory: A Gr cat a unity of form and meaning. In all the cases the form is active. Gr-ly the subject is represented as the doer Such examples aren't numerous. In majority of the sentences w/an active Voice form, the subject denotes the doer proper . Barhudarov suggested to define the M of the Active Voice as NON-PASSIVE! PASSIVE CONSTRUCTIONS: Passive Voice is a form of the verb which shows that the subj is the obj of the action expr-ed by the predicate verbs. 1. Direct Passive - the subj corresponds to the direct object of the predicate verb. e/g Coal is used for making fire. Several restrictions: Passive isn't used when the obj denotes the same person as the subj in an active sentence. e.g He hurt himself The Passive isn't used either if the obj in an active sentence is modified by the possessive pronoun referring to the same person as the subj e/g He cut his finger Passive isn't used when the obj is part of the set expression e/g to take courage; to keep one's word But still some set expr-s build Passive : to take care, to pay attention, to take measures Passive can't be built with intransitive verbs 2.Indirect Passive we employ the Indirect object. e/g He was told an interesting story. In such Ss we keep the direct obj and this obj is specially termed "a retained object". It's freely used w/the verb "to tell" only. Often w/ "to give" when it's part of the set expression "to give a chance/choice/orders". Sometimes it's used with "to offer, to show, to prompt" 3. Prepositional Passive - the prepositional obj can also become the subj. It can be built w/ any verb taking a prep obj. BUT: it's found w/a few Vs of everyday use: to speak, to talk, to laugh, to set for...

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The use has one restriction: => It's not used with verbs taking 2 objs: direct and prepositional. The only passive costruction w/ "explain" is e/g The rule was explained to us 4.Adverbial Passive - when an Adv modifier becomes a subj of a Pass Sentence. However the number of such Ss is limited in Eng. 2 of them: e/g The house wasn 't lived in The bed wasn't slept in The Reasons for frequent use of Passive Voice Main - it makes possible to change word order in a sentence. It's been discovered that the end position is connected w/new info, end position is the most strongly stressed in a Sentence: e/g The boy wrote a letter A litter was written by the boy 1st Sent: the center of communication is a letter, the info is new 2nd Sent: centre is "by the boy" These Ss are parallel, can be used in different communicative situation. In majority of Eng passive Ss the doer of the action isn't mentioned. It happens b/c the doer isn't known or can't be easily stated. e/g The house was broken into and a few things were stolen. Sometimes the doer isn't mentioned cuz it's self-evident e/g He was elected an MP When the "by-phrase" is absent, the listener's attention is shifted to other parts of the Sentence. e.g Roger was invited to dinner. Other reasons: There are several passive constructions in Eng Many Vs in Ene take a direct obj and the direct Constr is widely used. 10.The category of voice. The number of voices in Modern English. Types of passive constructions in English. Reasons for the frequent occurrence of the passive voice in English. A gr cat-ry which charact-zes the rel-ns betw the doer & the obj of the act-n expr-ed by the f of the predicate V. The cat of Vc is represented as an opp-n of forms (give-AV & be givenPV). Some f-s of AVce find no parallel in the PV (F. Cont, Pr/P Perf Cont, F.Perf Cont). In some cases cause of the lex-l character of the V the subj of active constr cant be regarded as the doer of the act: 1) he hurt his leg, he lost his father. We come across some disagreement betw the gr f of theV & its lex m-ng. It turns out that the subj in these s-ces is the sufferer of the act & not the doer. Theyr treated as activ constr only due to the f of the V. 2) The concert began, the door opened. The Vs used in the AVce, it denotes an act which goes on in the subj itself. This m-ng of the V is calld middle 3) Jon shaved, the boy washed. The subj of theact is at the same time the obj reflective m-ng 4)they kissed. The subj is the obj of the act, but here the references of the subj & obj performing the same act r diff. The form of the subjs pl. The reciprocal ()m-me Cat-ry is a unity of f & m-ng. In the majority of cases the subj of the pass (P) constr is the obj of the s-ce. - term non-pass to define the m-ng of the AVce. types of passive const-s. 1) the direct P. the subj here is the direct obj in the Aconstr: coal is used for making goods. But therer restrictnz. 2) the Indirect P. The indirect obj is to become a subj ( he was offered a new job. the IP is highly restricted. Its freely used with the V to give ( give an opportunity, a chance) + offer, show, promise . 3) the prep-nal P. A prep-l obj of a V becomes a subj of a P constr. Some restr-ns: this constr is mostly found with Vs of every day use(speak, talk, look, laugh + take care over, lose sight of ). But never with Vs which take 2 obj (direct & prep-nal) ( explain, dictate, declare, announce, dedicate: the rule was explained to us ) 4) The adverbal P. the subj corresponds to the adv.modifier in the A constr. Only 2 s-ces in this type & theyr restr-ed to literary style ( the house wasnt lived in, the bad wasnt slept in ). Why P is so frequent. Using it we have a poss-ty to change the W-order in a s-ce & place the most important info in the end-poss-n ( the boy wrote a letter (a new obj), the letta was written by the boy). But in the majority of En s-ces the doer of the act is not mentioned cause the doer is often not known & cant be stated ( the house was broken) (the doer is selfevident)./ He was elected MP when the by-phr is absent its possbl to shift the attention of the listener to oth parts of the s-ce./ The letta was delivered in time. In En the of Vs which can take a direct obj is very large & the use of the dir pattern is practically unlimited. 11. The category of Aspect. The meaning of common and continuous aspect. Lexical and grammatical expression of aspect in English Aspect is a grammatical category which characterizes the way in which the action expressed by the verb is carried out. In Russian- \ The imperfect aspect expresses actions without indicating a limit beyond which the action cannot continue. . The perfect aspect denoted actions which are limited in their duration. . In Russian aspect is a gr. Category because it has a special meaning and a special form to express the meaning, we often employ suffixes and prefixes. \ In English grammarians of the past didn't find aspective distinctions in the English verb. They rather spoke of the 4 groups of tenses, These classifications are still found in English. Nevertheless the majority of grammarians believe that English verb has the category of aspect. Aspect can be expressed lexically and grammatically. 1. Aspect can be expressed by the lexical character of the verb. VERBS Terminative Durative Imply a limit beyond which the action cannot go An action can continue indefinitely To love to catch To hate to nod to jump 2.The category of aspect here isn't expressed formally and the meaning becomes clear from the context. It's revealed through the opposition of 2 forms. Common aspect as opposed to continuous aspect. Grammarians debate the number of aspects and the inventory of aspect forms. In common linguistics the most common point of view - 2 aspects - progressive and perfective. Joose: there exists temporary aspect and generic aspect, the form of the continuous aspect is marked - the discontinuous morpheme to be + ing is employed. Most grammarians agree that the difference between the continuous and common aspect form is not temporal.

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E.g, He speaks English. He was speaking English. He is speaking English. He spoke English Describing the aspective distinction we should mention that the continuous aspect has a specialized meaning. It is used to indicate incomplete actions which are in progress at the moment or at the certain period of time. E.g. He was studying English at 5 o'clock yesterday. The common aspect describes events in a general way. To prove that the context is of importance we should sum up the basic meanings of the common aspective forms. They may denote: - momentary actions E.g. She dropped the plane. - recurrent actions E.g. I get up at 7 o'clock. - Actions occupying a long period of time. E.g. He studied there for 5 years. - actions of unlimited duration E.g. The Earth goes round the sun. There's no direct correspondence between Russian aspect and the English aspect, the English common aspect may correspond both to the Russian perfective and imperfective aspect. E.g. The girl played the piano well. . The girl played the waltz and everybody applauded her. . The English continuous aspect corresponds to the Russian imperfective aspect only. E.g. When I entered the girl was playing the piano. ... ... 11.The category of aspect. The meaning of the common and continuous aspect. Lexical and grammatical expression of aspect in English. Aspect(A)-a gr. cat-ry, characterizes the way in which the action expressed by the pred-te v is carried out. Russian aspects:perfective inperfective. A= ( - ). In the Rus. l-ge A is a gr. cat-ry, opp-tion of v f-s, in which peculiar suffixes&prefixes ( -). In Eng the situation is complicated. Ling-sts still have no uniform opinion concerning the status, the number of A-s&the inventory of f-s. Gram-ns of the avoided A&spoke about Ind, Cont, Perf, Perf. Cont tenses(T). Now eng V has the gr. Cat-ry of A &A can be expressed in 2 ways: 1) Lexically: We speak about the lex. character of the v. Eng.v-s can be terminative (imply a limit beyond which an action cant continue (to nod, to jump)& non-terminat.-durative(not imply any limit of that kind (to live). Polysemantic v-s can be termin. in 1 m-g,& non-termin. in another (to see- , ). The.distinction b/n dur & term is purely lex-l mg is clear fr the context. 2) Gramat-ly: A is expressed in opp-tion of Cont&Common A f-s. Foreign ling-ts say 2 A Progressive&Perfective A . Martin Joos :Generic& Temporary A. Cont is marked: marker is discontin-s morph ( to be+ ing). The diff-ce b/n Cont&non~ is not the temporal one. I take-Im taking time is the same - pr. Cont denotes an action: a)incomplete b)in progress at the mom under consideration. (E.g.We r taking up psychology this year). The common A describes an action in 1)a general way 2)a complete or in~ (I did my homework yesterday). .:Common A f-s r to be termed negatively as non-Cont. The exact m-g of Common A is determined by the context. M-gs: 1)a momentary action (She dropped the plate) 2)recurrent actions (I get up at 7 oclock) 3)actions occupy a period of time (He lived in Moscow) 4)unlimited duration (The Volga flows into the Caspian sea) Thers no direct correspondence b/n the Rus&Eng. A.En Com A=Russian perfective & inperfec A. (The girl played the piano well. The girl played a waltz& everybody applauded.En cont A = Russian inperf A. But: The girl was playing the piano when I entered- , ) 12. The category of phase. Various interpretations of the category of phase. The category of PHASE = ORDER = TIME CORRELATION This category is built up by the opposition of PERFECT and NON-PERFECT forms. The term "phase" was suggested by Tregqer and Smith (they borrowed it from the physical theory of electric circuit). => The opposed verbs in the "current phase" and verbs in the "perfect phase": 1.A verb in the current phase denotes an action which is simultaneous with its effect (= in phase with its effect): He came swiftly. => He was seen the moment he came. 2. A verb in the perfect phase denotes an action which is out of phase with its effect => the effect is delayed and our attention is focused on the result: He has opened the book. => The action of opening is of limited duration and was complete in the past, but the effect is felt at the present. VARIOUS INTERPRETATIONS Traditional Grammar Perfect forms were referred to secondary tenses, non-perfect - to primary tenses. primary tenses (absolute) secondary tenses (relative) They refer an action to a certain period in the past/ They express priority to some time in the past/ future/ in present/ future (secondary tenses do NOT). the moment of speaking.

Some treat perfect forms as aspect forms => The Future Perfect and the Past Perfect represent relative tenses because they express priority. But the Present Perfect is a special aspect = resultative. -> calls the Present Perfect "transmissive aspect": it denotes a completed action which is connected with the present, thus expresses continuity between the past and the present. & They call it "the category of time correlation", that is built up by the opposition of perfect and non-perfect forms. Perfect forms do NOT coincide with tense forms: He came./He had come. -> Time is the same (PAST). The difference is not aspective either: the form "has been fucking"'denotes the Continuous Aspect. If we admit that the perfect form is also an aspective form => "has been fucking" shows 2 different aspects at a time. => p . => The difference is that non-perfect forms denote actions which take/ took place during a certain period, while perfect forms always denote actions which are prior to some moment. Non-perfect forms denote non-priority. Perfect forms of both aspects are opposed to non-perfect forms of both aspects. CRITICISM of this theory:

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The gr. meanings of the Present Perfect (1) and the Past/ Future Perfect (2) are 1 2 Doesn't show priority only, it shows connection with the Indicate priority. present. => simplifies the matter. HE ARGUES: Though the Present Perfect shows connection with the present, the meaning of priority is always inherent ( , ) in the form of the Present Perfect. => It is similar to the past ant future forms. It is not the only case when a g r. form has some additional meanings". 12.The category of phase. Various interpretations of the category of phase. The cat-ry of Ph-made up by opposition of Perf&non~ forms(f-s) which r char-sed by certain gr. m-gs. Tragger &Smith Use the term Ph speak of the opp-ton of the current perf. Ph f-s . the term from physics . A verb in the current Ph denotes an action which is simultan. with its effect of the action(E.g.He came swiftly-The action is simultan with the effect.He was seen the mom he came) If the v in the Perf. Ph, the effect of the action is delayed. The perf Ph. removes our attention from the action &relocates it on the effect. E.g.He has opened the book. To open-is an action of limited duration, completed in the past& the effect of this action is fact in the present & temperarly delayedthe book is opened now. There r 2 ??: 1)to what gr cat-ry the perf. Ph belong? 2)gr m-g of the Perf. f-s. 3 possibilities: 1)Some l-sts treat Perf.f-s within the framework of tenses (t). Class. school :Primary t-s- non-perfect, refer an action to cert. moment (mom.) of time in the past,pr., the fut or to the mom. of speaking (sp-ng). Secondary-perfect forms,dont refer actions to points of time but express priority to the point of time in the P., Pr or Fut. The Pr.Perf denotes an action connected with the pr. The Past perf action prior to the mom in the past, Fut perf- prior to a certain time in fut. Perf forms special aspects.: P.Perf&theFut.Perf. can be treated as relative t-s as they express priority. Pr.Perf-special aspect-the resultative aspect. Voroncova: Perf. f-s- transmissive aspect. The m-g of a PrPerf. showsa completed action, connected with the Pr, we observe continuity b/n the Past&thePr. 3). : Describing Perf f-s we should speak about the cat-ry of time correlation-made up by the opp-tion of Perf&non~ f-s. This difference b/n perf & nonperf fs isnt temporal, has nothing to do with the cat-ry of tense (took &had taken-both in the Past t), is not aspective either.(He has been doing it he has done it)Pr perfect a spec aspect:1 sent-ence the form of predic.V contains 2 diff. aspectsits inlogical. states that the diff-ce b/n Perf&non~ f-s is that non~ f-s denote actions which take or took place during a cert.mom or period of time, perf. f-s denote actions which r prior to a cert. mom. So non-perf f-s denote non-priority. Perf. f-s priority. Non~ f-s of Cont.& common aspect r opposed to perf. f-s of Cont&common aspect. (to have been doing-to have been done, to be doing-to do). These opp-tions form a special gr cat-ry the catry of time correlation-was criticized by other ling-sts, they say there is a weak point-the Pr. Perf on 1 hand & the P&Fut. Perf on the other hand have differ. m-gs. They agree that the F&P. Perf indicate priority whereas the Pr.Perf besides priority to the mom of speech indicates some connection with it. : The m-g of priority is nevertheless inherent in the Pr.Perf. Its not the only case when a gr f. has addition. m-gs. The basic m-g is found in all the 3 Perf. f-s 13. The category of tense. The number of tenses in Modern English. The meaning of the present and the past tense. The problem of the future tense and the future-in-the-past tense in Modern English. Time vs Tense Time = a form of the existence of matter Tense = gram. category which indicates the time of an action by means of the form of a verb. Main divisions of time: present, past, future. Tense divisions in different Ls are different. Number of tenses? In English: 2 tenses/3 tenses The present tense Actions that take place at the moment of speaking or occupy a prolonged period of time or timeless actions. / hear a noise, I'm speaking English, We live in Moscow, The Volga flows into the Caspian sea By means of Present tense we can describe: - Past=> historical/dramatic present: / enter the room and who do you think I see?! - Future=>I'm leaving next week Structurally dependent use: clauses of time, condition and concession; in certain object clauses present instead of future (Ill do what you say) => meaning of the present tense is hard to define; it's better understood from the opposition with past (some grammarians prefer ''non-past' to 'present'). The past tense : denotes an action prior to the moment of speaking and not correlated to this moment. The form is marked (marked member = phonologically conditioned allomorphs in regular forms: - ed => [t],[d],[id] and morphologically conditioned in irregular: sing- sang) The future tense Traditional grammar: 3-fold division of tenses => the future tense is an analytical form which is made up of the auxiliary verbs shall/will + the stem of the infinitive (, ) Arguments: 1. an analytical form is always some auxiliary verb (grammatical meaning) + main part (lexical meaning of the form). 2. shall&will originated from modal verbs but lost their modal meaning (prove: 'will' is freely used with the 1 st person sg & pl without modal colouring). Modal meanings -in some sentences (Will you join us? - !; Who shall answer the phone -> duty). 3. shall/will still have some shade of modality; describing the form shall/will + infinitive'sometimes speak about the modality of uncertainty => we can never be sure about the future, so uncertainty is always present in prospective utterances (shall/will + infinitive can have the modalitv of futurity). Jespersen, Allen, Qwerk&, => 2 tenses. : shall/will + infinitive is not a tense form: 1. formal point of view: shall/will + infinitive = may/might + infinitive modal verbs create free word-combinations + we can come across different forms of infinitive: can/may be working/have worked/have been working, etc 2. The modal meaning of shall/will + mf is always present in the utterance (a future action is always treated as necessary, possible or desirable) 3.shall/will + 'mf- no discontinuous morpheme => doesn't answer requirements for an analytical form. 4. shall/will + inf= not the only form to express a future action; there are - certain verbs which refer to future (e.g. intend)

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- several word-combinations (to be going to, to be about to) - some verbs in their modal meaning - present tenses Purely analytical forms are usually the only means of the language to convey a certain grammatical meaning (. past) 5.shall/will like other modal verbs have their special past forms (should/would) the combination should/would +inf can express both future and past (future-in-the-past), which hardly makes any sense in terms of a grammatical category (the principle of identification of any grammatical category demands that the forms of the category in normal use should be mutually exclusive. The category is constituted by the opposition of its forms, not by their co-position). believes that shall/will + inf belongs to a new specific temporal category - the category of prospective time. This category is built on the opposition of forms with s/)3///w///-marker and forms without this marker. As to the difference in meaning the forms with sha/l/witl-marker express an AFTER-ACTION whereas the forms without this marker express NON-AFTER-ACTION. The prospective time is relative - the future action is relative to the present or the past time. If they are relative to the present time we speak of the form of the FUTURE. If they are relative to the past time we speak of the FUTURE-IN-THE-PAST. 13.The category of tense. The number of tenses in Modern English. The meaning of the present and the past tense. The problem of the future tense and the future-in-the past tense in Modern English. E=English; Ts=tenses; Mg=meaning Speaking about TIME we can define it as a form of existence of matter, it is the way we think about the progression of existence. Tense- is a grammatical category that indicates the time of the action expressed by the form of the verb. The main divisions of the objective time are relatively clear: there exist the past, the present and the future. Concerning the E Ts we know that there are different opinions on the number of Ts. The 2 most wide-spread points of view about the English tense-system: some linguists think that it is a 2-tense system and some that its a 3-tense system. Within a 2-t. sys we differentiate between past and present tenses. Within a 3-t. sys we differentiate between present, past and future. The problem of the Future Tense: traditional grammar suggests the 3-fold division of Ts, which reflects the philosophical concept of time of the period. Linguists who belong to this field (, ) believe that the Future T. is an analytical form of the verb - this means that shall\will are auxiliary Vs & an infinitive makes the lexical part of this analytical form. By these linguists, an analytical form is traditionally understood as a combination of an auxiliary verb which is devoid of the lexical Mg and a lexical part which is limited in function, so it carries the lexical Mg of the form only and is devoid of any Gr. Mg. The Gr. Features of an analytical forms are concentrated in the auxiliary part. The combination of shall\will+inf . meets these requirements and thats why it may be called an analytical form. The Vs shall and will originate from modal Vs but theyve lost their modal Mg (Its easily shown be the fact that ~will~ nowadays is freely used for the 1-st person sing.) The modal colourings of these 2 Vs can be traced now only in a few constructions: ~ Will you join us?~(expressing of a request) ~Who shall answer the phone?~ (obligation) The other group of linguists (Jespersen, Quirk, Leech) thinks that there is a 2-fold T sys in E. They believe that the category of T is expressed through the opposition of past and non-past forms (live-lived) They insist there is no Future T in E. Here are their arguments: 1.Formally the combinations shall\will +inf. are in no way different from the comb. can+inf. or any other comb-s of modal V +inf. (will come\ can come; will be reading\ can be reading; will be invited\can be invited ) As to the Mg of the comb. shall\ will+inf.- their modal colouring is always retained though it may be weakened. (In particular, says a future action is never real- it`s always possible, planed and so on) 2.The comb-s shall\ will+inf. Are not the only constr-s in E which are used to express future actions. We can also employ other: to be going to do smth., to be about to do smth. Also we have special Vs to express future actions ( to intend). Also- special tense forms which may express future actions ( Im leaving tomorrow) 3.The Vs shall\will like other modal Vs have corresponding past forms: should\would which can combine with diff. infinitives. The above given arguments lead to the conclusion that the E lang. has no special form for the Future T. It has no form standing on the same grammatical level as the forms of the past and present Ts. If to stick to the 3-fold division of Ts, we should take into consideration that these 3 Ts may appear in the common and in the continuous aspect- thus we get 6 tense-aspect forms. Besides these six, however, there are 2 more, namely: the future-in-the-past and the future-continuos-in-the-past . These forms are used chiefly in subordinate clauses, but can be found in independent clauses as well. The F-in-the-past &the F-Cont.-in-the-past do not easily fit into a system of Ts represented by a straight line running out of the past into the future. They are a deviation from this straight line: their starting point isnt the present from which the past and the future are reckoned, but the past itself. The Present tense(PT): PT denotes a wide scope of actions: 1.They can be: taking place at the very moment of speaking (I hear a noise ) 2.Occupying a prolonged period of time (I live in Moscow ) 3.Timeless action (The Earth moves round the Sun) 4.Past actions (dramatic narrative use - to make the description more vivid) I entered the room and who do you think I see? Your cousin!) 5.Future actions (I`m leaving tomorrow) 6.to denote future actions in object clauses when 2 future actions are regarded as simultaneous (I`ll do what you say) So, we can conclude that the Mg of PT can be characterized as vague. insists that it`s easier to understand the PT comparing it with the past. He puts forward the term non-past. . Very distinctly defines the Mg of the Past T. By him, the Past T. denotes an action which is prior to the moment of speaking & which is not correlated with this moment. Past T. is the marked number of the tense oppositions. The formal marker of the Past T. is the morpheme -ed in regular Vs (in speech it is represented by allomorphs -e, d, it). 14. Objective and subjective modality. Means of expressing modality. Mood and modality ! Modality is a semantic category that expresses the relations between the utterance and objective reality from the point of view of the speaker. The speaker can establish different types of relations between the action expressed in the utterance and reality. We can regard the action as real/unreal, likely/unlikely, possible/impossible, necessary/unnecessary, etc. The representation of a contents of a sentence as real/unreal is called objective modality, since the contents of a sentence are correlated with objective reality. #: The girl is clever. The father is angry. Here the speaker states facts. Objective modality expressed in these sentences is modality of reality. But as to subjective modality, these sentences are neutral.

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#: I doubt if the girl is clever. Unfortunately father is angry. Here the speaker expresses not only objective, but also subjective modality. Subjective modality expresses the attitude of the speaker towards the contents of a sentence, the evaluation of contents of the sentence or part of the sentence. The speaker can express doubt, agreement, disagreement, etc. ! Modality is expressed by: - mood - modal verbs - modal words (possibly, probably, fortunately, certainly, indeed, maybe, etc) Mood is a grammatical category which indicates the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the verb from the point of view of its reality. There are many points of view on how many moods there are in English, but if we take traditional classification: - the indicative mood - the imperative mood - the subjunctive mood - The indicative mood shows that the action or state expressed by the verb is presented as a fact: We went home early in the evening. It is also used to express a real condition, that is a condition the realization of which is considered possible: If it rains, I will stay at home. - The imperative mood expresses a command or request: Put the papers on my table. - The subjunctive mood shows that the action or state expressed by the verb is presented as non-fact, as something imaginary or desired. It's also used to express an emotional attitude of the speaker to real facts (emotional should) 14.Objective and subjective modality. Means of expressing modality. Mood and modality. Modality (Mod)- is a linguistic term which denotes the relation of the contents of speech to reality as viewed by the speaker. In the case of Objective Mod. We must introduce a V into a sentence and it will show the connection with reality. In the case of Subjective Mod. We can choose some additional means to express our attitude. Means of expressing Mod: modal words express the speakers evaluation of the relation between the made in the sentence and reality. They stand outside phrases; their syntactical function - parenthesis. Semantically can denote: 1) certainty ( certainly, of course, no doubt, surely) 2) supposition (may be, perhaps) 3) desirability (luckily, happily). Modal Vs do not denote actions or states but show the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the infinitive. Thus the action is viewed as possible, obligatory, requested etc. So, modal Vs- is lexico-grammatical Mod. Mood- is the Gr. Category of the V reflecting the relation of the action denoted by the V to reality from the speakers point of view.

15. The cat of MOOD. Different points of view on the number of moods in modern Eng. Forms used to express unreality in Eng. The category of mood expresses the character of connection between the process denoted, by the verb and the actual reality, either presenting the process as a fact that really happened, happens or will happen, or treating it as an imaginary phenomenon # the subject of a hypothesis, speculation, desire. Forms used to express unreality: The Subjunctive mood is used in conditional Ss to express an unreal condition (=subordinate clause) and an unreal consequence (=principal clause). 1.Unreal condition referring to the present or future the Past Subjunctive of the verb to be is in the subordinate clause, in the principal clause we find analytical subjunctive (would, should + Infinitive) [would/should], (were...) #:The world would be healthier if every chemist's shop in England were demolished. Unreal condition referring to the future can also be expressed by the Past Subj of the verb to be+ infinitive of the notional verb or the analytical subj with the mood auxiliary should for all persons. #:If I were to offer my home, they were probably be accepted. If you should send me to a difficult spot with this man alone, I'd feel secure. If there's should in the subordinate clause, we often find the Indicative or Imperative Mood in the principal clause. #:If any of your family should come to my house, I shall be delighted to welcome them. 2. Unreal condition referring to the past the Past Perfect of the Indicative mood is used in the subordinate clause, in the principal clause we find should/would + Perfect Infinitive ( have done) [Past Perfect], (should/would have done) #:If I had consulted my own interests, I should have come here. 3.Unreal Condition is often used with might/could. They fully retain their modal meaning and they don't form analytical subjunctive, (modal verb+Infinitive) #:If she were still waiting, she might be restless. 15. The cat of MOOD. Different points of view on the number of moods in modern Eng. Forms used to express unreality in Eng. The category of mood expresses the character of connection between the process denoted by the verb and the actual reality, either presenting the process as a fact that really happened, happens or will happen, or treating it as an imaginary phenomenon # the subject of a hypothesis, speculation, desire. Traditionally there are 3 Moods: 1) Indicative 2) Imperative 3) Subjunctive. But Some Grammarians think there are from 10 to 16 Moods to no moods at all. But Barhundarov thinks that there are only 2 :Indicative and Imperative, and the rest is a shift of tenses, modal Ws or whatever. 1. #: I suggest that u do smth = a special form of Imperative Mood he says Reasons to this: Morphologically "he go/be" coincides with the forms of the Imperative Mood This form is used after the verbs of volition and order and in direct commands. 2. #: If he knew, he would go... If he had known, he would have gone... Originally it belongs to the Subj Mood. In Modern Eng they should be regarded as forms of the Indicative Mood. The unreality is expressed NOT by a Mood form but by the use of the Past Tense with the reference to the Present. It's just shift of tenses, he says. Forms used to express unreality: The Subjunctive mood is used in conditional Ss to express an unreal condition (=subordinate clause) and an unreal consequence (=principal clause). 1. Unreal condition referring to the present or future the Past Subjunctive of the verb to be is in the subordinate clause, in the principal clause we find analytical subjunctive (would, should + Infinitive) [would/should], (were...) # :The world would be healthier if every chemist's shop in England were demolished.

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Unreal condition referring to the future can also be expressed by the Past Subj of the verb to be+ infinitive of the notional verb or the analytical subj with the mood auxiliary should for all persons. #: If I were to offer my home, they were probably be accepted. If you should send me to a difficult spot with this man alone, I'd feel secure. If there's should in the subordinate clause, we often find the Indicative or Imperative Mood in the principal clause. #: If any of your family should come to my house, I shall be delighted to welcome them. 2: Unreal condition referring to the past the Past Perfect of the Indicative mood is used in the subordinate clause, in the principal clause we find should/would + Perfect Infinitive( have done) [Past Perfect], ( should/would have done) # If I had consulted my own interests, I should have come here. 3. Unreal Condition is often used with might/could. They fully retain their modal meaning and they don't form analytical subjunctive, (modal verb+Infmitive) #: If she were still waiting, she might be restless. 10 FORMS TO EXPRESS UNREALITY: 1. "he go/he be" #: I insist that he come in time 2. "were" for all persons I wish I were 10 yrs younger 3. #:1 wish I knew it 4.had known/had gone #:As if he had known it 5.should/would + Inf #: If I could, I would go 6. should/ would + Perf Inf #:he would have gone... 7. should+Inf #: I insist that he should go i 8. May/might + Inf 9. Would + Inf #:If he would do smth... 10. can/could+ Inf 15.The category of Mood. Different points of view on the number of Moods in Modern English. Forms used to express unreality in English. M= mood There is no unity of opinion concerning the cat. Of M in E. Owing to the difference of approach to Ms (mutual relation between Mg and form) grammarians single out: : 6 Ms in E: Indicat., Imperat., Subj. I, Subj. II ( conditional and suppositional). , , : 3 Ms: Indic., Imper.,Subj. The latter, according to , appears in 2 forms- the conditional and subjunctive. distinguish only 2 Ms- Indic. m and Subjunctive. The latter is subdivided into Subj. I and Subj. II. The Imperat. and the Conjunctive are treated as forms outside the cat. of M. In general the number of Ms in diff. Theories varies from 2 to 17. In modern E there are 3 Ms : The Indicative M. (IM), The Imperative M (IMP.M), The Subjunctive M (SM) IM is the basic M of the V. Morphologically it is the most developed system including all the cat-es of the V. It serves to present an action as a fact of reality. It conveys minimum personal attitude to the fact. The speakers attitude is neutral.(We went home.) IM is also used to express a real condition (condition the realization of which is considered possible). (If it rains, I shall stay home.) IMP.M in E is represented by one form only. Without any suffix or ending. It differs from other Ms in several important points: 1.it has no person, number, tense or aspect distinctions 2.it is limited in its use to one type of sentence only- imperative sent. IMP.M expresses a command or a request. Most usually a verb in the IMP.M has no pronoun acting as subject. However, the pronoun may be used in emotional speech, as in the following example: But, Tessie- he pleaded, going towards her. You leave me alone!- she cried out loudly. These are essential peculiarities distinguishing the IMP.M and they have given rise to doubts as to whether the imperative can be numbered among the Ms at all. A serious difficulty connected with the IMP. Is the absence of any specific morphological characteristics: with all Vs including the V be, it also coincides with the infinitive, and in all Vs, except be, it also coincides with the Pres. Indic apart from the 3d person Sing. Even the absence of a subject pronoun you which would be its syntactical characteristic, is not reliable feature at all, as sentences You sit here! occur often enough. Mg alone may not seem sufficient ground for establishing a grammatical category. The SM. (also the Conditional M) Probably the only thing linguists are unanimous about with the SM is that it represents an action as a non-fact, as something imaginary, desirable, problematic, contrary to reality. In all other respects opinions differ. In modern E the SM has synthetic and analytical forms. Synthetic(or simple forms)- are those the formal elements of which are to be found within 1 word from which they are inseparable. These are the present and the past Ind. Affirmative (sing, sings, sang); the non-perfect common aspect forms of the inf, partic.I, the gerund, part. II (sing, singing, sung); the IMP.M (sing!) Analytical (or compound form) consists of at least 2 verbal elements- an auxiliary V and a notional V. the latter is presented be partic.I, II, or the infin. An auxiliary V is devoid of its lexical Mg, its role is purely structural. It may be finite or non-finite, thus showing whether the whole V form is finite or nonfinite as in: Means of expressing unreality: Unreal actions are expressed by: plain stem of the V for all persons (I insist that he be present) were for all persons ( I wish I were 10 years younger) the form of the Past Indef. (He looked as if he knew about it) the form of the Past Perfect (He looked as if he had seen a ghost) should for the 1st person Sing or Pl or would (for the other persons)+inf. (If I had a garden I should grow tulips there) should \would +Perf. Inf (If it hadnt rain I should have gone for a walk) should( for all persons)+inf. (I insist that he should do it)

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would (for all per.) +inf (I wish he wouldn`t interrupt me) may\ might +inf. (I told u that so that you might write to ur parents) can\ could +inf. (I told u that so that u could) were to (for all persons)+ inf. (If he were to discover the truth he would never speak to me) An unreal action can be represented by these means as hypothetical (the realization is doubtful: (He insisted that the plan be discussed) and contradicting reality (the action cant be realized) (I wish I can see the parade) Other means: modal Vs (He must have gone) Modal Ws (probably, perhaps) 16 Agreement in number between the subject and the predicate in Modem English. Agreement is one of the principal means (together with word order) to show the relation between the subject and the predicate. Agreement in English may be formal and notional. In the majority of cases agreement is formal: the subject and the predicate agree in form - in number and sometimes in person. The predicate agrees with the first component of the subject expressed by a phrase: 1. When the sentence begins with the formal subject there E.g. There is a table and several chairs in the room. There are several chairs and a table in the room. 2. In questions beginning with where E.g. Where is my hat and my gloves? Where are my gloves and my hat? 3. When the components are joined by with or as well as E.g. A woman with children was there. The teacher as well as the students was there. The predicate agrees with the last component of the subject expressed by a word group if the components, are joined by either... or, neither... nor, not only... but also. E. g. Either you or I am to do it. In some cases however the agreement is notional and varies with the same word in accordance with the notion it expresses (one object - more than one object) E.g. Bread and butter are important foodstuffs. The bread and butter is on the plate. The red and the white blanket are very good. The red and white blankets are very good. The red and white blanket is very good. Who is he? Who are they? A number (a variety) of books for home reading were suggested to them. The number (the variety) of books suggested to them was great. The family is small (the collective) The family are small and blond (members of the family) "The Caramazov Brothers" was written by Dostoyevsky (the title of the play) Five pounds is too much for it. Two miles is a long way. Tow and two is four. 16.Agreement (in number) between the subject and the predicate in Modern English . The category of number in E is represented by the oppositions of 2 forms: singular and plural. The cat. of N shows whether a Noun has the Gr Mg of oneness or more than oneness. The Subject (S) is the principal part of a 2-member sentence which is grammatically independent of the other parts of the sentence and on which the 2d principal part (the predicate) is grammatically dependent. The Predicate (P) is the second principal part of the sentence which expresses an action, state, or quality of the person or thing denoted by the subject. As a rule the P contains a finite V which may express tense, mood, voice, aspect and sometimes person and number. In E the P agrees with the S in person and number. Agreement implies that the use of one form necessitates the use of the other, for example: a Sing S requires a P in the Sing, a plural S- a P in the Pl. But there is often a conflict between (b\n) form and Mg- in these cases the P does not agree with the S. ~ The Brown family were at breakfast, father, mother and seven children. ~ Agreement in E may be FORMAL or NOTIONAL. In the majority of cases agreement is formal: the S and the P agree in form-in number and sometimes in person. In some cases- notional: varies with the same word in accordance with the notion it expresses (one object- more than one object) The following rules of agreement of the P with the S shud be observed: The P is used in the Pl when there are 2 or more homogeneous Ss connected by the conjunction AND or asyndetically: ~ Her father and motherwere obviously haunted and harassed. ~ If 2 or more homog. Ss are expressed by infin-s the P is in the Sing: ~ To labour in peace, and devote her labour and her life to her poor son, was all the widow sought. ~ When the P-verb precedes a number of Ss it is often in the Sing., especially if the sent. Begins with HERE or THERE: ~ And here was a man, was experience and culture. ~ If the Ss are of different number the P agrees with the S that stands FIRST: ~ There was much traffic at night and many mules on the roads ~ When 2 homog. Ss in the Sing are connected by the conj-s not onlybut (also), neithernor, eitheror, or, nor, the P is usually in the Sing. ~ There was neither heroic swift defeat nor heroic swift victory ~

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If the Ss are of different person or number, the P agrees with the one NEXT to it: ~ Neither your sister nor you are to blame. ~ When 2 Ss in the Sing are connected by the conjunction as well the P is in the Sing. ~ Activity as well as cell structure is an essential condition of life ~ If the Ss are of different person or number, the P agrees with the S that stands first: ~ The Volga as well as its affluents is very picturesque. ~ If a S expressed by a noun is modified by 2 or more attributes connected by AND, the P is in the Sing when one person, thing or idea is meant. ~ The complete and beautiful quiet was almost the quiet from beyond the grave. ~ If 2 or more persons, things or ideas are meant the P is in the Pl: ~ Classical and light music have both their admirers. ~ 6)If the S is expressed by a defining, indefinite, or negative pronoun (each, either, everybody, everyone ,everything, somebody, someone, something, nobody, no one, nothing, neither etc) the P is in the Sing. ~ Everybody was glad to see him back. ~ ~ There was nothing to attract attention or excite alarm in this. ~ 7)If the S is expressed by an interrogative pronoun (who, what) the P is usually in the Sing. ~ Who is to apply to her for permission? - I asked. ~ If the question refers to more than one person the P may be used in the Pl. ~ Who were to be the subjects of their piracies was a matter that did not occur to him. ~ 8) If the S is expressed by a relative pronoun ( who, which, that) the P agrees with its antecedent. ~ She looked at his handsome face, which was turned to hers~ 9) If the S is expressed by the emphatic it the P is in the Sing no matter what follows. ~ Foreigners say that it is only English girls who can thus be trusted to travel alone ~ 10) If the S is expressed by a noun in the Plur which is the title of a book, or the name of a newspaper or magazine, the P is usually in the Sing. ~ ``The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club`` was written when Dickens was 24. ~ 11)If the S is expressed by a noun in the Pl denoting time, measure, or distance, the P is in the Sing when the noun represents the amount or mass as a whole. ~ Twenty-one years is a longish time, lad, but memory is longer ~ If the S is expressed by a collective noun denoting a group or collection of similar individuals taken as a whole (mankind, humanity) the P-verb is in the Sing. ~ He consoled himself with the idea that perhaps humanity was better than he thought. ~ If the S is expressed by a noun of multitude, i.e. a collective noun denoting the individuals of the group taken separately (people- , infantry, gentry, police, cattle, jury) the P-verb is as a rule in the Pl. ~ The weather was warm and the people were sitting at their doors. ~ With collective nouns (family, crew, board, government, team, band) as S the P is either in the Sing or in the Pl; this depends on what is uppermost in the mind, the idea of oneness or plurality. ~ The band was beginning to play ~ the band had arrived and were standing in the hall ~ The P agrees in number with the S expressed by a syntactic word-group (w-g- is a combination of Ws forming one part of the sentence) ), consisting of two nouns connected by the conjunction and. Here we find agreement according to the Mg expressed in the w-group. (a) If the w-gr. Consists of 2 Ns denoting different persons, things, or notions, the P-verb is in the Pl. ~ Andreis and I were alone ~ NB! Syntactic w-groups forming one part of the sentence shud not be confused with homog. Parts of the sentence. A sent. With 2 homog. Ss can be divided into 2 sentences with each S taken separately. But if we have a sentence with the S expressed by a synt. w-gr. Its elements cannot be used separately without destroying the Mg of the sentence; only the whole w-gr. The P-verb is in the Sing when the S is expressed by several Ns which represent one person or thing, or 2 persons or things forming a close unit often corresponding to one notion. ~ The wife and mother WAS asked with deference before the plan was made. ~ 2) If the S is expressed by a w-gr. Consisting of 2 Ns connected by the preposition WITH, or the expression TOGETHER WITH, the P-verb is in the Sing. (These w-grs. are rarely used in E.) ~ A woman with a child on the 3d floor is screaming ~ 3) If the S is expressed by a synt. w-gr. The 1st element of which denotes an indef. Number or amount, such as a number of, a variety of, the majority of, a lot of, plenty of, a mass of the P may be in the Sing or in the Pl. ~ There is a lot of truth in that ~ ~ There are a lot of things for you to believe ~ NB! The Ns number & variety may retain their concrete Mg (, ) and serve as S of the sentence. In this case they are used with the definite article; the of-phrase that follows them is a separate part of the sent- an attribute to the S. The P is naturally in the Sing as it agrees with the S the number, the variety. ~ They tell me that the number of teachers in town has not increased in years ~ 4) If the S is expressed by a group of Ws denoting arithmetic calculations ( addition, subraction, division) the P is usually Sing; multiplication presents an exception as the V may be in the Sing or in the Pl. ~ Two and two is four ~ ~ Twice two is (are) four ~ 17. Non-finite forms of the verb: double nature. The grammatical categories of verbals. Different points of view on the number of non-finite forms in Modern English. Non-finite forms of the verb: the infinitive (to fuck), the gerund (fucking),participle I (fucking), participleII (fucked). Non-finite forms have a double nature, nominal and verbal. The participle combines the characteristics of a verb with those of an adjective/ adverb. The gerund and the infinitive combine the characteristics of a verb with those of a noun. The verbals, unlike the finite forms of the verb, do not express person, number, tense or mood.

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Non-finites possess the verb categories of phase, voice and aspect. And now DETAILS..... THE INFINITIVE the nominal character the verbal character is manifested in its syntactic functions. The infinitive can 1. the infinitive of transitive verbs can take a direct object be used as: => He began to feel some curiosity. 1. the subject => To kiss you is pleasant. 2. it can be modified by an adverb => I like to do it slowly. 2. a predicative => My plan is to pass the exam. 3. - phase distinctions - aspect distinctions - voice (inf. of 3. an object => I've never learned to drink vodka. transitive verbs)

PHASE non-perfect non-perfect perfect

ASPECT common continuous common

ACTIVE VOICE to go to take to be going to be taking to have gone to have taken

PASSIVE VOICE to be taken to have been taken

perfect

continuous

to have been going to have been taking

THE GERUND the nominal character 1. can perform the function of subject, object, predicative => Drinking leads to joy. Everybody likes making love. My duty is fighting for peace. 2. can be preceded by a preposition => Iam tired of typing. 3. can be modified by a noun in the possessive case or by a possessive pronoun => I wonder at Marina's/ your doing this. PHASE non-perfect perfect THE PARTICIPLE (I, II) the adjectival/ adverbial character ACTIVE VOICE running kissing

the verbal character 1. the gerund of transitive verbs can take a direct object => I made progress in understanding the Bushmen language. =) 2. can be modified by an adverb => She burst out crying bitterly. 3. - phase - voice (the gerund of transitive

PASSIVE VOICE being kissed having been kissed

having run having kissed

the verbal character

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is manifested in their syntactic functions: attribute and 1. participle I of a transitive verb can take a direct object adverbial modifier => => Opening the door, he went out. I -> I saw the girl sitting by the window. 2. Participle I and II can be modified by an adverb => Having done it, I went to bed. Looking at him gently, she began crying. Deeply affected, II -> I saw your name written on the wall. he killed her. When left alone, she masturbated. 3. participle I: - phase voice (p I of transitive verbs)

PHASE non-perfect perfect

ACTIVE VOICE going kissing having gone having kissed

PASSIVE VOICE being kissed having been kissed

Participle II of transitive verbs, when it is not part of a perfect form, is always passive in meaning. DIFFERENT POINTS OF VIEW.......... Some grammarians do not distinguish between the gerund and participleI. BUT look at my tables and you'll see that these are two different non-finite forms, BECAUSE: 1) The participle combines the characteristics of a verb with those of an adjective/ adverb. While the gerund combines the characteristics of a verb with those of a noun. 2) They have absolutely different syntactic functions. 3) The gerund can be preceded by a preposition and modified by a noun in the possessive case or by a possessive pronoun. The participle cannot. AT THE SAME TIME their verbal characteristics fully coincide! (probably that i< th hnsie ooint of the above-mentioned grammarians) 17.Non-Finite forms of the verb: double nature. The grammatical categories of verbals. Different points of view on the number of non-finite forms in Modern English. Non-Finite= N-F ;Verbals= Vls; Finite=F The V has finite and N-F forms (also called Vls) The Vls, unlike the F forms of the V, do not express person, number or mood. Therefore they cannot be used as the predicate of a sentence. Like the F forms- the Vls have Tense and Voice distinctions, but their tense dist. Differ greatly from those of the F V. There are 3 Vls: the participle (I or II) (Part), the gerund (Ger), the infinitive (Inf) The characteristic traits of the Vls are as follows: They have a double nature-1. nominal &2. verbal. 1)The Part. Combines the characteristics of V with those of an adjective; the Ger. And the Inf.- of a V with those of N. 2)The tense distinctions of the Vls are not absolute, but relative! The form of a Vl does not show whether the action it denotes refers to the present, past or future; it shows only whether the action expressed by the Vl is simultaneous with the action expressed by the F V or prior to it. All the Vls can form predicative constructions (p.con), i.e constr. Consisting of 2 elements- a nominal (N or Pronoun) and a verbal (Part, Ger, Inf); the verbal element stands in predicate relation to the nominal element, i.e in a relation similar to that between the S and the P of the sentence. In most cases p.con. form syntactic units, serving as one part of the sentence. The Vls have the Gr. Cat-es of ORDER and VOICE. The Inf. Has also a sd Gr. Cat-y- ASPECT. Order. (Correlation) The cat. of Order is built up by 2 forms: perfect & non-perfect. Non-perfect Perfect Inf to ask, to give to have asked, to have given Ger asking, giving having asked, having given Part asking, giving having asked, having given The perfect form is used to present the event as prior to another event (generally prior to the event expressed by the predicate V) The non-perfect form will be generally used to present the event as non-prior to another event (simultaneous, posterior or referring to no particular time). Voice. Active Passive Inf to ask, to give to be asked, to be given Ger asking, giving being asked, being given Part I asking, giving being asked, being given The active form of the Vl will indicate that the doer of the action is denoted by the S of the sentence, the passive- that the doer is not denoted by the S of the sentence:I wanted to ask him that question; I wanted to be asked that question. NB! In certain cases the Vl (the Inf or the Ger) though active in form may be passive in Mg. The Inf may indicate it when used as predicative in some traditional contexts: They were not to blame.; The house is to let. The Ger. will be passive in Mg when used after the Vs want, need, require and the adjective worth: The woodwork needed painting.; He has got one friend worth having. Aspect. The cat. of A is built up by 2 aspect forms: continuous and common. Only one Vl, as was said above. Has the cat. of A- it is the Inf. Common Continuous

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To write, to read to be writing, to be reading The Cont. form of the Inf. Will generally indicate that the event is presented as temporary, as being in progress at the time of another event or at a definite moment (period). The Common- will be often used just to name the event without specifying its character or time. Part. II as was said above has one unalterable form. Consequently, it has no morphological Gr. Cat-es. When formed from transitive terminative Vs it is generally passive and perfective in Mg. The answer given by him did not explain his attitude. When asked he did not know what to say. When formed from non-terminative transitive Vs it is generally passive but non-perfective. She is a pleasant girl called Mary. NB! When formed from non-trans. Vs such as fall, vanish, return, grow (in the Mg of grow up) and a few others Part. II is ACTIVE in Mg.: He is a retired soldier . 18. Word-groups and sentences: basic differences. Classification of word-qroups based on syntactical relations between the members of the wordgroup: coordinate, subordinate, pfedicative> cumulative. Syntax deals with both sentences and word-groups. : the analysis of sentences ma in problem of syntax, analysis word-groups=secondary, because joining of words into word-groups is only a step, toward making a sentence. Word-groups Sentences * not complete (structurally-and semantically) * units of speech (can function as independent utterances) * can't be used as units of communication Fundamental feature that distinguishes a sentence from a word-group=INTONATION *noun+verb word-group * normally contain a verb in-afinite form (noun+verb=subject&predicate) Word-group - logical and grammatical combination of 2 or more words which don't form a sentence. Sentence - basic unit of communication, grammatically organized and expressing a complete thought. Traditional grammar => 2 types of syntactic relations between words: coordination, subordination Coordination: grammatical' equality of words joined together; is realized by coordinating conjunctions or by word-order: John and Mary; John, Mary or Marinka When connection is realized by word order -> asyndetic coordination () + only homogenious members of the sentence can be joined by coordination Subordination: implies Inequality in the grammatical status of words in the sentence -one of the words becomes the head of the phrase & the other =the modifier subordinated to the head. John's room/ his- book Can be expressed by agreement () and government (). AGREEMENT Kind of relation in which the subordinated word takes a form similar to that of the head-word's - : only 2 cases of agreement -> demonstrative pronouns "this/that", "these/those" (agree in number). - Some grammarians: "agreement" can be applied to word-groups in which words belong to different grammatical classes When everybody has given his, opinion... (agrees in number with everybody; colloquial - ...has given their opinion ) - between the subject and the object She's making a cake for herself He injured himself in the bottom. the form of The subordinated word is determined by the head-word but isn't similar to it. GOVERNMENT -the form of the subordinated waod is detemined by the head-word but isnt similar to it - extremely limited: the predicate verb governs the form of the object expressed by a personal pronoun, because the personal proN is to be used in the objective case: He gave him/her/me a book. Modern English: analytical means to reveal subordination, most important - word order prepositions. Predicative relations ( ; = interdependence) Relations between the subject and the predicate: - subject determines the gram, form of the predicate (person&number) I am, he reads - predicate ascribes to the subject some action, state or quality He went, he is old, he is married Cumulation () subordinated His new coatnew coat Subordinated his new; some old = > somehow connected with each other Easy to prove: can't change their word order, Subordinated the relations between them are not very distinct; Subordinated lectors can't be identified, only against the background of Subordinated the head-word in the word-group Also cumulation between nouns in: To write John a letter There's some strange relation between John and a letter (can't change their position, we are to introduce a preposition to)

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18.Word groups and sentences: basic differences. Classification of word-groups based on syntactical relations between the members of the wordgroup: coordinate, subordinate, predicative, cumulative. Syntax deals with analysis of the structure of a sentence. The first step to build a sentence- word-group (not an independent utterance). Basic English sentence must contain a verb in the Finite Form .Sentences without verbs convey only fragments of information (not full info). - , , , . When a noun and a verb in the F.F. follow each other they become the subject and the pred.icate the main parts of the basic English sentence, they may be accompanied by other words in a sentence, but that doesnt change their functional status, thats why many ling-s exclude them from the domain of word groups.. Some foreign ling-s suggest that we should use a special term to denote relations between them clause. Word group a logical and gram. combination of 2 or more words, which dont form a sentence. Cood word group brings together items of equal rank #Boys and Girls. Subordinate word group in which one word is the head and the other are subordinates Sentence a unit of communication, grammatically organized and expressing a complete thought ( Bloomfield).The sent. is char. by predication, that establishes or indicates relations b\n the utter-s and reality, its expressed through the F.F of a verb, which expresses Tense, Mood, Person, Number, traditionally. Its said that the most universal means of expressing pred. is intonation. 19. Predication. Means of expressing predication The sentence is characterized by the specific category of predication which establishes the relation of the named information to actual life. => Predication is the relation of the information expressed in the utterance to reality; it's a correlation between the utterance and reality. Both the predicate and subject are important for the structure of the sentence, their relations are reciprocal. The subject dominates the predicate, determining the person and number, and the predicate dominates the subject, ascribing to it some action or quality. But the principal means of expressing predication is the predicate, because the center of predication in a sentence is a finite verb. It expresses predication mainly through its tense and mood forms (and also through person and number - .) - The events are presented as facts taking place in the past: She smiled when Tom returned to the room. - The events are presented as facts taking place at present: I'm traveling with a couple of friends. They 're still packing. - The events are presented as non-facts, as something imaginary: / wonder how different my life would have been if I had grown up anywhere else. But this is not the only means. Predication is expressed not only by the forms of the finite verb that connect it to the subject, but also by all other forms and elements of the sentence that establish the connection between given information and reality: - intonation (the universal means) - word order - different functional words 19. Predication. Means of expressing predication . Predication is an expression of relation of the sentence to reality or the expression of the relation between the content of the sentence (nominative and predicative sides) and reality ( The doctor has arrived). The predicative connection of words, uniting the subject and the predicate, builds up the basis of the sentence. The subject dominates the predicate determining the person of predication, while the predicate dominates the subject determining the event of predication and ascribing to the predicative person some action or state or quality. The domination of the subject exposed by the reflective character of the verbal category of person & nouns. ( I go, he goes). The predicate dominates the subject when the sentence transforms into the noun-phrase placing the predicate in the position of a headword (the train arrived the arrival of the train). There are predicative groupings formed by a combination of a non-finite verbal form with a substantive element (i nfinitival (the predicative person is expressed by the prepositional for-phrase), gerundial (by the possessive or objective form of the substantive), participial (by the nominative (common) form of the substantive) constructions: The pupil knows his mistake-> for the pupil to know> the pupil('s) knowing his mistake-> the pupil knowing his mistake). 20. SYNTACTIC RELATIONS btw Ws: coordination, subordination, interdependence, cumulation, apposition. Means of expressing Syn relations: agreement, government, word order, function words, parenthesis. Coordination - relation of equality. We find this relation between homogeneous (-) members of the S. # Peter and Mary went there (subjects to the same predicate) Peter went there alone and returned late (predicates to the same subj) We heard their merry happy laughter (attributes to the same noun) Subordination - relation of inequality btw the components. In this case we have one head-word and modifiers to it. Attributes, objects and adv modifiers stand in subordinate relation to the other components of the S. # I heard her happy laughter (laughter is the head word) She was laughing happily (head word - was laughing) She looked at me attentively (head word - looked) Cumulation # His new coat; Some old letters his and new (some and old) are subordinated to coat (letters). At the same time "his and new" are related with each other in a certain way. Their position is fixed and can't be changed. # To give smb smth To give smth to sb Apposition # Queen Mary Both Ws are heads and both are also attributes. But the Ws in the apposition are identical in reference. They have the same referent. Usually 2 Nouns have different designations for the same thing or person. # Mr. Smth the doctor English is an analytical L. There are several means to form the Gr Str-re of the S: Agreement is one of the principal means (together with word order) to show the relation between the subject and the predicate. In Eng agreement can be formal or notional. In the majority of cases, it's formal: the subj and the predicate agree in form - in number and sometimes in person. # I am here There ARE several CHAIRS A WOMAN with children WAS there In some cases, however, the agreement is notional and varies with the same word in accordance with the notion it expresses (one object - more than one object). # Bread and butter are important foodstuffs The bread and butter is on the plate.

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Function Ws - serve as connectors btw the main ones. These dependent Ws are prepositions and conjunctions. Prepositions act within one clause, conjunctions may connect Ws, clauses, separate Ss. Thus, prepositions and conjunctions express relations but they never denote objects and notions. However, the relations they denote are not purely formal b/c each preposition and conjunction has a definite lexical meaning. They are characterized by an indistinct meaning : both lex and grammatical. # The boy saw it in a book. They don't perform any syntactical function, they express relations btw. Ws in a S. Their use is sometimes obligatory # depend on They are never used alone in Ss without notional Ws # Mary came home last night. Coordination uses conjunctions and cumulation makes use of few Function Ws. Parenthesis - either shows the speaker's attitude towards the thought expressed in the S or connects a given S with another one, or summarizes that which is said in the S. It is connected with the rest of the S rather semantically or grammatically. No question can be put to it. Very often it's detached from the rest of the S and consequently it's often separated from it by commas or dashes. Can be expressed by: modal words (indeed, certainly, in fact, truly, surely, actually), adverbs which serve as connectives (firstly, secondly, thus, finally, consequently, then, anyway, yet, still), prepositional phrases (in a word, in truth, in my opinion, in short, on the hand), infinitive and participial phrases{ to be sure, to tell the truth, to begin with, generally speaking, strictly speaking). # Evidently, he was not a man, he must be some other kind of animal. Besides, I want to get back as soon as possible. To tell the truth, I don't want to call him. Word order - as Eng Ws have hardly any inflexions and their relation to each other is shown by their place in the S and not by their form, Word-order in eng is fixed. We can't change the position of different parts of the S at will, esp. that of the subject and the object. 20. Syntactical relations between words in a sentence: coordination, subordination, interdependence, cumulation, apposition. Means of expressing syntactic relations: agreement, government, word order, function words, parenthesis. Grammatically words are combined into sentences on the basis of their semantics. Sometimes lexical connection between words is decisive for identifying grammatical structure of the sentence. l) Her elder sister is teaching English.-by lexical meaning of the words we understand that 'is teaching' is Present Continuous. 2) Her hobby is teaching English.-we understand that is-a link-verb, 'teaching' is a gerund in the function of a predicative, though both look similar. Traditional Grammar recognized 2 types of relations: coordination and subordination. Coordination implies grammatical equality of words joined together by coordinating conjunctions #Jane &Bob. Only homogeneous members of the sentence can be combined. Subordination implies inequality in the grammatical status of words, joined together. The main is the head word (~ his book). Agreement-the subordinate word takes a form similar to that of the word to which it is subordinate. Agreement is found only in the demonstrative pronouns 'this &that', which agree in number with the word they modify. But other linguists (Gorrel, Laird):' Agreement can be used in reference to words which belong to different word-groups. 'His' agrees with everybody' in When everybody has given his opinion, the committee can decide , (though in the colloq. speech there is a tendency to use 'their'). Quirk, Greenbaum: E.g. He injured himself in the leg --agreement in number, person and gender. The relations between the subject and the predicate are a controversial problem. Quirk, Palmer and others do interpret these relations as agreement. Others assume that agreement belongs to the level of word-groups which form parts of the sentence while a n+a finite v forms a sentence and can't be regarded as a word-group. Sweet, Kruisinga and others call a n+a finite v' a clause to distinguish it from a word-group. Smirnickij and Barkhudarov call these syntactical relations as 'predicative relations'. The 2nd opinion is better. Government is a kind of relation in which the form of the subordinate word is determined by the head-word, but is different from the head-word. In Modern English the sphere of government is very limited. The predicate verb governs the object expressed by a personal pronoun since the form of the objective case is used here (me, him, etc.) The notion of government can also be applied to use of the genitive case. Modern English relies on analytical means to reveal subordination within sentences--word order & functional words of which prepositions are the most important. In phrases word order refers to the certain place of a head word and a subordinate one; in sentences the order of the parts of the sentences is important. Conjunctions play a great role, for instance, copulative conjunctions ( and, neithernor, etc) are used to enumerate events; disjunctive conjunctions ( or, otherwise, eitheror, etc.) are used to indicate choice between words or events; and adversative conjunctions ( but, yet, still, nevertheless, however etc.) are used to indicate opposition or contradiction. Not all relations can be called coordination or subordination. Between the subject and the predicate -- reciprocal relations: the subject dominates the predicate determining the person (I am. He reads), at the same time the predicate dominates the subject ascribing to it some action (He went), or state (He is married), or quality (He's clever).The Danish linguist Hjelmslev introduced the term 'interdependence' to indicate this shit. Another type of syntactical relations is cumulation. E.g. 1) this new coat, 2) some old letters. In 1) his &new are subordinate to coat (they are attributes to noun).In 2) the same. At the same time his &new, or some &old are related with each other: their position is fixed (can't say new his coat). We also find cumulation relations between nouns in 'to write John a letter'-the fact that there is some syntactical relation between 'John' and 'a letter' becomes clear if we change their positioning with the help of the preposition (to writer a letter to John). Lately linguists single out apposition as a special type of relations between components of a word-group. Ch. Hockett: e.g. Queen Mary-both words are heads& both are attributes. Thus it's not subordination. In coordination the constituent have different referents, while words in apposition are identical in reference: usually 2 nouns give different designations to the same thing or person ( Mr. Smith, a doctor title, profession, social position etc. ). Parenthesis words &phrases which have no syntactical ties with the sentence, and express the speaker's attitude towards what he says, a general assessment of the statement, or an indication of its sources, or connection with other statements, or with a wider context ( ~ Perhaps he is ill. As we have already mentioned...) 21 Classification of sentences based on their structure. The simple sentence. The composite sentence. According to the structure sentences may be simple and composite. The semantic and structural relations between simple sentences within a composite one are closer than those between simple sentences of the same text. The semantic relations between the elements of the composite sentence are those of coordination, subordination and predication. The means of adj ointment of the elementary sentences within the composite one are either syndetical - with the help of different connections - or asyndetical. Composite sentences are generally subdivided into compound and complex. Compound sentences consist of 2 or more coordinated simple sentences - clauses. The relations between the clauses are those of equality and relative independence. Complex sentences consist of 2 or more clauses joined by subordination (adverbial, object or attributive clauses) or by predication (subject and predicative clauses). Complex sentences consist of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses which are kind of modifiers to the principle clause.

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The main components of the simple sentence are the subject, the predicate, the object, the attribute, the adverbial modifier. The sentence containing both the subject and the predicate is called a two-member sentence. In the majority of cases the English sentence is a two-member sentence. A one-member sentence contains only one principle member. It is complete. No other element of it is implied or felt as missing or necessary. The principle member of the onemember sentence is generally expressed by a noun or a noun-phrase. This type of sentence is rarely used except in written literary English texts. E.g. Silence. Not a word. The sentence containing besides the principle parts also attributes, objects, adverbial modifiers is called an extended sentence. The sentence having no secondary parts is called an unextended sentence. A sentence may contain homogeneous members: - homogeneous subjects - Nick an I are good friends - homogeneous predicates - He came in, grabbed her hand and kissed her. - homogeneous objects - He had force, brains and intelligence -homogeneous attributes -1 found a safe and comfortable place for her. - homogeneous adverbial modifiers - He spoke slowly - almost reluctantly. Simple sentence Two-member One-member Extended unextended extended unextended Elliptical non -elliptical Elliptical non -elliptical 21. Classification of sentences based on their structure. The simple sentence. The composite sentence. Structurally sentences are divided into:1) simple (contains only 1 subject-predicate unit) or composite (more than one), 2) complete or incomplete (elliptical)distinguished by the presence or absence of word-forms in the principal positions of 2-member sentences, 3) t wo-member (two principal parts-the subject and the predicate) or one- member (1 principal part which is either subject, or the predicate). These 3 classifications are based on different approaches to the structural organization of sentence & reflect its different aspects. The simple sentence. 1) Two-member sentences. The basic pattern is one subject-predicate unit. Thus it has 2 main positions: those of the subject and the predicate. There are several variations of this pattern-depend on the kind of the verb occupying the predicate position. This verb may be transitive, in~, ditransitive or a link verb. Sentences may be unextended ( John is clever) and extended (John learned French). A sentence may be extended, not only by obligatory elements but also by optional ones (attributes, certain kinds of prepositional objects, adverbial modifiers) ~ John ran quickly to me. 2) One-member sentences: a) nominal b) verbal. Nominal-the principal part is expressed by a noun, they state the existence of the things. They are typical of descriptions and may be unextended ( Silence. Midnight) &extended (English spring flowers!). Verbal-the principal part expressed by a non-finite form of the verb, infinitive or gerund. Mostly used to describe different emotional perceptions of reality. (To think of that! Living at the mercy of a woman!). The composite sentence is a sentence consisting of 2 or more clauses. In its structure a clause is similar to a simple sentence, but unlike a simple sentence it forms part of a bigger syntactical unit. Clauses may be joined by means of coordination (a compound sentence- The door opened & 2 men came in ) or subordination (a complex sentence ~ I have come to u, because I know that u can help me ). Coordination is a way of linking grammatical elements to make them equal in rank. Subordination makes one of them dependent upon the other. A compound sentence may contain coordination, clauses extended by subordinate clauses - a compound-complex sentence. ( Pooh was very proud when he heard this and Piglet noticed it at once ). A complex sentence may contain subordinate clauses joined by means of coordination - a complex sentence with homogeneous subordinate clauses ( I know that he has come and that he is out of money). 22. Classification of sentences based on the communicative purpose of the utterance (declarative, interrogative, imperative). singled out 3 types of sentences: declarative, interrogative, imperative sentences. DECLARATIVE SENTENCES semanticaily structurally express statements they are unmarked type, i.e. display direct word-order: I love you. Sometimes inversion is used => more emphatic sentences.

Inversion: 1.Full inversion: Down the river came the boat with a 2. Partial inversion: In he came. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES Semanticaily they express questions => we expect a respond. type of question General questions example Are you rich? structure are marked by partial inversion **Confirmative questions Your name is Lera. no inversion are marked by intonation alone (rising) provoke positive answers (you expect confirmation) Special questions When will he kiss me? are marked by a question-word usually a falling tone (though an require a full answer intonation rising intonation answer provoke yes/ no answer

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(wh-wards) placed initially + partial inversion **questions to the subject or some port of it MIXED TYPES: 1. Alternative questions Are you a girl or a boy? (= Are you a girl or are you a boy?) 2. Tagquestions You love me, don't you? a combination of 2 general questions, that are usually contracted into one A declarative sentence + a tag (G = a pronoun corresponding to the subject and + an auxiliary verb corresponding to the predicate) 3. Echoquestions - He loves fucking. - He loves fucking? **special type of echoquestions - John gave me a hug. - Who did what? IMPERATIVE SENTENCES semantically nearly repeat the previous statement Who broke your heart? no inversion

intonation pattern may be different)

the same

the same

rising tone + falling tone ( ...)

require a full answer

the intonation of a tag is falling if the speaker is positive, rising - if he doubts

yes/ no + tag

rising intonation

yes/ no

are generated when the hearer misses some part of the statement structurally

rising intonation

a full answer

Express commands. The notion of commands includes Are marked => they contain a special form of the verb = everything from polite requests to orders. They expect The imperative form (the base of the infinitive). They lack action response. Fuck off. the subject and require a special intonation pattern.

EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES (some grammarians) Are introduced by What/ How. Have no inversion. What a noise they are making! - They are obviously enjoying themselves... This type in fact causes debate. Because the notion of exclamation rather refers to the intonation pattern implied. 22. Classification of sentences based on the communicative purpose of utterance (declarative, interrogative, imperative (and exclamatory)). Simple sentences are divided into 4 syntactical classes, their use correlates with certain communicative functions. 1.) Declarative sentences-statements (+) or (-). This type is unmarked, follows the basic rules of building the sentence, according to the notion of fixed word order the first word-subject, the second -predicate. The marked form of declarative sentences is when inversion is employed. Inversion either full (Down the river came the skiers) or partial (In he came). If inversion is a stylistic device it shows that this sentence belongs to a literary style. If grammatical device -to stress some part of info.

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2.) Interrogative sentences a) General questions presuppose the '-'or '+' answer (yes or no-questions). They are marked (we invert grammatical inversion) and have a particular intonation pattern (arising tone). b) Special questions. They are marked by inversion. At the beginning of special question there is an interrogative pronoun or adverb (wh-questions). Presupposes full answer. The intonation is fall. C) Alternative questions - a compression of 2 general questions. They presuppose full answers. d) Disjunctive questions. A tag-question is a unit of 2 elements: a declarative sentence & a short general question. They have a special intonation pattern. These are stylistically coloured when both parts are '+' or -. Swan: You are getting married after all, are you? a sign of personal involvement & genuine interest. If both parts are '-': U don't like my cooking, don't u?-an obvious sign of irritation. In fact, tag-question is not a question, but structurally it is. 3) Imperative sentences are marked by the absence of subject. (Speak louder!). Sometimes the subject is introduced but never in the first person (You speak louder!). Also marked by a peculiar form of the verb - the imperative of the verb which coincides with the stem of the verb. !!!4) Exclamatory sentences are characterized by emphatic intonation, an exclamatory mark in writing and convey the speakers feelings. But there is one difficulty. Not all these sentences are purely exclamatory, they can belong either to declarative, or interrogative, or imperative ones ( ~ But he cant do anything to you! What can he possibly do to you! Scarlet spare me! ), thats why we should take into account that many linguists do not distinguish exclamatory sentences into a separate point of a classification. 23. Compound and complex sentences. Types of subordinate clauses. composite sentences: compound (clauses have equal rights,they are coordinated); complex (clauses are subordinated) Compound sentences Coordination can be expressed either syndeticaliy or asyndetically. Main semantic relations between clauses: - copulative - adversative - disjunctive - causal - consequential - resultative The same relations can be found between sentences in a text => some grammarians think that compound sentences don't exist (it is "a sequence semantically related independent sentences not separated by full stops in writing"). Their arguments: 1). the possibility of a falling, finalizing tone between the coordinated predicative units 2). The existence in written speech of independently presented sentences introduced by the same conjunctions as the "coordinate clauses" 3) the "coordinate clauses" can be separated by a full stop while the semantic relations between them will be preserved There is a semantico-syntactic difference between the compound sentence and the corresponding textual sequence of independent sentences: -By means of different distributions of predicative units, different distributions of expressed ideas are achieved ( , "coordinative syntactic function in action") - by means of combining or non-combining predicative units into a coordinative sentence we show the closeness or looseness of connections between the reflected events Eg: N adored that actor. M could not stand the sight of him. Each was convinced of the infallibility of one's artistic judgment That aroused prolonged arguments. We can arrange it a bit different: N adored that actor, but M could not stand the sight of him. Each was convinced of the infallibility of one's artistic judgment, and that aroused prolonged arguments. If the "negative" theory of the compound sentence is correct, any coordinative rearrangements of the sentence must be indifferent to the sense of the sentence. N adored that actor. But M could not stand the sight of him, each was convinced of the infallibility of one's artistic judgment, and that aroused prolonged arguments. (PS some subordinate clauses of a complex sentence can also be separated in the text, thus becoming independent sentences => but no one denies the existence of complex sentence) Complex sentences The problem of classifying subordinate clauses is one of the vexed questions of the syntactic theory. There can be different principles of classification: we can classify clauses according to their meaning and syntactical function. By "meaning" we may bring either such notions as "statement/question" or a notion like "explanatory". By "function" -> either the position of a clause within a complex sentence, defined on the same principles as the position of a sentence part within a simple sentence; or on the analogy between a clause and a part of speech performing the same function in a simple sentence. What classification should be accepted as the most rational? 1. the one which draws a parallel between subordinate clauses and parts of speech is inconsistent (clauses and parts of speech resemble each other only in so far as both of them can perform certain functions in the sentence). 2. the one according to which declarative and interrogative clauses (subordinate statements and subordinate questions) are given as types isn't too good either: not every clause will fit into either of these categories {If he had been destitute and she had had money she would have given him all he wanted - is the clause declarative or interrogative?) 3. the classification based on the similarity of the functions of subordinate clauses with parts of the sentence According to this classification the clauses are: - subject (a complex which performs within a complex sentence the same function that the subject performs within a simple sentence) - predicative - object (hard to define; the easiest case=in which the subordinate clause can be replaced by a noun which would then be an object in a simple sentence) - attributive (its function in the complex sentence is analogous to that of an attribute in a simple sentence; characterizes the thing denoted by its head word through some other action or situation in which that thing is involved) - adverbial: a) clauses of place b) of time (=temporal clauses) c) causal clauses d) conditional clauses e) of result

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f) of purpose g)of concession h) of manner and comparison - appositional (always modify a noun, usually an abstract one) - parenthetical (same function as that of a parenthesis in a simple sentence) 23. Compound and complex sentences. Types of subordinate clauses. The compound sentence is a composite sentence built on the principle of coordination, expressed either syndetically (by means of coordinative connectors) or asyndetically. The usual classification into compound and complex sentences should be applied to syndetic composite sentences. The basic difference: in compound sentences none of the clauses of which they consist is below the other in rank, they are coordinated. In complex sentences the clauses are not on an equal footing (the main and subordinate clauses). The base sentences joined into 1 compound sentence lose their independent status and become coordinate. The first clause is leading, the successive clauses are sequential. The coordinators are divided into conjunctions, proper and semi-functional clausal connectors of adverbial character. The main conjunctions are and, but, or, for, yet, so, either or, neither nor, etc. The main adverbial coordinators are then, yet, so, thus, however, etc. Unlike conjunctions they can shift their position in a sentence. The semantic relations between the clauses making up the compound sentence depend partly on the lexical meaning of the conjunction uniting them and partly on the meanings of the words making up the clauses themselves. The coordinating conjunctions differ in definiteness of meaning (E.g. but' has a clear adversative meaning, 'and has different shades of meanings: The old lady read the letter and her eyes filled with horror -a meaning of cause. The bazaar had taken place Monday and today was only Thursday -an adversative shade of meaning). The number of clauses in a compound sentence may be greater than two, and in that case the conjunctions may be different.(Gerald was disappointed, for he wanted a son, but he nevertheless was pleased over his small daughter). The complex sentence is a polypredicative construction built up on the principle of subordination. It's derived from 2 or more base sentences, one of which performs the role of a matrix in relation to the insert sentences. Various types of subordinate clauses affect the principal clause from the point of view of its completeness. (Your statement was just what you were expected to say. ). The principal clause dominates the subordinate positionally, but it doesn't necessarily express the central informative part of the communication. In a neutral context the rhematic part of the sentence tends to be placed in the end, so the clause-order is very important (E.g. The boy was friendly with me because I allowed him to keep the fishing line ). Intonation plays also a crucial role, and also lexical and constructional theme-forming elements such as emphatic particles, patterns of logical accents of different kinds. Types of subordinate clauses. The main classification of subordinate clauses is based on the similarity of their functions with those of parts of the sentence: Subjective clause is a clause which performs within a complex sentence the same fund that the subject performs within a simple sentence. ( What surprised me most was his kindness). Predicative clause (E.g. This was what she expected him to say). If it's dropped, the sentence will be unfinished- a link v without a predicative. Objective clause - if the subordinate clause could be replaced by a noun, which would then be an object in a simple sentence ( He bought what he wanted-he bought a book). Attributive clauses can be limiting and descriptive (contain some additional info- Magnus, who was writing an article for The Sun, looked up and said...). Adverbial clauses (subordinate clauses denoting a secondary part of speech, not an adverb): a) Clauses of place-expressed by relative adverb where ( Then go where u usually sleep at night ) b) Clauses of time-many conjunctions (She made a little curtsy as he bowed). c) Causal clauses (As this car is very expensive it's a matter of prestige to buy it). D) Conditional clauses (introduced by if, unless, provided, in case-If we have some money we shall buy it). Peculiarity-the use of verbals. E) Clauses of result (introduced by that, so that-She was so charmed with his eyes, that she didn't notice his drawbacks ). f) Clauses of purpose (that, in order that, so that-He crossed the street so that Mary could see him ) g) Clauses of concession (though, although-She smiled though she was trembling ) h) Clauses of manner (You must explain it as best as u can) and comparison (His eyes met those of his mother's as though swords have been crossed ). Appositional clauses modify a noun, usually abstract (fact, idea, question, plan)He suffered from the idea that Alex could win. Parenthetical clauses-introduced by 'it seems, as was said (mentioned, stressed) above, as you will see later, as you see', etc, - As you see, he is guilty). 24. Elliptical sentences. Types of ellipsis According to structural aspect, the sentences can be complete and incomplete (elliptical) Elliptical sentences exist in any languages. They are incomplete and reflect changes in our flow of thought. They are usually not discussed in grammas. Incomplete sentences are structures in which one of the main parts or both are omitted. They are treated as secondary forms to regular complete sentences. There are 2 types: 1. Sentences that are dependent on what has gone before John. - It can be a reply to questions Who did it? Or Who do you see? They are contextually conditioned their complete structure can be restored from the previous sentences . This kind of ellipsis is called contextual or syntagmatic. 2. Want to go to the movies? Impossible to hear you. Such sentencesdo not depend on what has gone before. They are not contextually conditioned. Their structure can be restored from the paradigm of analogous complete sentences. Want to go to the movie? = Do you want... This incompleteness is purely grammatical. Such s-s are termed grammatical or paradigmatic. There are 2 subtypes: - structures which can be completed only in one way with the help of one paradigm only: Want to go - structures which can be restored employing one or two paradigm Cigarette?-Doyou want a... Would you like a ... Such elliptical sentences dont depend on previous s-s but they depend on speech situation. Some grammarians consider elliptical s-s of the second subtype as an independent structural group. They argue that they should be treated as s-s wit thei own right, as they belong to a particular sphere of speech (informal) 24. Elliptical sentences. Types of ellipsis. In any language(lng)we can come across incomplte s-s,which appear due to interruptions or changes of mind on the part of the speaker. I was only....incomplete sentense(sent.) The s-s can`t be regarded as an object of analysis, since there`re incomplete and are easily recognised as such. If we use the word incomplete as a gram.term, we shall focus on the so called elliptical s-s.

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By them most grammarians understand structures in which one of the main parts or both main parts are omitted(ellipted). El.s-s are treated as secondary forms in regard to complete s-s,where both main patrs are present. El.s-s s-s with 1 or more of their parts left out,which can be unambiguously (,) inferred( ) from the context El.s-s can be of 2 types: 1)dependent on what has gone before F.e. John may be an answer to a question(?) Who did it?Who did you see? These s-s are contextually conditioned,so their full structure can be restored from a previous sent. This type of ellipsis is called contextual or syntagmatic 2)El.s-s such as Want to go to the movie? Can`t hear you do not depend on the previous context,their full structure can be restored from the paradigm of the analogous complete s-s( ). Such incompleteness is purely grammatical,because ir`s not conrextually dependent. That`s why we call them grammatical or paradigmatic.They are further subdivided into 2 groups: 1. there are structures which can be completed in 1 way only with the help of 1 paradygm only 2. there exist structures which can be completed in several ways: F.e. Cigarette?= Would u like a cigarette?Can I offer u a cigarette?Do u care for a cigarette? The meaning of such El.s-s doesn`t depend on the previous context either but on the speech situation. Some linguists prefer to term them situational El.s-s El.s-s are to be found in oral or pseudo-oral speech. Depending on the presence of the secondary parts of the sent.,El.s-s can be exrended and unextended. 25. Principal Parts of the Sent. The subject. Types of subjects. The problem of anticipatory IT. Sentence - the basic unit of communication grammatically organized and expressing a complete thought. Members of the Sentence: 2 groups: Prime members (subject, predicate) Secondary members Subject - what is being discussed in a sentence. The theme of the S. It's gr-ly independent and it determines the Sg/Pl form of the predicate, it can also determine theperson. Structurally it can be expressed by Words, Word groups, a predicative construction, a clause. Morphologically by a noun, pronoun, a non-finite form. Ss where the subj is expressed by a notional verb are called personal. But very often the subj can be expressed by "it", sometimes it's impersonal and has no lex meaning of its own. Sentences with IT: 1.Denote climatic predications: e/g It's warm/ cold/ chilling/ fucking cold. ...whatsoever! 2.Denote time: e/g it's late, it's 5 o'clock, it's time to wrap up the exam! =)) 3. Distance: e/g It's 10 miles to the town 4. Qualities of situations: e/g it's noisy here 5. Attitude to the situation: e/g it's impossible to bear it Ss where IT serves as a formal element: e/g It was announced that. It's no use... Many grammarians say that "IT" in such Ss is a replacement of a notional subject. Anticipatory object ( IT): The subj proper is expressed by a verbal or a clause. In such Ss the notional Subj is the postponed subj (). These Grammarians argue that Ss with "anticipatory" IT can be transferred into Ss with the regular w-order: e/g It's no use going there Going there is no use. Other Gr-s don't share this point of view 1. There's no reason why a S should have 2 heterogeneous subjects. 2. In some cases "structures beginning with IT" aren't interchangeable. : e/g it's time to begin Theoretically speaking the change in the form is possible but the resultant Ss don't sound natural. Gr-s find it difficult to define the status of "it" in the Sentence. e/g Smirnitsky thinks that it's a subj while the rest of the Sent forms a predicate Krylova, Gordon - the verbals used in Ss beginning with IT are objects. And if we deal w/a clause, it's an object clause. 25. The principal parts of the s-ce. The subj.Types of subj-s in E.The problem of the anticipatory IT. The subj. is one of the two main parts of the sent. (1)meaning(relation of the subj. to the thought expressed in the sent.)It denotes the thing(here the term includes human beings,abstract notins,etc.) whose action or characteristic is expressed by the predicate. (2)syntactical relations in the sent. It`s not dependent on any other part of the sent. (3)its morphological realization May be expressed by different parts of speech,the most frequentones being:a noun in the common case,a personal pronoun in the nominative case,a demonstrative pronoun occasionally,a substantivized adj,a numeral,an infinitive, a gerund.,also may be expressed by a phrase Subj. conveys the theme of the sent. or what is being described in the sent. It influences the form of the predicate & the type of the relations b\n the sub. & the pred. Subj-s can be notional - refers to a living being,a thing,a material or an abstract notion Peter saw him in the street. The house was large.The snow was rather deep.The idea seemed good- The sent.containing a notional subj. is called a personal sentence(p.sent). A specific instance of p.sent. wiil be an indefinite personalsent.The meaning of the subj. In such instances is rather vague,indefinte.The pronouns we,youone,they will be used here ( One could never make too many friends in a strange place) and formal it or therebeing used as such,and when used as a formal subj.they have no lexical meaning and are used as purely structural elements to make the sent.comply with the normal 2-member English sent.-pattern ( -) It as subj.of an impersonal sent. can denote natural phenomena(it`s raining); time(It was very late) and distances (It`s four miles to the sea.) It may also be used as a formal subj.when the notional subj.is expressed by an inf. or a gerund used absolutely or as part of a phrase or syntactic complex(It was pleasant to go there. It was pleasant for him to go there) Note1: Don`t mix up: It was pleasant to go there.He knew he was expected(=To go there was pleasant) It formal subj.,to go notional subj. The task was rather complicated,but it was pleasant to do(The task was pleasant to do) It notional subj., to do object to the predicate was pleasant Note2 : It may be used as a formal subj.also in emphatic constructions of the type : It was he who went there (emphatic it) ( 309)Grammarians say that IT in such sentences replace the notional sub., the anticipatory it. The notional sub. is expressed here either by inf., gerund, clause, it`s placed at the end of the sent and is called postponed sub. It`s possible to employ some transformations to these sentences: It`s necessary to do it To do it is necessary. But some linguists ( ) don`t share this point of view. The say:1. It`s not reasonable for an E. sent. to have two sub-s. 2. with some sentences transformations are impossible (It`s time to go there). The further problem is that they don`t define the

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status of formal IT in these sent-s.: The inf. Phrase or the gerundial phrase here is an element of a compound predicate. -: treat inf-s and ger-s as objects and if we have a clause, it`s an object clause. The word there is used as a formal subj.generally when the notional subj.is expressed by a noun(a noun phrase) and also sometimes when the notional subj.is expressed by a gerund(ger.phrase/complex) (There was a table in the corner.There`s no use complicating things for you) 26. Principal parts of the sentence. The predicate. Different classifications of the predicate. Predicate is what being said about the theme. It's sth new - the rheme. The form of the P. depends on the subject. The predicate can also influence the subject ascribing to it certain actions or qualities and placing the activity of the subject into certain periods of time or regarding the activity of the subject from a certain angle. E.g. The boy went to-school. The boy is 5. The boy can go to school this ear. The predicate is more important than the subject as in communication it expresses predication. Predicates can be of several types: 1. P. can consist of 1 finite verb in a synthetic or analytical form. Such predicates are called simple predicates. E.g. I talked to him yesterday I was talking to him yesterday. , 2. Compound predicates consist of 2 groups - compound nominal predicate - compound verbal predicate CNP comprises a link verb and a nominal part. Nominal part of the predicate is called a predicative. The most frequent link verb is to be. But there are others: To feel To grow To become To get To mean Locative constructions E.g. They are in Moscow. They are here. A model for these sentences - to be + adverb(or a prepositional phrase) Traditional point of view - an adverb or a prepositional phrase in such sentences function as predicatives and is considered together with to be CNP. To be is the only possible link here. Other grammarians disagree. : the verb to be is not always devoid of lexical meaning. The lexical meaning of to be depends on its syntactic environment. E.g. He is here => the meaning of the verb to be is very close to the meaning of the verb to stay. The meeting is tonight => the meaning of to be is to take place. To be + adverb = a special kind of predicate = an adverbial predicate 26. The principal parts of the s-ce.The predicate.Diff-t classifications of the predicate. The pred. Is one of the two main parts of the sent. (1)meaning It denotes the action or property of the thing expressed by the subj. (2)syntactical relations in the sent. It is not dependent on any other part of the sent. (this statement requires some comment- sometimes it`s claimed that pred.agrees in number with subj.-subj.singular,pred.singular;subj.plural,pred.plural - but it`s doubtful in sent. like My family were sitting in the kitchen ) (3)its morphological realization Ways of expressing the pred. are varied and their structure will better be considered when discussing types of predicate Usually pred. is a rheme of the sentence, it conveys new info about the subject, it is what is being discussed in the sentence. Indicates whether the subj is or is not viewed as the doer of the action denoted by the predicate(through its active oe passive form) Is the principle means of expressing predication, establishes relations b\n reality. Categories of predication: tense, mood, person, number. Pred.may be classified in 2 ways,one-based on their structure(simple&compound) A Simple Pred.1)Verbal,2)Nominal B Compound Pred.1)Verbal,2)Nominal the other- based on their morphological characteristics(verbal&nominal) A Verbal Pred.1)Simple2)Compound B Nominal Pred1)Simple2)Compound The ultimate result is of course the same in both cases A simple pred is generally expressed by one word- a verb in its finite form The boy went there alone(synthetic verb form), We shall see him tomorrow(analytical verb form) A special kind of simple verbal pred.in English are those formed by multi-word verbs (to catch sight of=to see, to have a look = to look,to have adinner= to dine,to make use = to use,etc.) The compound predicate is expressed by a group a interrelated components.In accordance with their principle component predicates may be subdivided into compound verbal&compound nominal. Compound verbal predicate = modal/aspective verb +main part(expr.by a notional verd in the form of hte inf/gerund occasionally) He can go home He began working Also may be compound modal aspective Why will you continue to write about this? We have to keep on hoping Compound nominal predicate(CNP) = link verb(link verbs of being-to be,to continue,to feel,etc;of becoming- to become,to grow,to turn,to get; of seeming(appearing to seem,to look,to tasre,etc)+predicative(a single word He was happy, a phrase-He seemed quite happy, a syntactic complex That is for me to decide ) A special kind of CNP will be double predicate,a CNP where insted of the link verb ther`s a notional verb-it preserves its original lex.meaning&at the same time performs the function of a link He stood quiet near the window=He stood near the window.He was quiet. The term double pred. was originally introduced and discussed by . Note:a special type of double when nothional verb is followed by an object ant the predicative part follows the object& refers to it semantically-all this is called compound nominal with an objective predicative They elected him president for a second term Note: CNP may also be modal/aspective.In this case the link verb will be preceded by a modal or an aspective verb Beginning to be smug already,are you ,Ian? He must be at least 20years younger than she is! Occasionally we come across compound nominal aspective modal predicates( !!!) He must begin feeling better now

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The majority of predicates are used both in written and oral,double pred.and modal aspective mainly in written English (.- , - ) : has its own classification of predicates. The existing class-n of pred-s disregards the meaning of the predicate. Pred-s should be cass-d into: 1. pred-s, denoting processes( He arrived). 2. qualifying the sub. (He is old\ a doctor). 3. objective predicates ( The book consists of five chapters. He has many friends. He resembles his father) has\consist\resemble serve to express relations b\n the sub. and the obj. here. Their lex. Meaning is weakened. Besides chapters\ father\friends don`t qualify the sub. They`re objects with different reference. Such sent-s shouldn`t be mixed up with: He sings songs. He reads books. here the words possess their lex. M-g to the full extend. 4. adverbial pred-s ( He is here in Moscow). 27. Difficulties in analyzing secondary parts of sentence. Means of their expression. This is the universal division for many European Ls: 1. attribute 2. object 3.adverbial modifier. But it is being criticized: such treatment doesn't allow to single out individual features of a L BUT it is natural for it reflects the relations of the objective reality. The theory of secondary parts is not complete. Not everything is defined. It is difficult to find objective criteria to determine the function of a secondary part of sentence. => Several main CONTRADICTIONS: An object is usually defined as a person/ thing that takes part in the process denoted by the predicate verb. 1. He drinks vodka -> a direct object 2. He offered me vodka. => an indirect object 3. He thinks about more vodka. -> a prepositional object 4. He doesn 't like to drink diluted vodka. -> infinitive as a n object* * 4 is disputed. once said: the main feature of the object is to denote a thing ( ) => infinitive cannot be regarded as art object... - similar views => treat the infinitive as part of a complex verbal predicate. Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between the attribute and the adverbial modifier. example dilemma The man next door suggested we get married. Tired and disappointed, she refused to smoke opium. The weather that winter was cold for going naked. an attribute OR an adverbial modifier of place? attribute OR adv. modifier of reason? attribute OR adv. modifier of time?

Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between objects and adverbial modifiers. example dilemma I kissed him in the lips. He was glad to disappoint her. a prepositional object OR an adv. modifier of place? object OR adv. mod, of reason OR (some grammarians) part of the predicate

Predicative constructions are treated differently. example I saw him come/ coming She was seen to humiliate men/ humiliating men.

dilemma a Complex object OR object + objective predicative a Complex subject OR subject + subjective Predicative

Because of all these contradictions: amer. Freeze: notions of subject structure and object structure; but he regards the rest of the secondary parts as modifiers, Zandboort and Harris: a term "adjunct" to denote any secondary part. MEANS OF EXPRESSING SECONDARY PARTS OF SENTENCE ATTRIBUTE 1. Adjectives (a) or adjectival phrases (b) which characterize the person or non-person qualities or express the speaker's attitude. a) We sat on the soft sofa and... well, just sat there. b) We sat there, unable to move or say a word. 2. Pronouns or pronominal phrases, which help to identify or define a person/ non-person. Can you see those children of mine anywhere? 3. Numerals (ordinal or cardinal), which state the number or order, or serve to identify persons/ things. He was my first man. It is part two of the book. 4. Nouns in the common case singular (a) or prepositional nominal phrases (b)=> quality or locative/ temporal/ etc features of a person/ thing. a)We did it at the garden wall. It was rough. b)He was a man of strange habits 5. Nouns or pronouns in genitive case. His girlfriend's bottom is his pride, joy and personal source of enjoyment. 6. Statives (though rarely) No man alive would eat your cooking. 7. Participle I (a), II (b) and participial phrases (c) -> characterise a person/thing through an action/ process/ reaction. a) He laughed at the crying girl. Bastard. b) I couldn 't help laughing when I saw his shaved face.

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c) I glanced at the man knitting by the window. 8.Gerunds (a), gerundial phrases (b), gerundial complexes (c) => usually characterize things from the point of view of their function/ purpose. a) Her walking shoes were elegant and the singing teacher envied her desperately. b) He showed no sign of having ever known me. Jerk. c) There is no chance of our seeing him again. He left for Leipzig. 9 Infinitives (a), infinitive phrases (b), infinitive complexes (c) => characterize through a real/ unreal action. a) You are the one to blame. b) He is not a man to experiment with sex. c)This is a problem for you to solve 10.Adverbs (a), adverbial phrases (b), a) The then president sucked, b) If you live in an out of the way place -I'm sorry. 11. Sentences used as a whole (so called "quotation nouns). She looked at him with a kind of don't-touch-me or- Ill-slap you air and he risked. 12. Attribute clauses I loved the boy who loved boys. OBJECT 1. Nouns, substantivized adjectives or participles. I kissed the girt. She helped the poor/ the wounded. (But that was not t reason why I kissed her.) 2. Numerals, phrases with numerals. I found three of them behind the door of my bathroom. 3.Gerunds, gerundial phrases. He insists on coming (who doesn 't)). I hate being looked after. 4. Pronouns, I don't want anybody here. But they don't understand that. 5.Infinitives, infinitive phraser. I am glad to see you. I have to learn how to strip men of money. 6.Different predicative complexes. I felt him trembling all over. He wanted it done quickly. Everything depended on his, working properly with his hands. 7. Object clauses. I thought of what he had done and wanted more. ADVERBIAL MODIFIER 1. Adverbs. You sing beautifully. And I often lie. 2. Adverbial phrases. It happened three months ago and lasted for three minutes. 3. A noun/ pronoun/ numeral preceded by a preposition. Behind him stood a horse. It happened in 2004. There: was her lover unde, 4. A noun or this/ that/every/last/next* a noun Wait a minute! Come this way, please. 5.Non-finite forms: Gerund: I eat before going to bed. Infinitive: I come here to make love to you. Participle: Walking in the garden, we found a very comfortable wall. 6.Predicative complexes: Gerundial constructions: Are you angry because of my being late? Absolute constructions: The meal over, we began drinking. (non-prepositional ) You mustn't do it with children watching, (prepositional) 7. A conjunction + adjective: I do it if necessary. noun: As a little girl she went to the forest. participle: When argued with, I get irritated. While doing it I got tired. infinitive: As if to calm him down, she gave him some pills. 8. Clauses Won 't you stay forever or at least till the rain stops? I stayed with him because he asked me. I'm very kind. 27. Difficulties in analyzing secondary parts of the s-ce.Means of their expression. The usual classification of these parts into Objects(Ob),attributes(At),and adverbal modifiers(AdMo) is familiar to everyone,no mayyet whay gis mothe tongue may be and what foreign lng he is studying.Yet it has many weak points.The characteristic feature of each of the three types are not clearly defined,and is a mayyer of personal opinion. The Ob a sec.part of the sent,referring to a part of the sent. expressed by a verb,a noun,a substantival pronoun,an adj,a numeral,ao an adverb, and denoting a thing to which the action passes on,which is the result of the action,in reference to which an action is commited or a property is manifested,or denoting an action as object of another action. The first item of the definition means that Ob can refer to any part of speech.The second item enumerates certain semantic poinrs in the relation between the thing denoted by the object and the action with wcich it is connected,but it`s incomplete as it doesn`t include an object denoting the doer of the action with the predicative verb in the passive voice.(so,+one more meaning-the thing(or person) which is the origin of the action(with the predicate verb in the Pass.Voice),And still this addition will not make the 2 nd item of the definition satisfactory.The essential ? remains unanswered: what is the meaning ofthe Ob.,or,what is that which unites all those meanings into 1 category,called the Ob? The At a sec.part of the sent modifying a part of the sent expressed by a noun,a substatival pronoun,a cardinal numeral,any substantivuzed word,and characterizing the thing named by these words as to its quality or property. Differences:1)the At,distinct from the Ob. cannot modify a verb,an adj.or an adverb2)the At espresses a property while the Ob expresses a thing Commom:they both can modify a noun,a pronoun and a numeral The AdMo - a sec.part of the sent modifying a part of the sent expressed by a verb,a verbal noun,an adj,oer an adverb,and serving to characterizi an action or a property as to its quality or intensity,or to indicate the way an action is done,the time,place,cause,purpose,condition,with which the action or manifestetion of the quality is connected. Common with the Ob: both expressed by a verb,a verbal noun,an adj,an adverb Common with the At: both can be expressed by a verbal noun

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Summing up the comparisons, the 1st item of the the definitions leaves room for ambiguity 1)if the part of the sent which is modifyed is expressed by a noun,its modifier may be either an Ob or an At2)if it is expressed by a verbal noun,the modifier may be either anOb,an At,or AdMo3)if it`s expr.by an Adj,the modifier may be either an Ob or AdMo4)if it`s expr.by a cardinal numeral,the modifier an Ob or At5)if it`s expr.by the verb,the modifier- an Ob or AdMo6)if it`s expr. by an adverb the modifier- either an Obor an AdMo When speaking ab.the 2nd item of the definitions,we should say that at first we check the 1st item,then if the modifier can be either an Ob or an At,our choice depends on our opinion and is subjective.If the choice is very difficult to make,then maybe it is easier just to say that it is a sec.part of speech,not specifying which one=))) 28. Text as a structural and semantic unit of communication. Types of texts. Grammatical means of expressing cohesion in texts. Text = highest unit of speech. In fact we speak not in sentences, but in texts. If we consider isolated sentences in a discourse/ in the process of a discourse, we find that it's very rare that one sentence expresses the complete idea, which is clear without any context. Usually in order to make ourselves understood we have to produce a whole sequence of sentences which forms what is termed now discourse - the process of communication. I'm sorry /- may mean very many things, we can't translate it without a context. It's very difficult to give the definition of the text, there are several problems: - the length of the utterance (where are the headlines of the text, where are the signals of its beginning and its end). The text is a sequence of linguistic units joined together by semantic connections and characterized by integrity (), wholeness (), and cohesion (). Textual linguist may understand something, which is as short as a sentence or even an interjection (complete and coherent), as long as a whole text: story, novel. Text as a linguistic unit has its own semantic and structural categories: The main semantic features/categories: - information - profundity presupposition - completeness 1) Any text should carry complete information; it should express a certain communication. 2) By profundity some authors mean that the text should have some depth, some food for thinking, some idea, which may either be expressed, or may be understood implicitly. 3) By presupposition we mean the shared knowledge: there should be some level at which we communicate, otherwise there may be complete misunderstanding, 4)The text should be complete in meaning, it shouldn't be abrupt (except for fiction where it's a stylistic device). As to the structural categories of the text, they are: - integration - cohesion - retrospection - prospection - continuum - polyphony 1) integrity (): to achieve integrity we use certain logical connections and connectors, a certain composition, a certain word order. 2)Cohesion - to provide the logical connection (logical connectors: conjunction, parenthentic words, the article, pronominalization). 3) Retrospection + Prospection = profundity in semantics Expressed with the 16 tense-aspect forms. 4) Polyphony = a good text usually has more than one line of thinking, of reasoning, which is very important for fiction. 5) Continuum = the text should continue without breaking, it shouldn't be abrupt. Tense forms, number forms, mood forms - all this provides for cohesion and continuum of a certain text. Types of texts: (3 main types) 1) narrative (in a narrative text the most important thing which provides for prospection and retrospection are forms expressing time and word expressing space). 2) Description (temporal and spacious characteristics). 3) Dialog - for description mostly spacious characteristics (considering space, not time) - for the dialog - the dynamic means, in a dialog we have more colloquial words, more vivid words, more interjections than in other types of texts. 28. Text as a str.& semantic unit of communication.types of texts. Gram.means of expressing cohesion in texts Text(t.) is a structural and semantic unit used in language communication. It has a minimum border line it always contains no less then two components complete utterances, simple or composite, a text always presupposes the existence of a certain cohesion b\n its components-utterances. A t. has no max. ( upper) border line that can be grammatically defined, its given by the extra ling. situation which is reflected in the text. Besides complete utterances the t. may also contain special connectors\means of text cohesion 1. the order of the elements in the monologue each succeeding utterance in the paragraph is supposed to be a communication, a development of the idea, exp. In the previous part of the text; in the dialogue the words of the preceding speaker are understood as a clue to which the words of the next speaker are kind of response. 2. conjunctions join not only utterance, but also utterances within a text . 3. articles. Definite article is often used anaphorically to indicate a link b\n a following and a preceding utter., or a previous situation. The indefinite art. generally point to the center of communication, the most important item, expressed in the paragraph; it can also be used cataphorically to indicate that the following text will devoted to the description of the object introduced by the noun mod. by the ind. art.( the same in titles of books and in news headlines ). 4. pronouns ( esp. personal, possessive and demonstrative + pronominal adverbs0, they are often used as anaphoric connectors . 5. Forms of the verb. The non-perfect form (continuous or common) begins a paragraph giving the general background, the time-point of the sit. described in the paragraph, thus organizing all its utter-s into the same text cataphorically. The perfect form seldom begins a paragraph as it indicates a relation b\n the given and the previous situation. Its generally placed towards the end of the end of the par. organizing it anaphorically . 6. ellipsis, elliptical utter. can be understood only within a text. 7. Parenthesis. They may be expressed by a word(doubtless, first, further, however, now, second, therefore), a phrase( at least, for example, for instance, in a sense, in my opinion, no doubt, no wonder, of course, on the contrary), a clause(it seems, as was said\mentioned\stressed above, as you will see later, one may think). Such phrases arent grammatically linked with the rest of the utter. into which they are imbedded, they

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dont perform in it any gram. function, they are used for : a)to stress the attitude of the speaker to the events in the text, give a certain modal coloring to the text.. b) to exemplify smth previously mentioned. c) to refer the utter., to link it anaphorically or cataphorically to some other utterance in the text a kind of text connector. d) sometimes they may be used to establish a closer contact with the listener, to switch the conversation onto a more friendly basis(you see, you know, let us see). There are two types of texts: monologues(written speech; grouped into superphrasal units\paragraphs; full forms, Ind. or Sub. mood, Imp. rare, finite or nonfinite9absolutely or in complexes)verb forms, non-elliptical utterances, two\one member utter-s, close\loose attributes or adv. modifiers, homogeneous members, complex\compound utterances, syndetic\asyndetic adjoinment, indirect speech) and dialogues (oral speech, grouped into minimal conversations, contracted forms, Ind. or Imp. mood, Sub. rare, finite forms, non-finite-rare ( used absolute), elliptical\non-ell. utter-s, two member utter-s, close attr. or adv. modifiers, hom. members-rare, simple\compound utter-s, complex rare, mainly asyndatical adjoinment, direct\indirect speech). 29.Transformational-generative grammar. The notion of kernel sentences. The procedure of embedding. Analysis of sentences in transformational grammar. Transformational-generative grammar offers an explanation of how native speakers form/generate sentences. These grammarians think that the system of any language contains a rather small number of kernel sentences (). Sentences of a more complicated structure are derived from the kernel elements by certain rules. The basic rule: S >NP +VP Sentence noun phrase verb phrase >complement - Bob watched TV. Specialized rule: VP > V > modifier - Bob looked amused. > zero - Bob laughed. The SVC pattern (subject verb complement) is kernel. Why is it called transformational grammar? Because it makes use of transforms: # George looks like his sister. - kernel sentence. George doesn 't look like his sister. - Transform of a basic pattern. Even the most complicated sentences can be derived from these kernel sentences. # Dear John looks exactly like his twin sister Mary. Every complicated sentence contains 1 or 2 embedded sentences - the procedure of embedding: # The old man saw the black dog there. Kernel sentences: 1). The man saw a dog there 2) The man was old 3) The dog was black. If we take similar structures, the procedure of embedding helps us to find the meaning of these structures: # John is eager to please. - kernel: John pleases somebody. John is easy to please. - Somebody pleases John. # He's the man to watch. - The man watches or Somebody watches him. He's the man to win. - The man wins. So 2 different kernel sentences lie in the core of the analyses, which finds its expression in the meaning of the derived patterns. 29. Transformational-generative grammar. The notion of kernel sentences. The procedure of embedding. Analysis of sentences in transformational grammar. TGG was born inside the descriptive gr-r. It offers the explanation of how native speakers form or generate S-ces. According to it, the system of any language contains a rather limited number of kernel bases. And different S-ces with more complicated str derived from these kernel S-ces by certain derivation rules. They r as follows: S-ce=> NP+VP where NP any Word or W-group that are used is Langeage and recognized by speakers. VP a V or a V+compiments (objs). Generative gr. can go on writing more specialized rules: VP => V+NP #Bob watched TV. VP=> V+modifiers #Bob looked amaized. VP => zero #Bob laughed. Every complicated str contain one or more kernel patterns which ar set to be embedded in the longer S-ces. # Bob looks like his sister kernel S-ce; Dear Bob looks exactly like his twin-sister Mary. The procedure of embedding: #The old man saw a black dog there contains 3 kernel S-ces: 1.The man saw a dog there. 2.The man was old. 3. The dog was black. But in S-ces like #John is easy to please. John is eager to please. kernel S-ces r different: John pleases smb and Smb. pleases John. each of these 2 S-ces is kernel. Transformational-generative grammar offers an explanation of how native speakers form or generate sentences (S)(Ss) The followers believe that the sys. of any language (L) contains a rather small of basic/ kernel / nucleus ( .) Ss. More complicated structures are derived from these kernel elements. They employ derivation rules: 1) the basic rule is S = NP + VP 1) the V phrase = V+1) NP 2) Modifier 3) Zero 1) Bob watched TV. (object) 2) He looked amused(he looked amazing) (looked amazed) 3) He laughed. (V has nothing after it the boy smiled) (smiled a lot) ~John looks like his sister Mary to make a ? or neg. answer we should use transformation ~John doesnt = transformed Ss (derivat.) ~Does John = ~ Dear John looks exactly like his twin sister Mary Procedure of embedding. The kernel S is embedded ~The old man saw a black dog there. Kernel sentences: 1) the man saw a dog. 2) the man was old. 3) the dog was black. The old man saw a dog which was black embedded pattern, thansform.

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1) John is eager to please 2) John is easy to please These 2 Ss will have the same derivational tree ,but if we imply the methods of transforms it will be different. 1) John pleased smb 2) Smb pleases John=its easy for smb to please John These Ss possess diff. kernel patterns which finds its expression in the mng. of derived Ss (patterns) Other e.gs 1) he is the man to watch ( a)he is the man; b)smb watches him) 2) he is the man to win ( a)he is the man; b)he wins 30. Semantic Syntax. The theory of deep cases. Controversial issues of Fillmore's theory. Semantic syntax- is a subj that deals w/explaining language use on the basis of semantic model. Ways of structuring semantic meanings: Semantic Roles ( W.Chafe) It's the semantic content of the verb that determines semantic role: which nouns accompany the verb, how the Ns will be semantically specified (e/g The man laughed). Verb is characterized as action here, it dictates that it should be accompanied by a noun which is related to it as agent and this N should be specified as animate and also human (in some cases). e/g The chair laughed - Noun is abnormally animate b/c of the semantic content of the verb. Chafe compares these 2 examples. Deep Grammar - sys of rules that determine surface and deep str-re of the S, the relations btw these 2 str-res, the semantic interpretation of the deep str-re and the phonetic interpretation of the surface str-re. e/g The shooting of the hunters was terrible 1 surface, 2 str-res: #1 The hunters shot sb and it was terrible #2 Sb shot the hunters and it was terrible e/g He needs watching (Active only on the surface, in deep grammar it's passive) He likes watching (Active on both levels) The Deep Str-re is associated with the theory of Deep Cases (Charles Fillmore) e/g John plays piano Piano is played by John Determined by the opposition to the predicate (before/off) BUT: the deep subj and the deep obj are the same. e/g John plays the piano John - agentive case Piano - objective case IN BOTH SENTENCES!!! Instrumental Case: e/g I write with a pen Dative Case: e/g He gave the students a lecture Locative case: e/g We live in a city Factitive Case: e/g The boys dug a hole (it's an object resulting from an action or state) CONTROVERSIAL CASES: e/g John broke the window with a stone : John- agentive, stone - instrumental Agentive must be animate (Fillmore) e/g The wind broke the window - Instrumental (Fillmore) e/g The wind broke the window with hail stones : Fillmore => 2 instruments : wind and hail 30. Deep and surface structures. The theory of deep cases. Controversial issues of Ch. Fillmores theory. The semantic aspects of the sentence Deep & surface structures(STRs) of the S Deep gr. is a modification of generative gr., a modification of some of its methods & concepts. Linguists (L-ts) state that the language has phonological , syntactical & semantic components. Accordingly, Ss have an underlying, or deep structure & a phonological, or surface str. ( ) A native speaker understands both STRs when he produces speech act. He may not represent the deep structure in physical signal? Phonologically. But he always have the deep structure in mind as he produces surface structure. Deep grammar - a system of rules that determine the deep & the surface STRSs of the L, relation between them & the semantic interpretation of the deep structure & the phonetic interpretation of the surface STR. An ambiguous sentence: ~The shooting of hunters was terrible The surface structure is the same but we have 2 different deep structures: 1) Smb shot the hunters & it was terrible. 2) The hunters shot smb & it was terrible. (1) he needs watching (2) he likes watching The sentences seem identical in the surface structure but on the deep level they are different. (1)The sentence is active only on the surface level; on the deep level it is passive. (2) The sentence is active in meaning both on the surface and on the deep structure. It finds its expression in translation. The deep STR is often associated with the theory of deep cases. We find a variety of views on the of deep cases. FILLMOR 1) John plays the piano 2) the piano is played by John The grammatical subjects and objects are marked by thei position according to the predicate. The deep subject John is the doer of the action in both sentences. The deep object the piano the object of the action. Piano(1 S) by John objects in the surface level The agentive(John) & the objective(piano) case The deep subject = the agentive casebjective case The deep object = the

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Cases: 1) Agentive 2) Objective 3) Instrumental ( I write with a pen) 4) Dative- animate being which is effected by the action of the sent.(He gave the students a lecture) 5) Locative (we live in the city) 6) Factitive case the object resulting from some action ( the boy dug a hole) Difficulties in the theory 1) The definitions of the cases are rather vague. Ex-s: Agentive and Instrumental cases. ~John(agentive) broke the window with a stone(instrum.) Fillmore states that The Agentive Cas is typically animate. Therefore when he lookes upon the sentence ~ The wind(instrum.) broke the window But: ~ The wind(instr.) broke the window with hailstones(instr.) We are at a loss since we have two instrumental cases, and it is difficult to distinguish this sentence from: ~John broke the window with a stone. 31 Semantic syntax. Deep and surface structures. Semantic relations between noun and verb: agent and patient. Language has phonological, syntactical and semantic components. Grammar must take into consideration all these aspects. Sentence has to have a deep structure and surface structure (which is phonological). A native speaker understands both. He always has the deep structure in mind when he produces sentences. Deep Grammar - a system of rules that determine the deep and surface structures of sentence, their relation, the semantic interpretation of the deep structure and the phonetic interpretation of the surface structure. E.g. the shooting of the hunters was terrible - 2 deep structures and 1 surface structure 1. The hunters shot sb and it was terrible 2.Sb shot the hunters and it was terrible. Here we should also speak of the semantic structure of the sentence Semantic syntax is a subject that deals with explaining language use on the bases of semantic model. One of the ways of structuring semantic models is semantic roles. It's the semantic content of the verb that determines semantic roles, what the sentence would be like, which nouns will accompany the verb, how these nouns will be semantically specified. E.g. The man laughed The verb is characterized as action here. It dictates that it should be accompanied by a noun which is related to it as agent and this noun should be specified as animate and also human. E.g. the chair laughed. The noun is abnormally animate because of the semantic content of the verb. E.g. They showed him the Urals. The verb here includes 3 semantic roles: 1. that of the agent 2. Beneficiary 3. Patient Agent - someone who does sth. A noun can be seen as the agent. It's someone who performs the action. In the surface structure agent is either the subject of object. There are 2 kinds of agents; Causative Permissive E.g. John threw the stone. E.g. John dropped the stone. The agent is causative cause it makes The agent is permissive cause it only an object perform an action. (?) gives an opportunity to perform an action. Patient denotes the objects of the action. They can be expressed by the subject or object. E.g. I was told the news. Patients can be accompanied by verbs that are characterized as stated and processes. E.g. The wood is dry. The wood dried. If we have agent + patient then the verb must denote action and process. E.g. The man tightened the rope. 31. Semantic relations between noun and verb: agent, patient Semantic STR of the S (semantic =sem) The idea that S has a surf. & deep STR & that a deep STR is connected with sem STR gave rise to the development sem syntax . Sem syntax - a subject that deals with explaining L use on the basis of the semantic model. Wallas Chafe suggests starting with the mng. He suggests structuring this mng with the help of semantic roles which are determined by the semantic content of the verb. He states that the nature of the verb determines what the sentence will be like, what nouns will accompany the verb, and how these nouns will be semantically specified. V is at the core of everything. Thus, the verb is characterized as action. Such a verb dictates that it be accompanied by a noun which is related to it as agent. The noun should be specified as animate, perhaps also human. ~ The man laughed. - The man is specified as agent, animate, human. Laughed denotes action. Chave proves the correctness of his view by the following S: ~ The chair laughed. - We interprete the noun as if it were abnormally animate. Abnormal kinds of activities that are preformed by inanimate objects. Chafe proves the correctness of his view by the S : the chair laughed (abnormally animate) The role STR of the v can include the agent, beneficiary and Patient. ~They showed him the jewels Show includes 3 roles: 1) agent (they)

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2) beneficiary (him) 3) patient (jewels) The agent - is someone who does smth A N can be said to be the agent of the V if it specifies someone who performs an action. (In the surf. STR it can be represented either by the subj. or by an obj). The agent can be causative or permissive: ~ John(caus.) threw a stone ~ John(perm.) dropped a stone (the agent gives an obj. an opportunity to perform an action). To prove the differ. of the two kinds of agents Chafe introduces the role instrument : ~ John threw a stone with the sling(). marked sentence. ~ John dropped the stone with the sling- unmarked sentence (the sentence doesnt exist in the language). The role patient denotes The patient denotes the object of the action. Can be expressed either by the subject or an object in the suface structure. The obj. of the action can be expressed by the subj. or obj. ~ They told him the news (patient obj.) ~ The news (patient subj.) was told to him Patients can be accompanied by verbs that we cancharacterize as states or processes ~ The wood is dried. The rope is tied ~ The wood dried. The rope toghtened. (the verbs denote processes) ~ Michel dried the wood ~ The man tightened the rope An agent and a patient are in one sentence. The verb denotes an action; expresses what the agent does. At the same time this verb expresses process. As a process, the verb brings about a change in the patient. Different meanings of the active voice. Medial meaning of the voice. A patient can be inanimate & animate: the beggar killed the elephant(animate)/time(inanimate) Animate patient: The tiger killed the elephant. 32. Semantic syntax. Deep and surface structures. Semantic relations between noun and verb: beneficiary, experiencer. Semantic syntax is a subject that deals with explaining L-use on the basis of the semantic model. A sentence must have deep and surface (phonological) structure. A native speaker understands both. He always has the deep structure in mind while producing sentences. Deep Grammar = a system of rules that determine: - the deep and surface structure - the relations between them - the semantic interpretation of the deep structure - the phonetic interpretation of the surface structure. Example The surface structure The deep structure The shooting of the hunters was terrible. 1 surface structure 2 deep structures: 1) The hunters shot smb and it was terrible. 2) Smb shot the hunters and it was terrible. He needs watching. He likes watching. active active passive active

Semantic Syntax deals with semantic roles of words in sentences. The semantic content of the VERB determines semantic roles. It determines what the sentence wilt be like, which nouns will accompany the verb, how these nouns will be semantically specified. => Semantic roles: 1.The agent 2. The patient 3. The beneficiary: Tom has a big dick/a thick wallet/an expensive car. -> "Tom" is obviously the one who benefits (at least unless you are Tom's girlfriend). => The VERB is called benefective. The NOUN is called beneficial. 4. The experiencer: Tom wanted a drink/saw a nakedgirl/knew a lot of curse-words. -> "Tom" is not the agent, because he is not the instigator () of an action, not the one who did smth. Tom is the one who was mentally disposed towards smth. -> The VERB is called experiential. The nouns "a drink/a girl/words" specify the object that is wanted, seen or known => patients. Some experiential verbs are NOT accompanied by patients: Tom is hot. 32.Semantic relations between noun and verb: beneficiary, experiencer Sem. Role : beneficiary ~Tom has the tickets. ~Tom owns a car. The beneficiary Tom is not th agent of the action. He is the one who benefits from whtever is communicated by the sentence. The verb is a benefective verb (a verb of benefection). In the Russian language this relation is reflected more precisely: . . Another relation is experiencer ~ Tom wanted a drink. ~ Tom knew the answer. Tom saw a snake.

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Surface structure: Tom looks as if he were an agent. But he is not, because he is not the instigator () of the action, not someone who did sth; he was one who was mentally disposed to it(a drink, the answer, a snake). He is an experiencer. The verb experiencial verb. The noun an experiencer denotes a person whose mental disposition/mental prosesses are affected (A snake became visible with the respect to the experience of Tom). Experiencial verbs can be accompanied by patient nouns/patients (drink, answer, snake) they specify the object that is wanted, known or seen. There are some experiencial verbs that are not accompanied by a patient: ~to be (Tom is cold). 33. Semantic syntax. Deep and surface structures. Semantic relations between noun and verb: instrument, location. Semantics syntax deals with explaining language-use on the basis of semantic model. Any sentence has deep and surface (phonological) structure - native speaker understands both, always has deep structure in mind while producing sentences. Deep grammar: a system of rules that determine a) the deep and surface structure of the sentence b) the relation between these structures c) the semantic interpretation of the deep structure d) the phonetic interpretation of the surface structure. Semantic syntax deals with semantic roles of words in sentences. Semantic content of the verb determines: - semantic roles (word) - what the sentence will be like - which nouns will accompany the verb - how these nouns will be semanticaily specified. Among numerous semantic roles we can also find those of instrument and of location. 1. Instrument Tom opened the door with a key "key" = instrument: some object that plays a role in bringing about the process, but (unlike agents) it's not a motivating cause. It is subsidiary to the agent. It is sth that the agent uses. In the surface structure: Instrument: Subject & adverbial modifier + Agentive (not subsidiary to any other words) The wind broke the window with stones. 2. Location Locative verbs: to be to stand to stay to He to go they denote locative actions and locative processes! to move to run to fall .. Tom sat in the chair (Locative action: what did he do?) Tom fell off the chair(Locative process: what happened to Tom) 33.Semantic relations between noun and verb: instrument, location Another relation which a N may bear to a V is that of instrument ~ Tom cut the rope with a knife ~Tom opened the door with a key Knife & key seem to resemble agents, but they are instruments. Tom is a real agent. The instrument - is some obj. which plays a role in bringing about the process, but which is not a motivating force. It is subsidiary( ) to the agent; it is sth that the agent uses. In the surf. STRsurface structure, the instrument can be used as an adverbial or as the subject(the subject in languages which allow the medial () use of the subject). Medial voice The concert began The book sells well A stone(subsidiary) broke the window ~The wind(instrumental) broke the window with hailstones (agentive is not subsidiary to anything). Location- the last relation ~ The knife is in the box ~ The cat is on the roof The sentences contain state verbs which can be further specified as locative. A locative V must be accompanied by a N which bears to it the relation of location (box, roof). In these Ss this location is specified lexically. The verbs: to be, to stand;to stay; to lie;to go;to move;to run; to creep; to fall can denote processes(the first three of them ) and locative actions (the rest of them). to be is N + the only V ~ Tom sat in the chair. (the locative action) ~ Tom fell of the chair. (the locative process) The V determines by its specification what the S will be like. The sem. STR/model of the S can be represented with the help of a semantic Model : V+the semantic roles. 34. Actual division of the sentence. The notions of the theme and rheme. Thematic subjects in English In the sentence one part contains given info that is already supplied by the context, and the other part - new info. n sentence is written or uttered for the sake of new info. This theory about the division of the sentence is called the Actual Sentence Division (ASD). Old info is called theme, new- rheme. The theme is placed in the beginning of the sentence, and the rheme - in the end. The subject often coincides with the theme, and the predicate with the rheme. In the end position we put the most important info:

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# John goes to London. John stays at the Browns. These means depend on the structure of the language. Mathesuis and Firbas elaborated the theory of ASD: In languages with free word-order and developed morphological system word order is used to show the difference between theme and rheme. In Russian: . It's easy to put the new info in the end. In contrast to Russian, English word-order is to a certain extent fixed. Sometimes it can be changed according to requirement of the ASD. Means to make the subject thematic: 1- Passive Voice - that is to change the word order # The Brown family bought the house. - The house was bought by the Brown family. In Russian besides Passive Voice we use indefinite personal sentences: . . In the majority of the English passive sentences the agent of the sentence is not mentioned. Jesperson: 70-74% don't contain the mention of the agent # His flat was burgled yesterday. He was fined for speeding. The passive voice makes the subject thematic and places the rheme at the end of the sentence. Reasons ( for frequent use of passive): - There are several passive constructions in English instead of one in Russian (direct, indirect, prepositional, adverbial). - English has more verbs that take a direct object (in Russian we often have prepositional object - no passive construction). 2. The use of - personal predicative sentences - benefective sentences A person experiencing some feeling or benefiting from sth is made the subject. #I sorry to hear that. We have a splendid company. The English thematic subject becomes a thematic object in Russian. But the positions of the theme and rheme remain the same. . . 3. The English subject may denote the circumstances of an event. In the semantic structure it is represented as locative & instrumental. #: The room turned silent. . 34. Actual division of the sentence. The notions of the theme and the rheme. Thematic subjects in English. S-ce is a very complicated unit. To understand it we have to study it from dif. angles: 1) the structural aspect 2) the semantic aspect (deals with the meaning if the S-ce) 3) the actual aspect (deals with the division of the S-ce into 2 parts theme and rheme) 4) the pragmatic aspect (deals with S as a unit of communication) The 3d aspect presupposes the dividing the S in to 2 parts: Given information (the theme) the part of the S that supplies info already known to the speaker $ the listener New information (the rheme) info for the sake of which the S has been uttered or written This theory. is The Actual S Division ( -)=its a functional S perspective=its the topic-comment articulation (division into topic and comment) The Czech linguists (Mathesins, Firbas) introduced the terms theme and rheme American linguist Halliday the terms given and new info Hockett topic and comment (theme corresponds to given info, topic; rheme new info, comment) There is a tendency in all European languages to put new info (rheme) is placed in the end of the sentence, and to put the known information in the end of the sentence. The goup of the subject generally coincides with the theme. The predicate group (+adverbial modfiers) coincides but not always with the rheme. The most important piece of new information tends to occupy the end position in the sentence. ~When John goes to London, he generally stays at the Browns (part of the predicate group). London the most important part in the subordinate clause group. At the Browns the most important part in the principle clause. Means to characterize a word as thematic / rhematic. These means depend on the structure of the given language. The Russian language: the language with a widely developed morphologic system and free word order. Word order is one of the main means to express the theme/rheme of the sentence. (rheme). The English language: the English word order is to a considerable extent fixed; cannot be changed according to the changes in the actual situation. This fact made Malhesius draw the conclusion that English is less succeptible ( ) to the actual division of the senence. English complies with the requirements of the actual divion of the sentence. WHY? 1) In most English sentences the subject group coincides with the theme. 2) In most English sentences the predicate group coincides with the rheme. Why does the subject-predicate division violate the theme-rheme division? In comparison with other languages, English seems to increase the number fo thematic subjects. There is a tendency to make the subject thematic. Thematic Subjects Means of making the sbject thematic (two first are the most important) 1) the passive voice is used inEng to change word order in a sentence. ~ The Brown family bought a house (the rheme). The house was bought by the Brown family (the rheme). But the majority of Eng passive sentences dont contain dimention of the agent of the action ( by-phrase). Jesperson Phylosophy of Grammar( ): from 70-90% (depends on the author) of Eng sentences (passive sentences) contain no mention of the agent of the action. The passive voice is used to make the subject thematic and to place the new information at the end of the sentence. With Pas.V we can shift the communicative center of the phrase. Passive structures are used when:- the doer of the action is not important -the doer of the action cant be stated -the doer is evident. ~ His flat wasburgled yesterday. . The agent is unknown.

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~ He was fined 40$ for speeding. . The agent is eviden. How can we prove it? In Russian indefinite personal sentences (- ). The semantic aspect of sentences like that : the subject of passive constructions can be the patient of the beneficiary and never the agent. The subject = the patient or the beneficiary. Conclusion: the use of the Passive Vioce allows us to make the patient or the beneficiary of the sentence the subject of the sentence. Thus, to organize the structure of the Eng sentence in accordance with the actual division of the sentence. 2) Personal Predicative Sentences denoting feelings and emotional situations + Benefactive Sentences ( ) In modern Eng, a person experiencing some feeling or benefiting from sth is often made the grammatical subject of the sentence. 2 semantic roles beneficiary and experiencer. ~ Im sorry to hear this (exp) . Im warm enough. - Personal Predicative Sentence. ~ We have a splendid company (ben) . Tom has the tickets. - Benefactive sentence. In Russian the Eng thematic subject becomes the thematicobject and the position of the theme/rhenme remains the same. The semantic aspect: the subject of these sentences can be identified as experieces or benefitiaries. Their use as subjects on the surface level makes it possible for the Eng language to comply with the requirements of the actual division of the sentence to observe the theme-rheme division of the sentence. 3) The E Sub may denote the object of the action in an active sentence. Being the patient -> the object. The Eng thematic subject -> the thematic object (in Russian) ~ A correct solution requires long and persistent work 4) The Eng Subject may denote the circumstances of thr event. The semanticaspect of the sentence: the subject is to be represented in the semantic structure either as an instrument or as a locative. In Russian, the subject group may become an adverbial modifier of different types (not always but generally). This is typical for newspaper style. ~The article accuses the present government. ~ The room turneddeafly silent ( ). Conclusion: Eng makes use of different semantic roles: to make the subject thematic and observe the theme-rheme division of the sentence: the paient; the benefitiary; the experiencer; the locative. 5) the use of formal Subjects - they, one (more formal), you (more personal) One, they, you, we. To make the subject thematic, in Russianwe deal with indefinite personal sentences. ~You can mistake him for anyone else. . The correlation b/w the syntactic structure and the actual division of the sentence may be different. The subject=the theme =the rheme ~Through theopen window came the sound of the approaching car. 35. Actual Division of the Sentence. The notions of theme and rheme. Means of expressing the rheme . Each Sentence has 2 parts: 1. given info already supplied by the context - theme 2. new info, the S is written or uttered for the sake of this info - rheme The theory about the division of the S is called - The Actual Sentence Division In all European Ls: theme at the beginning of the S, rheme- at the end. the Subject generally coincides w/ theme, predicate w/rheme the most important piece of new info generally occupies the end position. e/g John goes to London. He stays at the Browns. Chech linguists - founders of the theory Mathesius and Firbas : In the L with free w-order and widely developed morph sys, w-order is used to show the difference btw theme and rheme. In RUS- w-order is the main means: theme -beginning, rheme - the end. # -. Communicative part is in the end. In ENG- w-order is fixed, sometimes it can't be changed in accordance w/requirements of actual division. Eng is less susceptible to actual division than other Ls w/developed morph system. Means of expressing the rheme: 1.There-pattern Ss with introductory "there" are used to denote existence or coming into existence >the number of Ws is scarce: predicative; be, come, go, live, appear 2.The use of Introductory IT: #It's no use denying it. The notional subj can be expressed by non-fmites + complexes w/them, subordinate clauses. The notional subj is thematic 3.The Inversion of the predicative verb: # From a big house came a blaze of life and music (adv mod>predicative>subject (no pronoun as a subj). We can make other parts of sp rhematic by placing them in unusual positions. # This I don't know # Out of his pocket he took smth. 4.Intensifying particles identify the rheme emparting to the S, emotional coloring. #Even Mr. Stones had a part speech in the debate. The emphatic IT is used to make any p of sp rhematic except the predicate. # It was yesterday that she... It was my friend who... 5. The Use of Articles - most linguists name A as the basic means to identify the T (theme =definite) and the R (rheme=indefinite). Primary means of forming the T and the R: 1. It's the syntactic str-re of the S to render predicative rhematic. 2. Its the context that renders the subj rhematic. The article accuses the government. - ..

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In Russian this subject becomes an adverbial modifier of different types. #: The crash killed several people 4. The English subject may denote the object, being the patient in the semantic structure. 35. Actual division of the sentence. The notions of the theme and the rheme. Means of expressing the rheme. Means making the subject rhemetic. 1) The there pattern can be used to identify the Eng subject as rheme. ~There (formal subject) was a sad look (denotational subject) on his face. -> the notioanl subject is at the end. The sphere of application is limited, and the number of verbs is limited. There-pattern denotes existence of a person or non-person denoted as a Sub with to be, to live, to come, to appear, to go. 2) The introductory it We make its notional part (subject) rhematic. ~ It was no good going there again. ~ It was impossible to deny this. But if it is rhematic, the gerund or the infinitive is the rheme of the sentence. But there can be other approaches to this sentence. It-pattern the notional Subs with it can be expressed with infinitives (Its important to know), gerunds (its nice having you here), complexes, clauses 3)The inversion of the predicative. We rarely use it. The adverbial modifiers of time & place are put at the end & at the beg. Usu, the verbs come, go, hang ~Above the fire-place hung the portrait of the Duke. the Sub group conveys the most important info the rheme !!! Different parts of speech put in unusual places become the rheme. An object is rhematic when placed before the Sub (e.g. This I dont know) The same for adverbial modifiers when placed before the Sub. (e.g. He took a small bag from his pocket. Out of this he shook a 5-dollar bill) 4) Intensifying particles ( ) identify the rheme imparting emotional colouring to the whole S ~Even John had a part in the debate (even intensifies the Sub as the rheme of the S) ~Only John was able to do it. 5) The (formal) emphatic IT We can make any part emphatic with the help of it (except for the predicate) ~It was Jane who joined them at that moment. ~It was sth awful that she had just escaped. 36 Actual division of the sentence. The role of articles in identifying the theme and the rheme. Most linguists think that article is the basic means to identify the theme and the rheme. A is used to introduce the rheme E.g. I think he is rather a good fellow. The usually indicates a definite object that is not new to the listener. So it introduces the theme. E.g. Obviously the girl didnt want him But some linguists consider that the articles in these 2 sentences can't be regarded as primary means of forming the theme or the rheme. They say that the syntactic structure of the sentence is another means of rendering predicative rhematic. Article is only an additional means. And besides that it's the context that renders the subject rhematic. Bat can the Article be the basic means? 1. A pretty girl ran into a room. A girl is the focus of communication, the rheme of the sentence. 2. The girl ran into a room. The girl is the theme. It's important to specify the circumstances under which the indefinite article makes the noun rhematic. If the subject is accompanied by such verbs and verbal phrases as Come Come into view Come up Appear Present oneself Arise which express appearance or coming on the scene it is natural that attention should be concentrated rather on the person or thing appearing on the scene than the appearance itself. So it's only the article that makes the subject rhematic. 36. Actual division of the sentence. The role of articles in identifying the theme and the rheme. 1) The indefinite article is used to introduce the rheme. ~ I think he is rather an obstinate fellow 2) The definite article usually indicatesa definite object, which is not new to the listener or reader. ~ Obviously the girl didnt want to talk with him The def. article is often used to introduce the theme In the above examples, the articles cant be regarded as primary means of forming the theme/rheme. WHY? 1) The syntactic structure of the sentence that reveals thedifference between the theme and the rheme. The word fellow is used as predicative in its classifying function. a a supplementary means to designate therheme of the sentence. You cant substitute the article. It is the rheme. 2) It is the context that reveals the difference between the theme and rheme. The previous context makes the girl thematic. It is a person who is specifically known to us. The article is a supplementary means. The Indefinite Article can become the basic means of identifying the subject as rhemayic. 1) A girl ran into the room a girl is a focus of communication the rheme 2) The girl ran into the room the girl the theme of the Sentence. Only the article identifies these 2 groups as rhematic or thematic. But we must specify circumstances under which we make use of As as the only means > the semantic relations (the semantic character of the predicate). The novelty() signaled by the indef. article becomes apparent due to the semantic nature of the predicate. If the predicate expresses appearence

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(verbs of appearance: come into view, come on the scene, come up, appear, present oneself, take place, arise) it is narural that attention should be consentrated rather on the person or thing that appears on the scene, than on the appearance itself (the act of appearing). The indefinite article makes the noun in the question rhematic while the noun with the definite article doesnt become the focus of the communication, or the sentence. Though sentences with verbs of appearance tend to have the rhematic subject, the mere change of the article in them shifts the focus of communication depriving the subject of its rhematic qualities. Thus the article in the last two sentences can be regarded as the only means to express the actual division of the sentence. Conclusion: Eng has found means to make Eng sentences comply with requirements of the actual division of sentences. In the majority of English sentences the theme = the subject group, the rheme = the predicate group. 37. Pragmatic syntax. The communicative intention of the speaker. Pragmatic types of sentences. S-ce is a very complicated unit. To understand it we have to study it from dif. angles: 1) the structural aspect 2) the semantic aspect (deals with the meaning if the S-ce) 3) the actual aspect (deals with the division of the S-ce into 2 parts theme and rheme) 4) the pragmatic aspect (deals with S as a unit of communication Pragmatic Syntax (PS) deals with utterances (Ut), not sentences (S). S or Uts of the same structure type can be of different pragmatic type: Come at once! can be an order, a request, a threat, a warning from a pragmatic point of view. Ss or Uts differ from each other by the communicative intention of the speaker which is directed at solving a certain task of communication -> The communicative intentional content of the S is a decisive () criterion for referring this or that S to a pragmatic type. Pragmatic types of Ss: 1) Constative Ss (CS) the communicative intentional content of sentences of this type is reflected in the statement: ~John is a liar. ~The Earth goes round the Sun. The communicative intention is correlated with the formal characteristics of the CSs. CSs can never be interrogative or imperative. Can be true or false. (e.g. the Earth rotates true. The earth doesnt rotate false). 2) Performative Ss (PS) ~ I congratulate you. I apologize. I welcome you. These sentences do not report or state anything (in this they differ from CS). By uttering these sentences (I congratulate you.) the speaker actually performs the action of congratulating but doesnt perform any other action. The communicative intentional content of PSs is accomplished in the action of performing and in the new relation between the speaker and the addressee. The structural forms of PSs are not restricted by sentences in the 1 st person. ~Payment is granted. ~Passengers are requested to cross the line by footbridge only. [They are passive transforms of the corresponding active sentences]/ The problem of distinguishing between performative and non-p. verbs. ~John refused to apologize (a performative verb; not a performative sentence) A verb can be used performatively under the following conditions: 1) the sentence is present, not past 2) the deep subject is first person 3) the performative verb isnt in the imbedded clause. 4) there is no modal or aspectual auxiliary 5) there is no adverb of frequency Non-performative ss: ~John apologizes for his absence, ~John suggested that I apologize (an embedded clause). ~I have apologized (no action of apologizing). ~I always apologize. 3) Directive Ss(DS) : a) injunctions (orders); b) requests. The communicative intentional content of DSs is directed at inducing their addressee to act. ~Get out! Dont go! Tell me sth about it. ~Will you fill in the form. Injunctions (orders) and requests are both aimed at prompting the addressee to act. Only verbs of action can be use in both types of Ss. They differ in the force of inducement and in the degree of compulsion. The action denoted by the predicate in injunctive Ss is compulsory for the addressee. And it is not I in requests. The lexical indicator of requestive Ss is please which removes the imperative character of the directive ss. ~Please, go away. Dont go, please. There are some specific types of requestive Ss that neutralize relations between the speaker and the addressee (theyre united in these Ss): ~Dont lets do it! Use of requestive sentences in the form of interrogative Ss ~Would you kindly stop smoking? The transponed variant of the question. 4) Questions (Q) are interrogative Ss in their traditional treatment. The informative potentials of the speaker and the addressee are different. The communicative intentional content of Qs is aimed at removing the difference between the speaker and the addressee by getting proper information from the addressee. ~Who knows the way to the station? Qs have a common feature with Directive Ss: they are used with the purpose of causing the listener to act, but in Qs the response is verbal; in DSs the response is an action (including speech in some situations: ~Tell me about the man). 5) Promises (Ps) and menaces(Ms) The communicative intention of Ps is affected in the interest of the addressee. The speaker is supposed to guarantee what is promised in the S ~ Ill come tomorrow. Ill write to you. The subject of the Ps is an agent, the predicate a Verb of action (in the active voice). Ps with subject-patients dont exist. ~Ill be ignored. Ps are usually realized in Ss where the subject is in the first person. If the subject is in the 3 rd person, the S can be regarded as a promise if its accomplishment of the action depends on the speaker. ~ The train will arrive in time. ->Two implied sentences: 1) The train will arrive in time, I promis. [The pragmatic type of promisses] 2) The train will arrive in time, I state. [Constative S] The communicative intentional content of the menace is opposite to that of the promiss. The addressee isnt interested in accomplishing the action. The speaker isnt supposed to guarantee his menace, his threat.

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~. Ill show you. Ill pay you ( ). Menaces unlike Promises are not restricted by the role structure of the subject. ~ Hell be bitten up the subject of this MS is a patient). Promisses and menaces ave common structural+semantic features. But they differ in positive/negative response of the addressee to the communicative intentional component of the utterance. 38. Pragmatic syntax. Performative Sentences. Performative and non-performative uses of a performative verb. ~ I congratulate you. I apologize. I welcome you. These sentences do not report or state anything (in this they differ from CS). By uttering these sentences (I congratulate you.) the speaker actually performs the action of congratulating but doesnt perform any other action. The communicative intentional content of PSs is accomplished in the action of performing and in the new relation between the speaker and the addressee. The structural forms of PSs are not restricted by sentences in the 1 st person. ~Payment is granted. ~Passengers are requested to cross the line by footbridge only. [They are passive transforms of the corresponding active sentences]. The problem of distinguishing between performative and non-p. verbs. ~John refused to apologize (a performative verb; not a performative sentence) PSs can not be used in the Past or Future, cant be negative. In performative sentences the speaker performs two actions: 1)Uttering a sentence (locution mere semantics) 2)Expressing a communicative intention of request, advice, promise etc. (illocution) e.g. I promise to come at 2. I advise you to see the doctor (these verbs are performative) The main focus of attention of the Speech Act Theory is the so-called illocutionary functions and language means use to express these functions. It also deals with the cases when the illocutionary functions are expressed not directly (by ? and !), but indirectly. Function here is understood as a communicative part of the speaker but hidden in his indirect verbal behavior. ~ Its rather chilly here the true intention is not to inform the hearer but your intention is that the window is closed. Its called indirect speech acts. The mere presence of the V apologize (in the sentence I apologize) doesnt suffice ( ) to make a statement. ~ John refused to apologize doesnt imply an action. A verb can be used performatively under the following conditions: 1) the sentence is present, not past 2) the deep subject is first person 3) the performative verb isnt in the imbedded clause. 4) there is no modal or aspectual auxiliary 5) there is no adverb of frequency Non-performative ss: ~John apologizes for his absence, ~John suggested that I apologize (an embedded clause). ~I have apologized (no action of apologizing). ~I always apologize. 39. Pragmatic syntax. The notion of illocutionary force. Transposition of constative sentences. Pragmatic Syntax (PS) deals with utterances (Ut), not sentences (S). S or Uts of the same structure type can be regarded as different: (Come at once!) can be a request, a threat, a warning from a pragmatic point of view. Ss or Uts differ from each other by the communicative intention of the speaker which is aimed at solving a certain task of communication Illocutionary force is a characteristic of an utterance. The term IF is used to state the measure, the dimention of different types of speech acts. Depending on the IF of an utterance, statements, questions can be construed () as belonging to other Pragmatic types. We call it the transposition of pragmatic types of Ss. Transposition of Constative Ss. They can be used with the illocutionary force of 1)requests. ~Luncheon is served. ( I invite you to have it a polite request) 2) injunctions ~Its draughty here. ~Ive run out of cigzretts. The IF of an utterance contains some Extralinguistic factors: 1)-The one who speaks is in some kind of authority over the addressee. 2)-The semantic opposition positive/negative. ~Its drauhjty here. has a distinct reference to some discomphort for the speaker which the speaker wants to removed. The semantic opposition positive/negative The above examples have a reference to some discomfort for the speaker and he wants to remove them. 3)-The use of CSs with the IF of requests and injunctions is regularly achieved by means of constructions with modal verbs. ~You ought to / should get rid of it. (request) Sometimes more complex constative structures are used. ~I think its time we were going to bed. ~I insist that you get rid of that bad habit of yours. 40. Pragmatic syntax. The notion of illocutionary force. Transposition of questions. Pragmatic Syntax (PS) deals with utterances (Ut), not sentences (S). S or Uts of the same structure type can be regarded as different: (Come at once!) can be a request, a threat, a warning from a pragmatic point of view. Ss or Uts differ from each other by the communicative intention of the speaker which is aimed at solving a certain task of communication Illocutionary force is a characteristic of an utterance. The term IF is used to state the measure, the dimention of different types of speech acts. Depending on the IF of an utterance, statements, questions can be construed () as belonging to other Pragmatic types. We call it the transposition of pragmatic types of Ss. Transposition of Questions (Qs): 1)-Qs can be used with the IF of injunctions: ~Are you still here? ( = go away). The speaker doesnt expect any answer. The statement is aimed at inducing the addressee to act. Emotionally coloured. 2)-Qs can be used with the IF of requests

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~Will you kindly open the door? 2 approaches to this sentence: a) We can regard such Ss as transformed pragmatic types. Reasons for this approach: Semantic-Lexical Peculiarities:-the opposition positive-negative. Requests effective in interrogative form have a distinct positive reference which finds its use of indefinite pronouns. b) We can regard such sentences as some specific structures of requestive sentences. This approach is fully justified. The reasons for that:1) structures like this are commonly used in the Eng language; 2) the absence of lexical or semantic restrictions on the use of structures like that. Requests: ~Would you like sth (some) to eat? ~Will you do sth for me? Questions: ~Will you take anything with you? Transposition of pragmatic types depends on a variety of contextual factors: beliefs, assumptions, intentions of the speaker and the addressee and their relative social statuses which cant be always expressed with the help of the basic pragmatic type. The transposed use of pragmatic types of Ss can be accounted for by the difference in the illocutionary force. We can speak about reduced IF. Qs used as injunctions possess INCREASED IF (Are you still here?). Statements used as injunctions posess REDUCED IF. 41 The theory of Reference and the Theory of Denotation. The subject Matter of the Theory Reference The theory of reference is a relatively new but developing field of linguistic investigation dealing with the problems of reference of language units to the objects of actual reality The subject matter of that theory is the very phenomenon of reference. Reference <- to refer ( , - , -) Reference - the relation of the actualized (introduced into the speech act in the process of the communication) name or nominal group to the objects of reality. The word name in the theory of reference is given to any notional word group which can denote an object of reality. The object of reality which is represented by a name in an utterance is called referent E.g. Venus,the Morning star, the Evening star. > 2 different denotations, 2diferent names but 1 referent. E.g. 1. My friends have a parrot 2. The parrot can talk. 3. How long can the parrot live? The denotation (meaning) is the same but the referent is different. an unknown parrot. is already known thew generic use This dualism led to the appearance of The theory of denotation (or meaning) The theory of reference This division is to a certain extent analogous to the discrimination of language (the theory of denotation) and speech (the theory of reference). The theory of meaning shows what is denoted by the word and the theory of reference / shows in what way the given word denotes the given object. An utterance is a speech unit. A minimal utterance is equal to a simple sentence. An utterance is an actualized sentence. Since reference is performed by a speaker in a speech the topical issues of the theory of reference are means and ways of actualizing a sentence which becomes an utterance. Actualizing is performed by means of pronouns articles within a nominal group and also by means of the grammatical category of tense, aspect and voice. All the means the speaker uses to refer a name to an object or an utterance to the situation are included in the semantics of the sentence Differences between the theories 1. The theory of reference speech The theory of meaning - language 2.The theory of meaning disregards pragmatic factors. The theory of reference takes them into account. 41. The theory of reference and the theory of denotation. The subject matter of the theory of reference. Semantics is divided into 1) the theory of meaning (denotation); 2) the theory of reference (Th of Ref) Semantics : 1) the meaning of language units; 2) part of linguistics that studies meaning.=semasiology. Semasiology a subject name given to the part of languages. Its a term used with reference to linguistic subjects which study not the form of language units but what they denote and express. The inner structure of semasiology reflects the structure of the language (levels of the language: phonological, morphological, lexical, syntactical, text level). The Th of Ref is a relatively new but developing field of linguistic investigation dealing with the problems of reference of language units to the objects or actual reality. The term reference is derived from the verb to refer , , -. The term is connected with philosophy and logics. The actual subject matter of the Th of Ref is the very phenomenon of ref-ce Ref-ce is the relation of the actualized (introduced into a speech act) name or nominal group to the objects of reality. The theory of reference started as a result of observation of meaning of common nouns and then it extended to other parts of speech and levels of language. In the theory of reference the word name is given to any notional word or eord group which can denote an object of reality. The object of reality which is represented by a name in an utterance is called a referent. Ns can denote an object and are able to refer to objects of reality, and these two things do not necessarily coincide The theory of reference started with observation of common nouns ->notional words ->groups ->senrences ->texts. ~(1)Venus ~(2)The morning star ~(3)The evening star (1) and (2) refer to the same object Venus. They have the same reference and are different in meaning. ~My friends have a parrot (the referent is an indefinite object, concrete, unknown). ~The parrot can talk (it is known). ~How long can the parrot live? (it is referred to a whole class of parrots generic use (a composite image of a whole class)

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Each time the name has dif. ref-t but the lex mean-g is the same. This dualism of common nouns led to disintegration of semasiology: 1) the Th of Denotation (language as a system) 2) the Th of Ref-ce (actual use of language in communication). The th of denotation shows what is denoted by a word. The th of Ref shows in what way the word denotes the object. Language units: sentence, text. Speech units: utterance, discouce. ! A minimal utterance is materially equal to an elementary sentence. Since the reference is preformed by the speaker in a speech act, the topical issues are means and ways of actualizing a sentence which in a speech act becomes an utterance. ! Reference takes place in speech. Actualizing (referring a name to an object) is performed by pronouns and articles within a nominal group (a noun + a word modifiers); it is performed by means of the grammatical categories of tense, aspect and mood within a predicat group. Though reference is performed in the process of communication (in speach), all the means of reference belong to language. There are 2 dif-ces between the 2 theories: 1)the th of d. deals with language, the th. of r. with speech; the th. of d. shows what is denoted; the th. of r. shows howy an object accuires this or that denotation. 2)the dif-ce in the attitude to pragmatics The TH of D disregards all the types of pragmatics (the speaker) The Th of R takes into account all the pragmatic factors that accompany the speech acts ( the relations between the utterance & the S, all the extralinguistic factors). The second point of difference can be proved by the fact that each case of the use of the articles is the realization of a communicative task of the speaker, his own decision to present an object or an event as definite (as the one and only one which he means under the circumstances) [ ] or as indefinite (either unknown to both him and thehearer, or known to him but unknown to the hearer, or known to both buthis idear is just to name the object). The flaw of most modern approaches is in their inability to incorporate the situational pragmatic info The practical application of the theory of reference: ~We heard the cry of a jackol. ~We heard a cry of a jackol. ~An eagle which is a national bird can be seen in the zoo. ~Any eagle which is a national bird can be seen in the zoo. Any A The marked form. A unmarked form. Concluding Remark (Ref-ce) 1. Ref-ce is an aspect of semantics which gives an insight into linguistic mechanisms of speech and mans speech strategies. 2. Ref-ce is a method of linguistic investigation which allows to reveal those mechanisms of mans speech strategies which are often hidden behind his verbal behaviour 42. The referential aspect of the sentence/ utterance. L means of expressing reference in noun phrase and predicate groups. Reference = is the relation of the actualized (introduced into a speech act) name or nominal group to the objects of reality. Name = any notional word or word-group which can denote an object of reality. Referent = an object of reality which is represented by a name in an utterance. SEMACIOLOGY: -> The theory of meaning (denotation) = TofM The theory of reference = TofR The TofM shows what is denoted by a word. The TofR shows in what way the given name denotes the given object. Sentence is a language unit => TofM. Utterance is a speech unit, it is an actualized sentence => TofR. Since Reference is performed by the speaker in a speech act, the topical issues of the TofR are means end ways of actualizing a sentence, which in a speech act becomes an utterance. Actualizing (= referring a name to an object) is performed: within PREDICATE groups by: 1. a grammatical form of a verb 2. lexical indications (of time) 3. lexical-grammatical meaning of a verb e.g. At 10 p.m. father drove home along a lonely country... and went to bed => DROVE: 1. the grammatical form = the Past Simple 2. time indication = at10p.m. 3 lexical-grammatical meaning = quantified process (has beginning and end) within NOMINAL groups by articles and pronouns, which: mark the existence of a word register the idea of oneness register the idea of uniqueness under the circumstances ( ), etc. Though Reference is performed in the process of communication, all the means belong to L => All the means the speaker uses to refer a name to an object or an utterance to the situation are included in the semantics of the sentence. The TofM disregards pragmatic factors. The TofR takes them into account! 42. The referential aspect of the sentence / utterance. Language means of expressing reference in noun phrases and predicate groups. Ref-ce is performed by the speaker in a speech act. The topical issues of ref-ce are means & ways of actualizing a S which in a speech act becomes an untterance. Actualizing (referring a name to an object) is performed by means of pronouns and articles within a nominal group and grammatical categories (tense, aspect, mood) within a predicate group. Though ref-ce is performed in the process of communication all the means of ref-ce belong to language . All the means we use to refer a name to an object (a S to an utterance) are included in the semantics of the S. The semantic aspect of R in Nom-l groups and Ns)is connected with the cat of (in-)defin-ss (sem8 suppl) The TH ofR takes into account all types of relationship which accompany the speech act(pragmatic conditions) +c.150-151(2,3)+43,44 43. The definite reference of a noun. Means of expression the definite reference: explicit and implicit.

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Theory or reference deals with the problems of reference of L units to the objects of actual reality. Reference = the relation of the actualized (= introduced into a speech act) name or nominal group to the objects of reality. Practical application of reference is link to the category of definiteness/indefiniteness. The definite reference of a name to an object is performed within a nominal group characterized by certain type of relationship (PC) reducing the sphere of reference. Primary semantic function of the - individualization of the referent (actual meaning of this function: the object denoted by descriptor is related to other objects of reality > there exists at least one object that the speaker refers to as unique under the circumstances) generic function of the: Class generalization (nouns in Sg) Total generalization(nouns in Pl) Specifying Generic Restricting Individ. The relations between the objects= pragmatic conditions (PC) semantically similar to the types of relations between the components of a nominal phrase. In English 10 types of relations: 1. subject-object (the driver of the car) 2. partativeness (the brunches of the tree) 3. equivalence (the city of London) 4. Quality (the harshness of the episode) 5. location (the fields below) 6. subject-predicate(the car that has started) 7. content (Descriptor +Ving the reputation of being a beauty Descriptor +clause the changes that have begun) 8. time (Numeral +descriptor the second day) 9. predicate-object 10. predicate-subject 11. cause in effect (the reasons for his decisions) 12. possessivness 13. destination( -) PC can be expressed or implied Implied: 1) associative anaphoric use (reference back)=presupposition The owl hooted and the sound seemed to fill the night (equivalence) 2)shared general knowledge( ) At that time, it was just after the war, I happened to know several chicks... The kind of war WWI (PC equivalence) 3)immediate situation (visible) Heres the gate. Now youll see (PC-location, the gate is visible) 4)cataphoric use = posterior linguistic context = postcontext There came a catastroph:( ) (PC content) The definite article only signals the definite reference; these pragmatic conditions are necessary. NB If at least one type of relationship is observed, the definite article is possible. If not-dont use it no matter how much you want it. 43. The definite reference of a noun. Means of expressing the definite reference: explicit and implicit. (Ref-ce is the relation of the actualized (introduced into a speech act) name or nominal group to the objects of reality ) In the process of definite ref-ce the def. article performs a certain semantic function (SF) The primary SF of the def. article is the individualization of referent The actual meaning of this SF is that the object denoted by the descriptor (D=t+N, t article) is related to other objects of reality. The character of this relationship is not determined by the article itself. It is predetermined by the nature of the related objects (or referents) ~ He looked at the branch (descriptor) of the tree. 2 referents, relations between them is definite. The relations between referents reduce the sphere of ref-ce of a name to its referent and provide exact indication to what in particular is meant by the speaker. In Eng the def. article performs the def. ref-ce only through these relations. Since these relations are revealed in a speech act and presuppose the existence of the speaker and the hearer, they will be referred to as pragmatic conditions (PC) PCs reduce the sphere of reference to the point of uniqueness. Pcs are semantically similar to the types of relations held between the components of a noun-phrase. There are 10 PCs in Eng: 1) subject-object relations The driver of the car. 2) partitive relations The leg of the table. The branches of the palms. 3) equivalence The city of Moscow. 4) quality The beauty of the girl. The harshness of the episode. 5) location The fields below. 6) subject-predicat relations The car that has started. If we can determine one of the 10 PCs the def. article is used.. The PCs mentioned are semantically similar to the types of relations held between the components of a N-phrase. The PC can be expressed or implied. The definite descriptions expressing those pragmatic conditions can be syntactically different (look sem8 supp 2). The PC can also be implied. Implyed pragmatic conditions: 1) associative anaphoric use (anaphora precedes, cataphora follows) ~The owl hooted, and the sound (thebdefinite descriptor) seemed to fill the whole night. (PC - equivalence: the owl produced the sound; the sound is anaphora; presupposition ) ~She was a stout woman with a red face. The eyes (the definite descriptor) seemed to confess(PC inailanable posession) 2) shared general knowledge (is shared by the speaker and the hearer as members of society) ~At that time, it was just after the war (the definite descriptor), I happened to know several people in the Forign Office.- (PC equivalence)

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WW1, war is explicit, the WW1 implicit 3) Immediate (visible) situation The referent is located within the given situation. ~Here is the gate. Now youll see it. (its located within a certain situation. relations between what we say and see location. PC location) 4) Cataphoric use (the posterior linguistic context) ~Then came the catastrophe: (the description of it) (the catastrophe consists in) (PC content) All the mentioned PCs which reduce the sphere of ref-ce and indicate the referent as the only one meant by the speaker under the circumstances, form the primary semantic function of the def. article - the individualization of the referent. Semantic function is realized through different types of semantic relations = PCs. The definite article is used when a referent is individualized in at least one of those pragmatic conditions. =If at least one type of the above mentioned relations is held between the given referent and another referent, the definite article can be used with the actualized noun. The presence of this relation is necessary but not enough for the definite article to be used. A more precise rule: The meaning of the semantic function individualization of the referent is: there exists at least one object that the speaker refers to as unique under the circumstances. 3 factors are to be taken into consideration: 1) the factor of existence 2) the factor of oneness 3) the factor of uniqueness under the circumstances the most important factor. Other uses of the definite article: 1) Class generqlization (a compoaite image of a class, with all the features possessed by the class) 2) Total generalization (the whole totality of objects is meant) A definite descriptor a nominal phrase which contains the definite descriptor. From the point of view of a hearer/reader they are contextual means: it is the context you decode, you understand what type of relationship is meant. You are given an instruction how the def. ref-ce is performed. From the point of view of a speaker, they are PCs: when you generate an utterance, you know for sure what PC you imply,what type of relationship you are going to express, how you are going to reduce the sphere of ref-ce. Conclusion: the practical outcome of the referential analysis:the definite article is used when a referent is individualized in at least one of those PCs. If at least one type of the semantic relations is held between the given referent and another one the def. article is used with the actualized N. 44. The indefinite reference: typical contextual sets (their components and internal semantics). The indefinite reference is performed by the indefinite article with countable nouns in the singular or zero article with nouns in the plural. Semantic functions: 1. Classification (opposition) 2. concrete nomination 3. inconcrete nomination 4. Universal generalization (typical member of the class, "every") 5. Quasi-generalization (totality is open, almost all are meant) 1. When the classifying function is performed, the referent is either referred to the class of similar objects or opposed to another object. # Mary is a doctor. They are doctors. 2.When nomination is performed, you name either a real or an unreal object: # Then she gave him a letter of invitation. - concrete I suppose he never received a letter signed ABC. -The object is unreal, the reference is thought of as probable, unreal which is true by the context of unreality ( inconcrete) 3. When universal generalization is performed, the reference denotes a typical or every member of the class. # A madman is a very dangerous thing. 4. Quasi-generalization shows that reference is made either to most but not all members of the totality, or you can add "in general". # Oil floats on water, (in general^ In case of indefinite reference the indefinite or zero article only signal that the reference is indefinite without specifying its type. The actual type of semantic is determined by the whole context of the use of the indefinite descriptive. Each type of the indefinite reference is characterized by a number of typical contextual sets. Each contextual set is determined by: - its internal semantics - the syntactic function of the descriptive in the utterance - micro- and macro explicit language means of expressing this or that semantic function. Internal semantics: - classification - referring to a class, opposition - concrete nomination: time or space location - inconcrete nomination: unreality expressed by various contextual sets - universal & quasi generalization: generalization and comparison 44. The indefinite reference: typical contextual sets (their components and internal semantics). Semantic functions of: The Ind.A + N in the singular The zero A + N in the plural or an Uncountable N (sem 8 suppl 1) 1) Classification: the is referred to a class of similar objects or is opposed to another object. <- internal semantics. ~Mary is a doctor; They are doctors (opposition) 2) Concrete Nomination: naming a concrete object; time and space location. ~Then she gave him a letter of invitation (if there is time/space location then concrete nomination; internal semantics: time and space location) 3) Inconcrete Nomination: naming an object viewed as imaginable or probable; unreality.

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~I suppose he never received a letter signed ABC- probable, inconcrete.(suppose, never they form the context of unreality). (2), (3) you name either a real or unreal object 4) Universal Generalization: a when UG is performed, the referent denotes a typical or every member of a class.= Generalization Proper. ~A madman (implies every madman)is a dangerous thing. 5) Quasitotal Generalization: the reference is made to most but not all members of the totality. ~Oil floats on water (in general can be added); Dodos like peanuts (+most or in general) In case of the IndRef-ce the Ind. or zero article only signal that the ref-ce is idn. without specifying its type or the particular semantic function. The actual type of the IndRef-ce or semantic reference is determined by the whole context of the use of the ind. descriptor Each type of IndRef-ce is characterized by a number of typical contextual sets (CSs) (- ) Each CS in its turn is determined by its: 1) internal semantics, 2) the syntactic function of the descriptor in the utterance, 3) by micro- ( ) or macro- ( ) explicit means of expressing this or that semantic function. SF classification can be expressed by the following CSs(sem 8 sup 3): Practical Application The Ind or zero article is used to express the SFs of classifying, nominating, generalizing if the IndRef-ce is performed within a particular CS with its internal semantics and the syntactic function of the Ind. descriptor presupposed by this or that CS. CS: be + descriptor ~A robbery would be (link-verb) a relief (the indefinite desriptor). The internal semantics: is referring to an object of a particular class. The syntactic function: predicative. Micro-explicit means: totality. CS: descriptor + verb (present indicative) ~There is a book(descriptor) on the table (concrete nomination; Internal semantics: space location; syntactic function: subject) BUT: There are books on the table (opposition, classification) Conclusion The DefRef-ce of a name to an object is performed within a nominal group characterized by some certain types of relationship (Pragmatic Condition) reducing the sphere of ref-ce. The IndRef-ce of a name to an object is performed within a certain grammatical context characterized by its internal semantics which doesnt reduce the sphere of ref-ce to the degree of individualizing The type of the IndRef-ce is determined by a semantic function of the article realized in the certain grammatical context. The second point of difference between the theory ofdenotation and the theory of reference can be proved by the fact that each case of the use of the articles is the realization of a communicative task of the speaker, his own decision to present an object or an event as definite (as the one and only one which he means under the circumstances) [ ] or as indefinite (either unknown to both him and thehearer, or known to him but unknown to the hearer, or known to both buthis idear is just to name the object). 45. Principal approaches to grammatical description: FORMALIST AND FUNCTIONAL. Functional Approach to Language: A FA to L developed with the growing interest of linguists with the functioning of L in communication where the speaker uses L in accord with his communicative tasks. Functional Approach has 2 trends: 1. From form to functions (FORM FUNCTIONS) # Past Simple - this form used in speech can acquire different meanings 2. From function to form (FUNCTIONS FORM) The result of this description is a lexical-grammatical field which has the centre and periphery. The centre is taken up by the gr. forms for which some function is primary and in the periphery we find forms, for which some functions is secondary. # The field of modality. The centre = the mood forms of the verb b/c they are to be found in every S. Periphery = modal words and expr-s. Main trends in Linguistics: 1. It's a growing interest to semantics as a reflexion of extra-linguistic reality. 2. It's a study of interrelation of deff levels of L str-re of semantic variation, of the complex relationship btw lexis and grammar. 3. It's a growing interest to man's speech strategies to functioning of L units in speech and text in various discourse conditions. FUNCTIONALISM: Geneva School: Sossure, Helbig Prague School: Mathesisus, Trubetzkoy, Jakobson, Danes, Firbas. London School: Sweet, Halliday Russian School: Bondarko, Shendels, Gak, Zolotova. Formalist Approach: Descriptive Approach Dealt primarily with the empirical knowledge of L str-re and taxonomic descriptions of it (various classifications). The main focus was phonology and morphology. Formal structural Grammar in its transformational version rejected semantics and declared that all the grammatical str-res can be delivered from a restricted number of Kernal Ss by means of transformation. They worked our a whole sys of rules governing the transformation. Transformational Grammar dealt primarily with syntax and surface str-res. Generative Grammar included Semantics into the research of the L. Unlike descriptive they proceeded from empirical descriptions to deductive approaches (to form hypothesis about the most important features of L). It's syntactical and deductive. Starts with abstract categories and moves to concrete utterances in a given L. Cognitive Linguistics finds its main objectives in the study of the correlation of L str-res and their mental representation, the way the knowledge of actual reality is packed in L units and of the way the man's THOUGHTS are actualized in speech in the process of communication. It's closely connected with FUNCTIONAL Gr, overlapping with it. FUNCTIONAL APPR isn't a uniform method. The Approaches DIFFER: 1) In the interpretation of the word "function" and the understanding of the very notion of function 2) They differ in the direction of the linguistic analysis. They undertake: whether they proceed from form to meaning or from meaning to form.

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45. Principal approaches to grammatical description: formalist and functional. Fnal approach developed with the growing interest of linguists in the functioning of Lang in communication where the speaker uses the lang in accordance with his communicative tasks. It is linked with main trends in modern ling-cs:-A growing interest to semantics as a reflection of extralingistic reality -A study of interrelation of different levels of lang. str-re, of semantic variation, of the complex relationship between lexis and grammar (hence the wholistic approach to lang) -A gr. Interest to mans speech strategies, to the f-ning of lang units in speech and text in various discource conditions. Descriptive approach Dealt primarily with the empirical knowledge of lang str-re and usage and taxonomic descriptions of it. The main focus is phonology and morphology Formal structural grammar and its transformation Version rejected semantics and declared that all grammatical str-res can be derived from a restricted number of kernel sentences by means of all sorts of transformations. A whole system of rules governing these transformations. Transformation within grammar dealt primarily with syntax and its surface str-res. Harris, Fries Generativism Unlike transformational grammar included the semantic component into the research of language. Generativists proceeded from empirical descriptions to didactic approaches. That is, to forming hypothesis about the most important features of lang. They also focus their attention on syntax but on deep str-res . They were the first to approach language as a mental process, thereby connecting linguistics with psychology Cognitive linguistics Finds its mains objectives() in the study of the correlation of lang str-res and their mental representation, the study of the way the general and particular knowledge of the actual reality is so to speak packed in language units and the study of the way mans thoughts are actualized in speech in the process of communication. Cognitive ling is closely connected with f-nalism, partially overlapping it. C. G.( ) is actually part of cognitive semantics which tries to explain how grammatical structures participate in the formation and lang representation of main categories and concepts of the world: , , , 46 Functional grammar. The notion of function in different functional approaches. Different grammarians single out from 2 to 25 functions of the language. And there are 2 functions that are universally adopted - communicative and cognitive. - According to Stepanov; 1. Denotation (relation of a sign to an object) - general semantics) 2. Predication (relation of a sign to another sign) - syntax. 3. Performance (self-realization of a speaker in signs) - pragmatics - According to Halliday: 1. Ideational (experiational) function. 2. Interpersonal (social role) function 3. Textual or discourse function (. 162. ) The semantic system of a natural language is organized into a small number of distinct components that relate to the most general functions that language has evolved to serve. The first of these is ideational. There are 2 subcategories. 1. An expariencial where we may represent experience directly in terms of happenings (actions, events, states, reactions), entities that participate in these happenings (persons, animate/inanimate objects, institutions, abstractions) and circumstantial features (event, location, time, space, cause, manner) 2. A logical where we represent experience indirectly in terms of certain fundamental logic relations in natural language. The second component - the interpersonal (social role relation) - is language in interaction. Here the semantic system expresses the speaker's evaluations and judgements, the role he is taking up in the communication process, the role he is assigning to the hearer. This component is both - speaker and hearer oriented, it's interpersonal. There is also the third component which we are calling the textual, whereby the meanings of the other two kinds take on relevance to some real context. Here the semantic system enables the speaker to structure meaning as text, organizing each element as a piece of information and relating it significantly to what has gone before. If the ideational component is reflection (the speaker as observer of reality) and the interpersonal component is language as action (the speaker as intruder in reality), the textual component is language relevance (the speaker as relating to the portion of reality that constitutes the speech situation, the context within which meanings are being exchanged). Functions of elements of language They can be treated 1. Meaning of language unit (semantic approach) 2. The role that is played by this or that unit within a larger unit (syntactic approach) 3. The purpose/aim of the language unit (Ideological approach) 4. The communicative intention of the speaker (communicative approach) 46. Functional grammar. The notion of function in different functional approaches. 1. The of lang f-ns from 2 to 25 Universally adopted 1)communicative 2) cognitive 2. F-ns of elements of lang: a) the Mg of a lang unit or its form b) the role that is played by this or that unit within a longer unit c) purpose/aim/use of lang unit d) the communicative f-n (look for the rest 47) 47. Types of functional analysis: the oppositions "function" - "meaning", "semasiological" - "onomasiological", "language" - "user of language". Functions of language. 1. experiential (notional) function 2. interpersonal (social role) function 3. textual or discourse function Functions of elements of language: 1. function = meaning (semantic approach)

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2. function = syntactic function (syntactic approach) 3. function = purpose (teleological approach) 4. function = communicative task in speech (communicative approach) Types of FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS differ in their attitude to the following oppositions: 1) Function vs. meaning 2) onomasiological vs. semasiological 3) language vs. user of language => details: 1) The notion of Semantic function (SF) is not equal to the notion of grammatical meaning (GM). There are 4 cases of their possible relationship: 1. A SF can partially coincide with the meaning of a grammatical form (GM): e.g. SF= temporal location of an action in the past. -> This SF is part of the volume of the GM of the Past Simple and the Present Perfect (they are partially synonyms). 2. A SF can fully coincide with a GM: a bunch of flowers-> the SF of partitiveness is the only GM of this phrase. 3. A SF can coincide with the invariant meaning, while there are a number of grammatical units with different structures: a bottle of vodka/a bottle with vodka/a bottle containing vodka/a bottle that contains vodka The invariant meaning = "content". The SF is also "content". 4. A SF can be a combination of the GM (meaning of a grammatical form) and of other language units associated with it: I remember the man you spoke about. -> The SF of individualization is expressed by the whole Definite Description, i.e. not only by the GM of "the" but also by an attributive clause (lexical means). 2) The onomasiological ("from meaning to form") - semasiological ("from form to meaning") opposition. - Onomasioiogical approach proceeds from the meaning and studies all possible means of expressing this meaning. I THINK here we can use the same example as we used talking about the invariant meaning: a bottle of/with/ containing/that contains vodka the (invariant)meaning is correct - Semasiological approach reveals the meaning of this or that language unit in speech and carries out investigation of the usage of various language units in this particular (grammatical) meaning. Again I THINK: The Present Simple can express habitual actions (I get up at 12), actions and states continuing at the moment of speaking (Now I hear you well), future actions (The train arrives at 5 p.m.), past actions (the historic present).... 3) This opposition deals with the "Speech Act Theory". Here we speak about peformative sentences, where we single out 2 functions of the speaker: 1. uttering the sentence (locution) 2. expressing a communicative intention of request, advice, promise, etc. => performing an illocutionary act. I promise to come at 2 and make love to you. I advise you to see a doctor you look pregnant. => 2 functions are expressed at a time. + These sentences are "explicit" performatives. But there are also "implicit" performatives, where an illocutionary act is performed indirectly (indirect speech acts): It's rather chilly here. the illocutionary function is "request" (to close the window). A perlocutionary act is the effect which the illocutionary act has on the hearer. 47. Types of functional analysis: the oppositions function meaning, semasiological onomasiological, language user of language. Types of fnal analysis differ as to their attitude to the following oppositions: 1)Fn-Mg (opposed/non-opposed) 2)semasiological(from form to Mg)-onomasiological( from Mg to form) 3) lang-users of lang (sem9sup2) 1) Within the first opposition there are 2 trends: a) fn is opposed to semantics fn is treated as a syntactic fn(Bloomfield, , and other structuralists) b) fn is not opposed to semantics( the Prague school): They believed that in speech a word can perform more than 1 fn at a time: semantic, communicatic, syntactic and structural fn is not opposed to semantics -the primary fn of lang is commun-ve -the fns of elements are the purpose (a teleological approach) - In his doctoring the notion semantic fn isnt equal to the notion of grammatical Mg. it can partially coincide(4 cases) : 1. A sem fn can partially coincide with the Mg of a grammatical form e.g. SF temporal location of an action in the past , its part of a volume of Mg of gram forms(Past indef+Pres perf) 2. a SF can FULLY coincide with the gr Mg e.g. SF of partitivenessis the only gram Mg of a Noun-phrase a bunch of flowers 3. SF can coincide with the invariant ( - )Mg of a number of gram units having a different structure e.g. a bottle of ketchup a bottle with ketchup a bottle containing ketchup a bottle that contained ketchup } syntactically different, semantically similar(content) 4.SF can be a COMBINATION of a Mg of a gram form and of other grammatical means associated with it e.g. I remember the man you spoke about(individualization of referent). SF is expressed not only by def. article but by the whole definite description 2) - semasiological approach presupposes revealing theGr Mg of the lang unit and investigation of the USAGE of various lang units in this particular Mg - onomasiological approach proceeds from the Gr Mg revealed apriori( ) and studies all possible means of expressing this Mg the best results are achieved when both types of fn-al analysis are combined 3) Lang-user of lang social aspects, status, distances, circumstances of communication 1. fnal analysis boarders on sociolinguistics 2. Communicative primary fn in a speech act and is refered to as a SPEECH ACT (~-oxford fnal school) The gist of this theory: -in performative sentences the speaker performs 2 actions: -uttering a sentence (locution)

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-expressing a communicative

intention of request, advice, promice etc. (illocution)~I promiced to come at 2 +perlocution()-~he made me bring him some water -the main focus of attention of a speech act theory is illocutionary fn-s and language means used to express those fn-s It also deals with the cases when illocutionary fns are expressed not directly (question, explanatory), but indirectly. Fn here is understood as a communicat task of a speaker, but hidden in his indirect verbal behaviour ~its rather chilly here ( not to inform about the refreshing atmosphere but a request to close the window INDIRECT SPEECH ACT) 48. The theory of Functional Semantic Fields. Semantic functions and semantic categories. FSF is the core of Functional Grammar (Func-1 Gr-r is focused on the study of semantic functions viewed teleologically&functioning of gr. units, which together with other L units participate in rendering the meaning of a utterance). FSF is based on the similarity of functions of its elements. The semantic system of the language can be str-rally organized as a field. Any FSF is based on variant-invariant relationship. The semantic basis of a FSF is a functional semantic category( an invariant realized in its variants = > various semantic functions). Semantic function = a category of meaning which is implied in the actual meanings of qr. forms, function words, syntactic structures, in the meanings of lexico-qrammatic classes of words. FSF Nucleus 1) a gram. category # FSF of temporality-> tense aspectuality -> aspect 2) a gram. form # FSF of subject-object relations = > the possessive case form of N 3) a gr. class of words # Article - structural part of speech = > (in)definiteness 4) a lex-gr class of words # FSF of quality - > adjective (a part of speech can form a nucleus) 5) the syntactic structure # FSF of condition/comparison => clause FSF (structurally) monocentric polycentric (can exist in groups and overlap one another) FSF = bilateral unity plane of content (formed by the functional semantic category + semantic functions as variants) plane of expression (formed by various L means that serve to render those semantic functions; has the centre + periphery) periphery

Since the plane of expression of any FSF is composed of various language means (gr & non-gr) which are used to render the same semantic content, all FSFs presuppose the relations of synonymy between and among their elements. 48. The theory of Functional Semantic Fields(FSF). Semantic functions and semantic categories. FSF - Fn-al grammar is focused on the study of SFs(semantic functions ) viewed teleologically and functioning of grammatical units which together with other lang units, not necessarily gram-l, participate in rendering the Mg of utterance. -The core of functional grammar is FSF which is based on the similarity of Fns of its elements. Any field is based on the invariant-variant relations. The semantic basic of a FSF is a Fn-al Semantic Category which is an invariant realized in its variants: Sem Fn-s of Lang units (SEM 9 supplementary 3) -Notional categories are mental concepts which are represented in the semantic system of lang as fn-al sem categories. In its turn a Fn-al Sem Cat being an invariant is realized in various semantic fn-s as its variants -How are FSFs revealed? What can be nucleus of FSF? 1) A grammatical category~FSF of temporality gr categ of tense 2)A grammatical form ~subject-object relations- the possesive case(my fathers chair- my father has a chair)3)A grammatical class of words ~the article(definiteness/indefiniteness) 4)a syntactic structure ~condition, concession, comparison(a respective clause) 5)lex-l gr-l class of W-ds FSF-s may be-Monocentric/polycentric, can exist in groups and overlap one another -What is a structure of FSF(sem 9 suppl 3)

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49. Functional grammatical synonymy: criteria of synonymy and types of synonyms Since every FSF has core (or nucleus) and periphery, it presupposes synonymy. Criteria of synonymy: 1. Synonyms should perform one and the same semantic function. - The most important 2. The mutual substitution of synonyms is not an obligatory condition but a consequence of synonymy (its highest degree). 3. The synonyms don't have to be lexically identical. 4. They can be structurally similar or different. * The second criterion is the main criterion for strict synonymy. If we take for example FSF of indefiniteness: pronouns substitute the article (core). There are 2 types of synonyms: referential and denotative. 1. Referential. They perform one and the same semantic function. # definite reference: definite article & demonstrative pronouns indefinite reference: indefinite, zero article & demonstrative and indefinite pronouns 2. Denotative synonyms. - Nominal phrases of different structure. - loose and strict synonyms.( 50) 49. Functional grammatical synonymy: criteria of synonymy and types of synonyms. - structurally similar or different grammatical units performing the same semantic function but not necessarily lexically identical. The invariant-variant relations between Fn-al Semantic Fields presuppose the relations of synonymy between and among these elements. The criteria of functional grammatical synonyms: 1) They should perform one and the same SF(semantic function) 2) They can be structurally similar or different, they can belong to the same or different levels of lang structure 3) They dont have to be lexically identical 4) The mutual substitution of synonyms is not an obligatory condition, but a consequence of synonymy (its highest degree) Types of functional synonyms: 1) referential s. 2) denotative s. 1) referential synonyms - are those which peform the same referential semantic function. the and its periphery. The zero article and its periphery. 2) denotayive synonyms are normal phrases of different structure which also perform the same semantic function. [ 9, supplementary 4]. Functional Semantic Correspondence. -Fn-al Gram Synonymy can be loose or strict. Strict synonymy is the extreme exponent of semantic equivalence(i.e. highest degree of synonymy which presupposes mutual substitution of synonyms. In actual linguistic reality the substitution of synonyms is a one-way process: its the kernel member of the paradigm that can substitute for the rest). The members of a strict synonymic paradigm are called functional semantic correspondence. The necessary conition for strict synonymy is the ability of synonyms of mutual substitution a one-way process: only the kernel member of a synonymic paradigm can substitute for other members. Loose synonyms for which mutual substitution is not necessary. (. 9, assignment 7 b) c)) The conditions for strict synonymy for definite referential synonyms: 1) Similar pragmatic conditions 2) Similar patterns of explicit/implicit means of reference 3) Similar morphological form of a noun (singular/plural) ~PCs locality The conditions for strict synonymy within the indefinite referential paradigm 1) similar contextual set (- ) with similar internal semantics 2) similar morphological form of a noun !!! The Cernal element ARTICLE Denotative synonyms: structural and semantic compatability of components The cernal element: preposition phrase, article (a). Can explane the same semantic function by minimal semantic means. Ready to substitute any other member with minimal language means. ~There was a rough wooden shelf with cheap editions of novels(sth with sth shelf with editions) 50. The notion of functional semantic correspondences. Conditions for the mutual substitution of synonyms. For Referential syns: Functional grammatical synonyms can be loose and strict All of them can be loose but as for the STRICT, there is a VERY necessary condition - the mutual substitution. But it doesn't mean that each member within a paradigm can substitute, it's a one-way process <=> only the KERNEL MEMBER can substitute for ANY member. Definite Reference Criteria: 1. Similar pragmatic conditions 2. Similar patterns of explicit and implicit means 3. Similar morphological form of a noun within a paradigm. So we can see, that definite reference has more rigid conditions for synonymy. # SF = individualization; PC = locality 1 pattern = Descriptive + Prepositional phrase it has 2 subparadigms: a). The affair in Paris This little island of Devon coast That little junk shop behind the station b). The servants in hotels These birds on the beach Those doctors in Washington They have: one semantic function the same PC - locality the same explicit means The form of the NOUN is different (Sg vs PI), that's why we can speak about 2 subparadigms.

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Indefinite Reference Criteria: 1. Contextual set with similar internal semantics 2. Similar morph form of a noun 3. Similar SF of a descriptor # SF = concrete nomination Contextual Set = Descriptor + Verb Indef There was a decent salary... I knew there was some mistake There was that inevitable chilly draft - Indefinite Descriptor They have: Similar SF Structural set is the same, that's why the Contextual set is the same (indefinite descriptor) The internal semantics - space SF of the Indefinite Descriptor = subject Morph form of a noun = Sg Kernel = core; synonyms - periphery. SUBPARADIGMS ARE DIVIVED ACC TO THE FORM OF THE NOUN!!! FOR Denotative Synonyms: The only criterion for them is - Structural and Semantic Compatibility of the components = the ability to transformation. Kernel - member for denotative paradigm - the member should be universal semantically and functionally and minimal language means should express the SF. # a grey-bearded man a man with sandy whiskers = KERNEL a man having a white beard a man who had a white beard THEY ARE ALL COMPATIBLE! 50. The notion of functional semantic correspondences (FSCs). Conditions for the mutual substitution of synonyms. ( look strict synonymy 49) Functional grammatical synonyms- structurally similar or different grammatical units performing the same semantic function but not necessarily lexically identical. The mutual substitution of synonyms is not a necessary condition but a possible consequence of functional grammatical synonymy. Functional semantic correspondences (= strict synonyms) are functional synonyms that form the same contextual set and allow a mutual substitution. FSCs are the unique/show () case of Functional Grammatical Synonymy, that presupposes the ability of synonyms for mutual substitution within one contextual set. Strict synonyms are often referred to as Fn-al Sem Correspondences( ). -Fn-al Gram Synonymy can be loose or strict. Strict synonymy is the extreme exponent of semantic equivalence(i.e. highest degree of synonymy which presupposes mutual substitution of synonyms. In actual linguistic reality the substitution of synonyms is a one-way process: its the kernel member of the paradigm that can substitute for the rest). The members of a strict synonymic paradigm are called functional semantic correspondence. The necessary conition for strict synonymy is the ability of synonyms of mutual substitution a one-way process: only the kernel member of a synonymic paradigm can substitute for other members. The conditions for strict synonymy for definite referential synonyms: 1) Similar pragmatic conditions 2) Similar patterns of explicit/implicit means of reference 3) Similar morphological The conditions for strict synonymy within the indefinite referential paradigm 1) similar contextual set (- ) with similar internal semantics 2) similar morphological form of a noun !!! The Cernal element ARTICLE 51 The problem of choice of synonyms. The linguistic mechanism of realization of the speaker's communicative intention. The choice of synonyms can be governed by extralinguistic factors and by the speaker's communicative intention. Definite reference Apart from their referential meaning demonstrative pronouns have their own lexico-grammatical meaning-. The articles have only grammatical meaning. Lexico-grammatical meanings of demonstrative pronouns They denote: 1. Time now-then 2. Space here-this there - that 3. A whole range of concepts singular, typical, unique, subjective, objective, known to all, known to the speaker personally, emotions (good - this, or bad in general - that) Pronouns - show the definite reference - have denotative component E.g. PC - subject-predicate Explicit means - D + clause Morphological form of the noun-Plural. The missiles can be launched by the men who readied them. Nearly all these women who employ us. For those wet and windy days that always come. These is used because the object is presented specifically known to the speaker. Those is chosen because the object is generally known to all people. The definite article is chosen when the speaker wants to individualize the referent as the one that is unique under the circumstances. Indefinite reference

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Indefinite/ zero article is devoid of lexical meaning. Some has 2 meanings 1. sth which is unknown 2. sth which is regarded as unimportant and negligent Any has also 2 meanings 1. every / no matter which 2. emphatic whatsoever E.g. 1. There was a decent salary. We'll use the synonym with some when we want to show sth which is unknown. 2. There was that inevitable Cheley draft. Sth typical for the object in any situation. + : CS D + verb - special question E.g. Who in the world has dropped a gold chain down in the bathtub? Sem. function - inconcrete nomination Internal function - unreality CS D + Verb - general question E.g. Do you have a feeling of happiness about action to come? Do you have any (whatsoever) feeling left for me? Sem. function - universal generalization CS D + Verb to be + Noun E.g. A starting point is usually a theory. Any licensed attorney is an officer of the court. Internal semantics - general proper Sem.function - quasi-generalization CS D + Verb in the Present Indefinite E.g. Lovers are not always in habit of walking around. Those blondes, sir, they're responsible for a lot of trouble. Known to the speaker from personal experience. 51. The problem of choice of synonyms. The linguistic mechanism of realization of the speakers communicative intention. The choice of synonyms is first and formost governed by the communicative intention of the speaker, who takes into account the presence or absence of a senotative component of referential synonyms. The choice of synonyms can be governed by some extralinguistic factors: 1. stylistic; 2. sociolinguistic; 3. communicative (communicative intention of the speaker) 4 time (this/that time; now then);location (this/that house; here there); a whole range of context (they can present an object as single, typical, unique, objective, subjective). Mechanism: If the speaker wants to perform the def/indef reference he chooses an A. If more specifically Pro-N, not A. Both means of expressing def/indef reference the A/Pro-N belong to the speakers language competence, which he uses each time he wants to realize his communicative intention in speech. Dif communicative intentions presuppose dif ways by which the speaker can express the same idea. !!! Social factor is very important. Ex-s: The demonstrative pronouns (this, these that, those) can denote: now-then (time), here-there (spase). These can be chosen as synonym to the: if it is sth specifically known to the speaker. ~Nearly all these women who employ us are so very rude and unpleasant. Those: sth wich is generally known to the speaker. The is devoid of any lexical meaning: only reference. Denotative pronouns have a lexical meaning/ denotative component. => in speech they mean good-bad, specifically known generally known. ~Quasi-total generalization: Descriptor+V in Present Indefinite Internal semantics: Generalization Proper ~Lovers are not always in the habit of walking around. ~Those (shows the relation of the speaker not good) blonds, sir, they are responsible for a lot of trouble. Some/Any : Denotative Components: Some: unknown; unimportant or negligible. Any: every; (emphatic) whatsoever ~There was a decent salary. (to signal indefite referent) ~I knew there was some mistake. (unknown) ~There was that inevitable chilly drought that blew behind the sea. (sth typical of the object in any situation) ~So what would they do to some outsider? (negligible) Inconcrete Nomination: ~Do you have a feeling of happiness? ~Do you have any feeling left for me at all? (whatsoever - emphatic) Universal Generalization. Generalization Proper: ~A starting point is usually a theory. ~Any licenced attorney is an officer of the court. (every) 52. The notions of text and discourse. Main similarities and differences. Linguistic research has recently become focused on humain cognition (). Studying human cognition means poblems of receiving, storing, transforming and using information. Info can be transferred in a large form. Various branches of linguistics turn out to have 1 object in common: Text or Discourse as a fragment of text. Text vs Discourse

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These notions (D and Text) overlap. If we consider them synonyms, one term is preferred Text: 1. a unity of meaning; 2. both used in communication; 3. possess a sertain grammatical structure; 4. organised according to sertain shcemes Any text is a unit of language as well as a unit of speech. Prof. (1980) introduced 2 terms: microtext (MTXT) and macrotext (mTXT). MTXT = D a social and speech phenomenon. D analysis is to characterize how communicants interprete one anothers speech and actions ( : from the view of mental process in the minds of communicants + extralinguistic factors). 1. different domains of knowledge are analysed (e.g. encyclopedical knowledge, personal experience); 2. pragmatic principles of D creation; 3. partners expectations determined by D context; 4. principles of organizing info. mTXT = Text (in a narrow meaning of the word) a syntactical notion, a structural phenomenon. Text analysis concentrates on the surface lexical and grammatical connections (formal structure). In the latest works when linguists speak about D, they combine the features of D proper and Text proper. They say that Text can be undestood as D and vice versa. When we discuss a meaningful whole, a result of a speech act performed with a certain communicative aim in a certain communicative situation, the deep and the surface structure of this whole corresponds to a certain type of discourse activity. 53. Discourse connectedness. Cohesion and coherence. The notion of referential coherence. The very idea of connectedness (the condition for existence of a text) predetermines the possibility of discourse existence. Discourse is connected inside itself and with some outer world. Nunerous definitions of discourse and text of various degrees of complexity are based on the characteristic of their connectedness. Connectedness is regarded as their main and most important feature, and as the condition for discourse existence. The idea of connectedness comprises the notion of cohesion ( local C-ness) and coherence ( global C-ness). Cohesion (local C-ness) is lexical and syntactical connection between words in a sentence and between words and syntactic structures in units larger than a sentence. Coherence (global C-ness) is often defined as text connectedness which is supprted by other than cohesic means. Coherence can be traced if we use our mind, if we use our resding and speaking experience. Using them, we quickl arrive at conclusions whether we deal with texts or non-texts. So, coherence makes it possible to distinguish texts and not-texts. Coherence is a result of interaction of various levels of text presentation (mental presentation, deep propositional, surface lexical and syntactical). Coherence is also influenced by the logics in discourse development, and coherence depends on the authors pragmatic position (e.g. discussing a movie with parents, friends different lexical and syntactic structures). Coherence of a written text is based on the principle of one way linen ordering of words. Some scintists argue that this principle restricts the scale of meaning but our languge experience proves that this restriction is easily overcome by relating propositions properly. To do so, we resort to the part of language competence where grammar rules are supreme. We also resort to our communicative competence where we are guided by the knowledge how to organize information so that it can respond to our partners expectations. These restrictions have a cognitive nature. RESTRICTIONS: 1) The mentioning order ( ) which is based on the iconing principle. If two sentences describe two events which chronologically follow each other, the order of the sentence corresponds to the order in which the events took place in reality. 2) the 2nd principle conserns the division of information into given and new. Given information is known both to the speaker and the listener. New information is not known to the listener. !!!The use of the definite and the indefinite articles. In some works of grammar of discourse, the two principles have been interpreted into the so-called referencial coherence theory. The basic ideas are as follows: Any discourse provides the partners with the common referencial spheres. From the view point of language scince, such a referential sphere becomes the common source of meanings of all words and grammatical structures used in discourse. This referential sphere/field comprises 6 continuities: 1) the theme c. the most important of them. 2) the temporal c. 3) the special c. 4) the action c. 5) the topic c. 6) the participants c. The most important of them is the theme c. Unlike the rest of the c-s, the theme c. is very seldom made explicit. It is practically never found on the circus language level. Instead, all of the other c-s add up to it, and in a larger text all minor topical unities melt and transform under the influence of the global theme. about the referential sphere. There are other theories of information division. As for the referential coherence, we are to remember the treatment of a Text as a referential field and several continuities (. . ). 54. Discourse information continuity (continuities of the theme, action, participants, temporal and local continuities). referencial coherence theory. The basic ideas are as follows: Any discourse provides the partners with the common referencial spheres. From the view point of language scince, such a referential sphere becomes the common source of meanings of all words and grammatical structures used in discourse. In modern works on Discourse Grammar a text is treated as a referential sphere or field. In works of Am. linguist Givon () he describes a Text in the following way: the inner deep structure of a Text comprises several continuities (): This referential sphere/field comprises 6 continuities: 1) the theme c. the most important of them. 2) the temporal c. 3) the special c. 4) the action c. 5) the topic c. 6) the participants c.

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The most important of them is the theme c. Unlike the rest of the c-s, the theme c. is very seldom made explicit. It is practically never found on the circus language level. Instead, all of the other c-s add up to it, and in a larger text all minor topical unities melt and transform under the influence of the global theme. 55. Discourse info structure: basic cognitive principles and restrictions in info organization; principles of info division. Pragmatics studies m-g as it refers to the speech situation. It appears that pragmatics can be better described in terms of dif.aspects. Pragmatics Communicative aspect cognitive aspect Linguists think that the m-g of any It is connected with using human knowledge word and sent used in discourse is We use lang to describe/study human strongly influenced by the communicat knowledge. Discourse info organization. intention of the speaker basic cognitive principles and restrictions in info organization; principles of info division. 1. the mentioning order (this principle is based on the iconicity principle) If 2 sent describe 2 events which chronologically follow each other. The order of the sents must correspond to the order of the events that took place in reality. 2. concerns division of info into given (known both to the speaker and listener) and new( is not familiar to the listener) Info division: Reflects the authors decisions and communicative aims as well as the listeners interpretation efforts. - in D. info division realizes as several types of opp. (theme/rheme) St. can be traced on many text levels including the choice of Ws and syntact structure - the basic factors which influence info division are of pragmatic and cognitive nature 56. Theories of information division I. referential coherence theory (. 54) II.the sentence actual division theory Was worked out by one Prague linguistic society: within a particular context there exists only one correct sentence division. The sentence is divided into 2 parts: the theme (informs us what the sentence is about) and the rheme (is what is said about the theme). In the End language the theme is usually associated with the subject of the sentence. The rheme with the predicate. When the theory was further developed, it accuired a new name: III. the communicative dynamics theory: The information dynamics words on the inner sentence level as well as on the outer sentence level. They even stated that information correlates within larger texts. In the 1980s a discoursive pragmatic approach was applied to linguistic data. Then the immediate meaning of the sentence was inscribed into broader linguistic and extralinguistic context. However this approach didnt lead much practical response. Linguists mostly analysed composite sentences. They didnt move any further. IV. the grounding theory. A new reading of the above mentioned theories has been offered within the grounding theory ( ) The forgrounding () and the backgrounding information (). These notions are considered relative. Gramarians who employed these terms, stress the following : 1) Information division has a gradual nature. Its impossible to imagine it as a two-fold structure (theme and rheme they are only in a sentence) 2) Foregrounding information is not to be main or most important information. Because in reality the most important information can coinside with the text background. !!! Discourse analysys has become more flexible. The term ground originated from the term Theme. The Americal linguist Paul Frieze described ground as the authors choice of the subject matter. He proved that in the Eng language there is a strong tendency to set up certain information as ground and to place ground in the initial position. Further information in the text is compared to this ground and on the basis of this comparison we evaluate the information status ot words and structures and arrange them properly. The grounding theory was originally generated within the framework of narrative discourse analysys ( ). Originally, event clauses (=clauses directly related to the story-line) were treated as foregrounding. These clauses were approved to sciene-setting passages, and passages and sentences containing evaluation. In modern narrathology there exists another point of view. For example, though we can agree that it is very important to create a chain of events in any narration, we may also say that the very story-line is of relative importance only. Sometimes, the story-line doesnt convey the message of the author. At the same time, the non-narrative parts may explain, evaluate or sum up the authors ideas. They give a certain coulouring to the text, and bring the authors message into the open. When this point of view was expressed, the terms foregrounding and backgrounding received new shade of meaning. Nowadays, foregrounding and backgrounding reflect the possible correlation and devision of information from old to new, and from less important to more important. The first line is absolute. When you read a new passage, it becomes old. But the notion of importance is unstable. Different syntactic structures help realize this motion from new to old, from less important to more important. D analysis is to characterize how communicants interprete one anothers speech and actions ( : from the view of mental process in the minds of communicants + extralinguistic factors). 5. different domains of knowledge are analysed (e.g. encyclopedical knowledge, personal experience); 6. pragmatic principles of D creation; 7. partners expectations determined by D context; 8. principles of organizing info. mTXT = Text (in a narrow meaning of the word) a syntactical notion, a structural phenomenon. Text analysis concentrates on the surface lexical and grammatical connections (formal structure). In the latest works when linguists speak about D, they combine the features of D proper and Text proper. They say that Text can be undestood as D and vice versa. When we discuss a meaningful whole, a result of a speech act performed with a certain communicative aim in a certain communicative situation, the deep and the surface structure of this whole corresponds to a certain type of discourse activity.

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Modern D analysis characterizes how the process of purposeful interaction communicants interpret one anothers speech and actions. It makes us study the communicants of utterances in detail. For D anal there are some principles and restrictions- vital factors that influence D. structure. These principles include: -the mentioning order which is based on the iconicity principle(if 2 sent describe 2 events,which chronologically follow each other,the order of the sent in speech corresponds to the order the events took place in reality) - division of the info into given/known to both: speaker and listener AND new-which is not familiar to the listener. There are 3 main theories: The sentence actual division theory It appeared in Prague Linguistic society. They introduced the terms of the theme/ rheme which actually mean: Theme- what a sent is about Rheme- what is said about the theme A sent can be divided in different ways taken separately,but within some context only 1 way is realized- The communicative dynamism theory Within this theory languages declared that besides the sent level info dynamics works in the outer sentence level and even between larger texts. In the late 80s there appeared Discoursive pragmatic approach to Info Division. The approach was productive at a time,but its application was limited. This theory was mainly applied to compound sent-s treated as utterance. The grounding theory Is derived from the word Ground which was described by American linguist Paul Freeze. By him Ground in D. is the theme. He states that in English theres a strong tendency to introduce some info as a ground and then to compare later info to the Ground. 57. The grounding theory: central notions and ideas A new reading of the above mentioned theories has been offered within the grounding theory ( ) The forgrounding () and the backgrounding information (). These notions are considered relative. Gramarians who employed these terms, stress the following : 1) Information division has a gradual nature. Its impossible to imagine it as a two-fold structure (theme and rheme they are only in a sentence) 2) Foregrounding information is not to be main or most important information. Because in reality the most important information can coinside with the text background. !!! Discourse analysys has become more flexible. The term ground originated from the term Theme. The Americal linguist Paul Frieze described ground as the authors choice of the subject matter. He proved that in the Eng language there is a strong tendency to set up certain information as ground and to place ground in the initial position. Further information in the text is compared to this ground and on the basis of this comparison we evaluate the information status ot words and structures and arrange them properly. The grounding theory was originally generated within the framework of narrative discourse analysys ( ). Originally, event clauses (=clauses directly related to the story-line) were treated as foregrounding. These clauses were approved to sciene-setting passages, and passages and sentences containing evaluation. In modern narrathology there exists another point of view. For example, though we can agree that it is very important to create a chain of events in any narration, we may also say that the very story-line is of relative importance only. Sometimes, the story-line doesnt convey the message of the author. At the same time, the non-narrative parts may explain, evaluate or sum up the authors ideas. They give a certain coulouring to the text, and bring the authors message into the open. When this point of view was expressed, the terms foregrounding and backgrounding received new shade of meaning. Nowadays, foregrounding and backgrounding reflect the possible correlation and devision of information from old to new, and from less important to more important. The first line is absolute. When you read a new passage, it becomes old. But the notion of importance is unstable. Different syntactic structures help realize this motion from new to old, from less important to more important. 58. Discourse pragmatics Its important to understand how the world of D. is created for speech partners. When this question is posed linguists mainly discuss 2 notions: -the notion of reference -the notion of pragmatics In the most general terms: Pragmatics- a branch of semiotics and linguistics, which studies ways of ling functions in speech. P. was introduced in 1930 by American ling Morris. He said that Pragmatics includes the time/place of utterance+ the communicative intention of the speaker. In the late 60-70 Pragmatics began to develop as a relatively independent branch of ling. Nowadays it comprises many trends and employs various approaches. Pragmatics studies m-g as it refers to the speech situation. It appears that pragmatics can be better described in terms of dif.aspects. Pragmatics has various aspects. Well mention only two of them: 1) the cognitive aspect. The idea that pragmatics has sth to do with knowledge appeared when scientists made their first attempts to create an artificial mind. One of the tasks here was modeling of understanding. It soon beame obvious that modeling of understanding is impossoble without taking into account the speakers and the listenres common background knowledge of the world. This common background was described as the shared knowledge of the communicants which provides circumstances for their communication. 2) the communicative aspect. The communicative aim of the speaker which traditionally belongs to the sphere of pragmatics influences the semantics of a language expression, and still further, the communicativw aim ditermins the way we chose to arrange and present our ideas in a discourse form. Discourse is related to text. Is a process and a result of cognitive and speech activities of the communities. As a result of these activities, D. may exist in a fixed form. It may have any other form. In modern linguistics, the text forms of D. are called texts. In them, we can trace all the circumstances and factors which register the pragmatics of communication. If a text receives the status of D., it is usually described as a meaningful whole, a result of a speech act performed with a certain communicative aim, in a certain communicative situation. Text structure is governed by the general and particular principles of information organization. Texts are numerous events and text rengescorrespond to different types of discourse activity.

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