FLAT-JACK TEST: A SLIGHTLY DESTRUCTIVE TECHNIQUE FOR THE DIAGNOSIS OF BRICK AND STONE MASONRY STRUCTURES

Professor Luigia Binda Dept. of Structural Engineering Politecnico of Milano P.za Leonardo da Vinci, 32 20133, Milan, Italy KEYWORDS: Flat Jack, Masonry, NDT, Mechanical Characterization ABSTRACT Single and double flat-jack tests were firstly applied to brick masonries in 1981. A long experience of application was developed by several research centers and laboratories. Nevertheless their application is still controversial in several countries as in Italy, due to the difficulty of accepting in some cases the results as reliable. The authors, collaborating to the research on the use of flat-jack since 1983, have applied the test several times to brick and stone masonries. A discussion is presented on the limit and advantages of the test in the case of different types of masonries: (i) brick and stone masonries with thin joints, (ii) brick masonries with thick joints, (iii) irregular stone and multiple leaf masonries. INTRODUCTION Diagnosis of the state of damage of historic buildings can only be carried out if a deep knowledge of materials and structures is available. Visual inspection, geometrical and crack pattern survey, surface decay mapping are necessary to understand the damages and their causes and carry out a first interpretation of the phenomena. After those operation have been performed more quantitative information is needed on the material and on the structural element characteristics: strength, stress-strain behavior, constraints and interactions between elements, etc. Historic masonries are usually highly inhomogeneous materials, combination of regular or irregular units and frequently built as multiple-leaf brick and stonework. Their mechanical characteristics, needed to carry out the structural analysis, cannot be directly correlated to those of the components (brick, stone, mortar) except for few combinations (brick and stone masonry made with regular units and joints). Therefore the needed properties which are useful to define its structural behaviour can be significant if the masonry itself as a composite is tested. For historic buildings only two ways are possible: (i) sampling of a masonry prism which will be tested in the laboratory, (ii) testing on site. A third way has been used several times, mostly for research purposes, i.e. building in the laboratory a small or full scale physical model prepared with the same or very similar materials as the real masonry. Three are the main stress components interesting a masonry wall: compression, tension, shear, connected to the main in-service actions supported by a building. The strength and stress-strain behaviour of masonries under those stress state can be tested in the laboratory with great difficulty due also to the impossibility of sampling significant specimens from an existing masonry. As said before, the easiest operation, which could consist in sampling and testing single components and calculating the masonry properties through analytical formulas can only be done in the case when units and joints are regular and the masonry section is solid [Hilsdorf, 1969], [Eurocode]. This type of elaboration can be hopeless in the case when the units are irregular and/or the section is a multiple leaf one. In any case sampling a masonry specimen is not a simple operation also in the case of a regular and solid masonry [Rossi, 1982]. Beeing a highly destructive operation, only one or two specimens can be sampled and the test may be statistically unreliable in the case of a very poor masonry. Claudia Tiraboschi

Therefore, the only way to reach the goal seems to be an in-situ testing on the masonry as a composite. Concerning the different stress components the following comments can be made: (i) tensile strength cannot be tested directly; the only known in-situ test is the bond wrench test [Rilem 76 Lum B3, 1990], but it can only be applied to brick-masonries at the top of the wall; (ii) shear strength can be tested by the use of a jack checking the shear bond strength at the mortar joint [Rilem 127-Ms.B.4]; also this test can be applied in the case of regular units and joints; (iii) compressive stress value and compressive strength can be checked respectively by the single and double flat-jack. Among the three types of in-situ tests, the flat-jack test is certainly the most attractive since it can be used to define the local value of the compression and also to study the stress-strain behaviour of the masonry. Even if this test was firstly set up for brick-masonries, it has now been developed also for stone-masonries made with irregular stones. The experience coming from several cases of application has allowed the authors to define in general the level of reliability, the advantages and also the limits of the test itself when used in different types of masonry. Case histories are presented and discussed concerning flat-jack tests used for: brick-masonries with thin and thick joints, regular stone- and irregular stone masonries, masonries repaired by injection of grout. The aim of the presentation is also to suggest some guidelines for engineers and architects who want to use this test for in-situ detection of the local state of stress and of the stress-strain behaviour of the masonry. It will also be shown that as for any in-situ test, care has to be taken by the engineer for the right interpretation of the results in order to give reliability To the test itself. TEST DESCRIPTION The method was originally applied to determine the in-situ stress level of the masonry and it has been extended to the detection of its deformability characteristics. The first applications of this technique on some historic monuments [Rossi, 1982], clearly showed its great potential. It appeared to be the only way to achieve reliable information on the local state of stress of a masonry structure. The test is carried out by introducing a thin flat-jack in place of a mortar layer which has been cut. The test is only slightly destructive. After the test is completed, the flat-jack can easily be removed and the mortar joint restored to its original condition [ASTM C 1196, 1991]. The determination of the state of stress is based on the stress relaxation caused by a cut perpendicular to the wall surface; the stress release is determined by a partial closing of the cutting, i.e. the distance between the edges of the slot after the cutting space is lower than before. A thin flat-jack is placed inside the slot and the pressure is gradually increased to restore the distance measured before the cut. The displacement caused by the cut and those subsequently induced by the flat-jack are measured by a removable extensometer before, after cutting the slot and during the tests. Pf corresponds to the pressure of the hydraulic system driving the displacement equal to those read before the slot was executed. The equilibrium relationship, is the fundamental condition to be satisfied for all the applications where the flat-jack are currently used: Sf = Kj Ka Pf where: Sf = calculated stress value, Kj = jack calibration constant (<1), Ka = jack/slot area constant (<1), Pf = flat-jack pressure.

The calculation of Ka and Kj is well described in ASTM Standards [ASTM C 1196, 1991]. In a brick masonry, the cut can be easily made in the horizontal joints. For a) b) this type of masonry a Figure 1 a) Rectangular flat jack (200 x 400 x 8 mm), b) Drilling of the mortar joint rectangular flat-jack is used (fig.1). The cut can also be made by a steel disk, with a diamond cutting edge (fig. 2). The flat-jack has the same shape of the cut. In fact the use of flat-jacks for stone masonries made with irregular stones is not easy, due to the difficulty of finding regular joints; therefore the cut for the insertion of the jack is done directly in the stone courses. The described test can also be used to determine the deformability characteristics of a masonry. A second cut is made, parallel to the first one after unloading the jack in it and a second jack is inserted, at a distance of about 40 to 50 cm from the previous one. The two jacks delimit a masonry sample of appreciable size to which a uni-axial compression stress can be applied. Measurement bases for removable straingauge or LVDTs on the sample face provide information on vertical and lateral displacements. In this way a compression test is carried out on an undisturbed sample of Figure 2- Circular saw with special guiding equipment large area. Several loading-unloading cycles may be performed at increasing stress levels in order to determine the deformability modulus of the masonry during loading and unloading phases. The maximum value of stress reached by the last loading cycle can also be used to roughly estimate the strength value. DIFFICULTY IN MEASUREMENT INTERPRETATION Single flat jack As happens in the case of in-situ tests on masonry, one of the most difficult task is the interpretation and elaboration of the results. As a first step the correct interpretation of the measurement has to be established. The reliable determination of the equilibrium pressure is a fundamental requirement for the test, regardless the details of the type of application. Conflicting information, regarding the 5 4 interpretation of the effect of the 2 6 1 3 a concentration of stresses and/or of inelastic deformations or of b very low stresses (e.g. when surveying one or two floor c buildings) usually requires significant amount of subjective Fig. 3 Deformation of the edges of the cut [Ronca, 1996]

Hypothetical stress-strain curve Unload after cutting Reload by flat-jack

Hypothetical stress-strain curve Unload after cutting Reload by flat-jack

l
Stress
Stress

judgement, which may compromise the reliability of the entire procedure [Ronca et al, 1997].

Due to the inhomogeneity of the masonry and to the cutting operation, variation in the stress field is caused during and after the cutting of the slot. Once the l l Displacement Displacement cut has been carried out, the Fig. 5 Stress-displacement in the values of the displacements middle of the slot in case of hinge Fig.4 Stress displacement in measured at the reference points formation or rigid displacement the middle of the slot are not constant; they tend to be greater in the centre of the cut due to the new distribution of stresses. The deformations assumed by the edges of the cut are represented in Fig. 3 [Ronca 1996]. Therefore there will be a concentration of tensile stresses at the middle of the slot and highest values of compressive stresses beyond its end. In the middle of the slot the situation of unloading by cutting and successive loading by the flat jack is represented in Fig. 4. Obviously in the case of cracking due to the tensile stresses born at the top of the slot (Fig. 3, c) or consequent rigid movements of the upper parts of the slot, the situation of Fig. 5 can be obtained. On the contrary, the corners and the lateral parts of the cut are under compression increasing after the cut has been made. Therefore the situation at the ends of the cut is such that higher stresses have to be applied to recover the relaxation displacement and to oppose the compressive stress [Ronca, 1996]. In any case the measurements carried out in the four chosen points will never give the same value and after the flat jack has been enflated, very seldom the original distance will be attained in all the four measuring points (Fig.6) [Ronca et al., 1997]. The value of stress is attained following ASTM C 1196: "Continue pressuring until the original gage distances are restored. The allowable average deviation from the original gage length shall be the greater of 0,0005 in, or 1/20 of the maximum initial deviation, with no single deviation exceeding the greater of 0,0010 in, or 1/10 of the maximum deviation. Tests in which these limits are exceeded shall be considered invalid". As an alternative, the average value of the two central measurements (LVDT 3 and 4 in fig. 3) can be assumed as valid, provided they do not require a pressure higher than that of the lateral measurements (LVDT 2 and 5) for the distance to be recovered. As the value collected are also very seldom symmetric, every time a tolerance on the difference has to be established which can follow ASTM C 1196 or be adjusted according to special application.
Fig.6 Pressure in the jack against measured displacements 1000 5 4 1 2 3 Displacement [micron]
800 600 400 200 0 0 5 10 15 20 25
3 4 5 2 6 1

Pressure [bar]

It must finally be pointed out that the flat-jack test in the case of multiple-leaf walls gives results concerning only the outer leaves. Double flat jack 2.5 Difficulties or impossibility 2.0 in applying the double flat jack test can be found in the 1.5 case of low rise buildings 1.0 (one or two story high) due 0.5 to the lack of stress l v response in the upper 0.0 masonry caused by the low -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 stresses acting on it. Fig. 7 Strain [m/mm] shows one of these cases: Fig. 7 a) Results of double flat jack test Fig. 7 b) Failure of the the continuation of the test when the upper stresses are very low masonry outside the slot was impossible due to the failure of the upper part of the masonry. In these cases the situation can be studied carrying out only a single flat jack test or estimating the vertical stress by a simple calculation. The double jack test must be either avoided or carried out up to a low state of stress, in order to have information at least on the elastic parameters. In Fig. 8 a case is presented where the double flat jack test was carried out only up to 0.5 N/mm2; in this case only the modulus of elasticity was measured.
0.5
Stress [N/mm2]

Stress [N/mm2]

0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0

l v

-0.50

-0.25 0.00 0.25 Strain [mm/mm]

0.50

Fig. 8 a - Wall panel

Fig. 8 b - Test carried out to a low state of stress

PROBLEMS DUE TO THE MASONRY CHARACTERISTICS As already mentioned, many difficulties in interpreting and accepting the results of the tests are also due to the state and to the characteristics of the masonry. When, after cutting, the distance of the reference points tends to increase, the presence of tensile stresses can be the cause; therefore, in that case the continuity of the wall should be quickly restored by filling the cut with mortar. The presence of cracks or signs of movements in the stones should discourage from carrying out the test in those positions. Care should be taken in cutting operations when the joints are particularly thin and/or the wall is of high historic importance. In that situation cutting should be done by saw. In the case of thick mortar joints (e.g. byzantine joints), the choice of the cutting position in both single and double flat-jack is very important. When the joint is more than 2 cm thick, the best choice should be cutting through a brick, but this is not allowed in valuable buildings.

2.0

Stress [N/mm2]

1.6 1.2 0.8 0.4 0.0

l
Local stress

-2.0

0.0 2.0 Strain [m/mm]

4.0

Fig. 9 a Stress strain curve

Fig. 9 b Execution of the double flat jack test.

Displacement [micron]

The authors have chosen the positions of Fig. 9 for single and double flat jack tests in the case of Byzantine buildings (San Vitale, Ravenna). As it will be mentioned later, also this choice can be controversial when the mortar joint is very soft. When a very irregular 0.5 stone masonry has to 4 1 2 3 be tested the cutting 0.4 cannot be made through the joints due 0.3 to their softness and 8 0.2 irregularity, but through the stones. [Binda, 0.1 Modena et al., 1993]. In h v 2 that case the choice of 1 3 4 0.0 the test position is very -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 important, since the Strain [mm/mm] high inhomogeneity of 800 Fig. 10a Stress strain beahviour 2 3 4 5 Fig. 10b A wall tested the masonry can 4 influence too much the 600
Stress [N/mm2]
3

400 200 0

2 5

0.00

0.50

1.00
Stress [N/mm2]

1.50

2.00

Fig. 11 Single flat jack

50
Single Jack Test log(Y)=-1.65*log(X)+2.6

results, as shown in Fig. 10. The presence of a nonsymmetric and n o n - h o m o g e n e u s distribution of the stones caused a non uniform distribution of stresses during the test, with higher concentration of stresses at the location of LVDT 4. The result was an apparent higher stiffness of the specimen measured at the location of LVDTs 1,2 and 3. The test, in fact, was considered not valid. Furthermore, also in the case of the double jack, it is very difficult that symmetric values are measured. CASE HISTORIES Regular brick masonry A series of flat jack tests was carried out on the bell-tower of the Monza Cathedral which is presenting serious safety problems. After the sudden collapse of the Civic Tower in Pavia in 1989, concern had been expressed by the

Test Point Level [m]

40

30

20

10

0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75

In Situ Stress [N/mm2]

Fig. 12 Position of flat jacks versus measured stress

responsible authorities for other towers and massive buildings. The hypothesis made about the cause of the collapse, is continuos damage of the material under constant heavy stresses due to the dead load. This hypotesis was experimentally confirmed. [Binda et al 1991] [Binda, Anzani, 1993]. In the last years several heigh rising towers of the historic centers have been surveyed and monitored; one of them is the Bell Tower of the Cathedral of Monza (near Milan). [Binda et al, 1998]. The single flat jack test carried out in chosen strategic points of the structure gave meaningful information on the state of stress of the structure. The flat jack tests were carried out in areas where the state of stress (also analitically calculated) was suspected to be very high. Pratically in all the tests the recovery of slot displacements was reached simultaneously in all the measuring points (Fig. 11). The results were useful to control the local situation but also to calibrate a mathematical model for interpreting the behaviour of the structure. The single flat jack tests were performed at different heights of the tower in order to check the overall situation. Fig.12 shows the variation of the stresses along the walls of the tower. It can be seen from the figure that the values of the compressive stress decreases with the height of the tower. The nonlinearity in
900 800 Displacement [micron] 700
2e5 3e4

Local stress [N/mm2]

y = 436,38x + 20,353 R 2 = 0,815

600 500 400 300 200

1 e 6

y = 275,45x + 0,528 R 2 = 0,8822

0 .9 8 N 0 .9 2

S 1 .2 1

100 0 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 S tress [M P a ]

y = 145,33x - 60,175 R 2 = 0,6959

W
Fig. 14 Monza Tower plan at 13 m level. Eccentric stress on the south exposed wall

Fi g. 13 Behoviour of the couples of LVDTs

the diagram is due to the fact that the tests were carried out on different sides of the tower with different distribution of -openings.

2.5 2.0 Local stress 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0

l v

a
Stress [N/mm2]

2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0

l

b )

Stress [N/mm2]

Sperim. 1.67 FEM 1.4

Local stress

Sperim.0.98 FEM 0.96

v

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3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0

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3.0

c )
Stress [N/mm2]

2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0

l

d )

Stress [N/mm2]

Sperim. 0.69 FEM 0.54

Local stress
v

Sperim. 0.48 FEM 0.44

Local stress
v

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0.0 2.0 4.0 Strain [m/mm]

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In order to understand better the reliability of the six bases, in fig. 13 the displacements measured over the single jack test are reported against the stress values corresponding to their total recover at the end of the test. It can be noted that there is a good linear correlation between stress and displacement starting from 0 only for the bases 3-4, 2-5. This result confirmes that among the six, the 4 internal bases are the most reliable. Single flat jack tests could also be used to measure the situation under sligthly eccentric loads (fig. 14). This application can be useful provided the masonry is not under tensile stresses. On the tower of Monza also double flat-jack tests were carried out. The results of the four tests at different height of the tower are gure 15 - Double flat jack performed respectively at a) 5.4m., b) 13,0 m. c) 31.5m., d) 38.0 m. reported in Fig. 15 with the values of the local stress found from single flat jacks at the same points. The four tests could be used to understand the local situation of the masonry under compressive stresses due to the dead load. As it can be seen at the lower part of the tower the stress measured is very near to/or even exceeds the elastic limit. This explains the presence of diffused vertical cracks in that part of the tower walls. The tests were used to calibrate the analytical model. From the four figures it can also be seen that the strength and deformability of the masonry is variable from point to point. Thick joint masonry When the stress has to be measured on masonries with thick mortar joints as in the case of Roman and Byzantine brick-masonries the first problem is, as mentioned before, the location of the slot. The two jacks were both located under a brick course in order to avoid excessive non-linear displacements at the top of the slot. Of course a limit in applying the test is due to the softness of the mortar joint. Nevertheless in the case of enough stiff mortars the results can be very reliable acceptable (S. Vitale, Ravenna, Fig. 9b). In figure 16 a and b the location of test and the results are presented concerning a wall of the Church S. Maria Rossa in Milan (IX cent.). In both cases the local stress measured is rather low and the behaviour of the masonry very good even if the mortar joint has a thickness of more than 4 cm.

2.0

Stress [N/mm2]

1.6 1.2 0.8 0.4 0.0

Local stress

-2.0

0.0 2.0 Strain [m/mm]

Fig. 16 a Stress strain curve

4.0

Fig. 16 b Wall panel

Regular stone masonry When the joint is not eccessively thin, the test can be carried out as for the brick masonry. When the thickness of the joint is less than 4 mm in order to avoid spoiling the stones, the circular saw instead of the drill should be used for cutting (fig.17 a, b). Furthermore it should be remembered that the measured stresses should not ecceed the limit values of the carrying capacity of the jack declared by the producer or experimentally measured.
2.0 1.6

Stress [N/mm2]

1.2 0.8 0.4 0.0 Local Stress

h
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 Strain [m/mm]

1.5

Fig . 17 a - Double flat jack in a regular stone masonry

Fig. 17 b Stress strain curve and local stress

Irregular stone masonry In irregular stone masonry the mortar joint has variable thickness and is frequently weak compared to the stones. Drilling is then impossible. At the Politecnico, an equipment was set up, (following ISMES, BG directions), composed by an electric eccentric circular saw equipped by a special guide so that the slot will be not only thin but also very well horizontally oriented (Fig. 2). The flat jack used is the semicircular one. (350 mm x 250 mm x 4 mm). The tests on irregular stones have now been applied by the authors to several masonries in different regions (Sicily, Tuscany, Lombardy) after calibration to full scale tests in Rovereto [Modena]. When the area is well chosen the results are sactisfactory. In fig.19 three tests carried out on the external walls of the partially collapsed Cathedral of Noto are presented. Even in the case of highly non-homogeneous masonry, similar characteristics could be found; the masonry has a low strength and a high deformability.

E'

CNJ2D A' A CNJ5D

B' B CNJ4D

Fig. 18 - Plan of the Cathedral

C' C

D' D

CNJ3S CNJ1D

E CNJ6D

1.5

Stress [N/mm2]

CNJ5d

CNJ4d

1.0

CNJ6d

0.5

0.0 -2.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0

Strain [m/mm]

Fig. 19 Tests carried out on rubble wall On the pier E (fig. 18) which sustained the dome, first the single and double tests were carried out on the external leaf of the pier, then another double jack test was performed on the internal rubble wall after removing the external layer of regular stones (Fig. 20). In fig. 21 the two results of external and internal double flat jacks are compared toghether with the result of the single flat jack. As it can be seen, the internal part of the pier is very weak compared to the external one. The tests were very useful to study the state of damage of the remaining piers of the Cathedral after the collapse.

2.0

CNJ1d

Stress [N/mm2]

1.5

1.0

Local stress

0.5

CNJ2d
0.0
l v

-6.0

-4.0

-2.0

0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

Strain [m/mm]
Fig. 20 - External and internal wall Fig. 21 - External and internal wall double flat jacks, compared to local stress

Efficiency of masonry repair Two repair techniques can essentially be controlled by carrying out double flat jack tests before and after repair. The two techniques are: grout injection and deep repointing. The investigation can be made by leaving on site unloaded the flat jacks used to carry out the test before repairing. After repairing the test can be repeated and the stress-strain curves compared in order to detect the eventual increase in stiffness and strength. Fig. 22 represents the results obtained before and after grout injection on a stone-wall at two check points (M1 and M2) by ISMES and Univ. of Padua (Trento) [Bettio, 1993].
b - Before injection a - After injection 2.0

Before repointing After repointing

2.0

Stress [N/mm2]

Stress [N/mm2]

1.6 1.2 0.8 0.4 0.0

M1a

M2a

M2a

M1a

1.6 1.2 0.8 0.4 0.0

M2b M1b

M2b M1b

h
-4 -2 0 2 Strain [m/mm] 4

v
6

h
-6 -4 -2 0 2 Strain [m/mm] 4

v
6

Fig. 22 Tests repeated before and after injection (ISMES)

Fig. 23 Test repeated before and after deep repointing of mortar joints

Fig. 23 gives the results obtained before and after repair by deep cement repointing (6 cm) of a stone wall in Toscana [Binda, 1999].

CONCLUSIONS Some experiences performed on site on the use of single and double flat jack test on masonry allow to drawn the following comments: the flat jack test is a powerful tool to know the local situation of masonries, as it can give the value of the acting stress (compression) and the stress-strain behaviour. The results can be used successfully in diagnosys of masonry structures and in the calibration of mathematical models. The limits of the single and double test have been studied and they mainly concern: (i) the difficulty in the interpretation of the results when the cutting and recovery of the distances are not successful; (ii) the reliability of the test when loads are very low; (iii) the insufficient stress value in the upper part of the wall to contrast the pressure given by the flat jack; (iv) the reliable interpretation of the results when the material is too weak or non-homogeneous. The test can be successfully applied to brick and stone masonries with thin or thick mortar joints and also to rubble masonry, provided a calibration of the test results can be done in any case. AKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to thank M. Antico and M. Cucchi for their fine assistence in on site tests. REFERENCES ASTM C 1196 (1991), Standard test method for in-situ compressive stress within solid unit masonry estimated using the flat-jack method, , Philadelphia, ASTM. ASTM C 1197 (1991) - Standard test method for in-situ measurement of masonry deformability properties using the flat jack method Bettio C., Gelmi A., Modena C., Rossi P.P. (1993), Caratterizzazione meccanica e consolidamento statico delle murature dei centri abitati di antica origine della provincia di Trento: rapporto preliminare sui risultati delle indagini svolte, Convegno Murature, sicurezza, recupero, Trento, 185-222 Binda L. (1999), Caratterizzazione delle murature in pietra e mattoni ai fini dellindividuazione di opportune tecniche di riparazione, Unit di Ricerca di Milano, Relazione Finale, Contratto CNR/GNDT Binda L., Anzani A.(1993), The time-dependent behaviour of masonry prisms: an interpretation, The Masonry Society Journal, vol.11, n.2, pp.17-34 Binda L., Gatti G., Mangano G., Poggi C., Sacchi Landriani G. (1991), The collapse of the Civic Tower of Pavia: a survey of the materials and structure, Masonry International, vol. 6, n.1, pp.11-20 Binda L., Modena C., Baronio G.(1993), Strengthening of masonries by injection technique, Proceedings of 6 NaMC, Vol.I, Philadelphia, pp.1-14 Binda L., Tiraboschi C., Tongini Folli R. (1998), On site and laboratory investigation on materials and structure of the Bell Tower in Monza, 2nd Int. Conf. RILEM on Rehabilitation of structures, Highett, Australia, pp.542-556 Eurocode 6, Design of Masonry Structure Hilsdorf H,K (1969), Investigation into the failure mechanism of brick masonry loaded in axial compression., Proc. Int. Conf. on Masonry Structural System, Texas Rilem 76 Lum B.3 (1990), Bond Strength using the bond wrench method, Category B: Test on small walls and prisms Rilem 127-Ms.B.4, category B, Test of small wall and prisms. Determination of shear strength for unit/mortar junction, Materials and Structures Rilem Lum 90/2 Lum D.2 (1990) In-situ stress based on the flat jack Rilem Lum 90/2 Lum D3 (1990)- In-situ strength and elasticity tests based on the flat jack. Ronca, P.(1996), "New Developments on the Mechanical Interpretation of the In-Situ Flat jack Test", National Congress 'La Meccanica delle Murature tra Teoria e Progetto', University of Messina, Italy18/20 Sept. 1996, pp. 135-143.

Ronca P., Tiraboschi C., Binda L. (1997), In-situ flat-jack tests matching new mechanical interpretations, 11th Int. Brick/Block Masonry Conf. Shanghai, China, Vol. 1, 1997, pp. 357-366. Rossi, P.P.(1982), Analysis of mechanical characteristics of brick masonry tested by means of in-situ tests, 6th IBMaC, 1982, Rome, Italy. Rossi P.P., Analysis of mechanical characteristic of brick masonry tested by means of in-situ tests, 6th IBMaC, 1982, Rome, Italy

L. Binda graduated in Architecture in 1963 at the Faculty of Architecture of the Polytechnic of Milan. Since 1963 working at the Structural Engineering Dept of the Polytechnic of Milan before as Assistant Professor, later as Associate Professor in structural analysis. Since 1990 she is Professor teaching repair and strengthening of historic buildings at the Faculty of Architecture of the Polytechnic of Milan. Her main interest and experience are in the field of investigation, diagnosis, repair techniques and durability of historic masonries.

C. Tiraboschi, graduated in Architecture in 1987 at the Faculty of Architecture of the Polytechnic of Milan. Since 1990 research assistant working at experimental on site and laboratory research at the Laboratory of the Structural Engineering Dept of the Polytechnic of Milan. Her main interest and experience are in the field of investigation and diagnosis procedures for masonry structures.