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EDCI 531 Phillip Cook

A Case for Scaffolded Inquiry Learning in Science

INTRODUCTION The context by which science concepts are presented to student learners varies significantly from school to school and in many cases from instructor to instructor. The pedagogical presentation of conceptual material plays a significant role in not only the engagement of the learner, but also in the effectiveness of the learning that results. Effective pedagogical practices strike a key balance between maintaining the engagement of the learner while ensuring effective encoding of concepts.

A traditional, textbook-centric approach in science education relies heavily upon the idea that concepts are transferred to the learner from the instructor. The ideology is consistent with an objectivist viewpoint where our understanding of reality can be broken down into singular, fragmental pieces (Driscoll, 2005). Over time, these pieces are assembled, through the method of presentation of the instructor, into cognitive frameworks, which can then be recalled by the learner.

The traditional approach does little to effectively manage motivation of learners in an authentic context. Creating authentic learning situations is necessary in order to maintain the engagement of the learner, while providing contextual applications of the concepts being learned.

There is a better methodology that instructors should employ. Traditional teaching frameworks are inadequate, and research shows that even the most talented instructors do not meaningfully change the knowledge base of their students when employing

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traditional instructional design methods (Vanosdall et. al, 2007). Author Ken Bain notes that: We encountered many professors, all eminent scholars in their fields, who spent hours crafting lectures that reflected the latest and most advanced scholarly and scientific knowledge only to produce students who understood little of that sophistication (Bain, 2004, p 24-25)

Consider instead a scaffolding system, where students are presented with a concept, even a complex concept, early on within a course. Instructional scaffolding provides sufficient support and resources to learners as they investigate new ideas and skills (Instructional Scaffolding, 2012). Scaffolding focuses on the learner rather than the instructor, and the development of autonomy, and is in line with current constructivist theory.

Scaffolding is a particularly effective technique when used in conjunction with inquiry learning, commonly referred to as problem-based learning or PBL (Vanosdall et. al, 2007). Inquiry refers to situations in which the learner is immersed in an environment and gathers data without highly organized frameworks or factual knowledge. The goal in inquiry learning is for student learners to construct relationships and derive meaning from pedagogical activities. Inquiry requires learners to defend observed relationships and critique existing frameworks in order to incorporate new concepts and ideas. The role of the learner in inquiry is active, rather than passive, and the role of the instructor is as facilitator rather than sage. Inquiry is designed to help students simultaneously develop problem-solving skills while constructing a domain knowledge base, according to Malopinsky, Kirkley, Stein, and Duffy (2000).

In the quest to improve the quality and effectiveness of instruction, it is necessary to carefully consider the methods that best meet the needs of student learners while also maximizing engagement in the learning process. This paper will illustrate that

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instruction in science that leverages scaffolding inquiry learning in authentic contexts maximizes the engagement of the student learner and also results in effective contextual content learning.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Key Components of Scaffolding and Inquiry A primary goal of scaffolding is to minimize the cognitive load on the learner through the implementation of appropriate learning frameworks. Scaffolds allow learners to gain higher levels of understanding that they would not normally be able to obtain without the scaffold (Jackson et. al, 1996). According to Simons & Ertmer (2005, p 4), scaffolds support learner performance by:

1. Initiating student inquiry 2. Aiding learners with concept integration and misconceptions 3. Promoting reflective thinking

Initiating student inquiry can be conceived as setting the stage for the learning activity. Learners are introduced to the activity, and activity requirements and expectations are communicated. Once learners are aware of expectations, they may be presented with an organizational framework which aids in the collection and sorting of observed phenomena. Graphic organizers and tables are good examples of supportive scaffolding materials, which help to minimize the cognitive load on the learner during the inquiry process, so as not to overload the working memory. A key example of this can be seen in the Alien Rescue hypermedia, where learners have different digital areas for mission control, probe design, database and communications. This compartmentalization allows for better encoding of new phenomena that learners observe throughout their experience working through different challenges using Alien Rescue (Liu et. al, 2011).

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In scaffolded inquiry environments, instructors serve as facilitators, allowing the learner to actively engage with the activity and following up with learners when redirection and clarification is needed. Appropriate instructor prompting is a key facet of scaffolding (Simons & Ertmer, 2005). Scaffolds can be implemented in a continuous or faded fashion so as best to maintain learner engagement in the zone of proximal development. Research by McNeill, Lizotte, & Krajcik has shown that faded scaffolding techniques result in increased reasoning ability (2004).

Through the thoughtful construction of appropriate frameworks to minimize cognitive load, and prompting by the instructor, a key outcome of scaffolded learning is reflective thinking (Simons & Ertmer, 2005). Post activity discussions that require learners to defend and articulate their discovered relationships are essential to the ability of the student to integrate concepts in a contextual frame of reference (Simons & Ertmer, 2005).

Much research has been done related to the design of appropriate conceptual frameworks to support problem based learning and inquiry. Primary goals of inquiry design mentioned by Simons & Ertmer (2005) relate to:

1. Promoting active investigation and inquiry 2. Encountering problems prior to full knowledge acquisition 3. Promotion learner collaboration with instructor facilitation 4. Enhancing learner self reflection and evaluation

The 3C3R inquiry model proposed by Woei Hung (2006) breaks the inquiry process into three core components: content, context and connection (Hung, 2006, p 57) and relates the components to the task research, reasoning and reflection. At the core of inquiry and PBL is a strong desire to connect concepts to an authentic framework for application. Student engaged in complex and relevant learning environments drives

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their natural curiosity of the world around them, while providing a means to explore and explain their experiences. These inquiry activities create a natural critical learning environment; natural because students encounter the skills, habits, attitudes and information they are trying to learn embedded in questions and tasks they find fascinating-authentic tasks that arouse curiosity and become intrinsically interesting; critical because students learn to think critically, to reason from evidenceto make improvementsto ask probing and insightful questions about the thinking of other people. (Bain, 2004, p 99)

Benefits of Scaffolding and Inquiry Students involved in scaffolded learning activities benefit from the increased structure and reduced cognitive load provided by scaffolded frameworks (Hmelo-Silver et. al, 2006). Frameworks provide for organization that may not be inherent to the learner, and allows the learner to focus on investigation related to the tasks rather than focus time and attention on how to best organize qualitative and quantitative data. This is particularly relevant amongst younger learners, where existing organizational frameworks may be missing or premature. There is also research that suggests a strong connection between scaffolds and student reasoning ability, particularly when the scaffold is faded over time (McNeill, Lizotte, & Krajcik, 2004), suggesting that once the learner is exposed to the framework, it becomes integrated into the existing mental models that the learner possesses related to the organization and interpretation of information.

Min Liu showed that student motivation and attitude towards learning science improved through problem-based situations provided by the Alien Rescue hypermedia model. Students noted the benefit of learning concepts within a contextual, realistic environment provided by the model (Liu, 2005). In comparing students instructed via a traditional textbook-based methodology to those whom received a scaffolded guided inquiry approach, Vanosdall, Klentschy & Weisbaum noted that students whom had 5

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received inquiry based instruction performed better on post-tests as well as on standardized tests (2007). It is interesting to note that in the Vanosdall et. al research, a variety of inquiry experiences were measured, and in each situation improvement was noted with both constant and faded scaffolding (2007). APPLICATION It has been shown that creating learning situations that involve scaffolding as well as inquiry result in increased student learning and engagement in science. Let us turn our attention now to the development and implementation of scaffolded inquiry learning in science.

As described in the 3C3R method by Hung (2006), the instructor must consider a unique context by which to integrate the conceptual aspects that the learners are to master. Creating context increases the engagement of the learner, and creates structure for inquiry. Essentially, the activity must be broken down into two classes of components: core components and processing components (Hung, 2006, p 56). Core components involve the content, context and connections with the action components of inquiry broken down as researching, reflecting and reasoning (Hung 2006). This conceptual framework meshes well with Simons & Ertmers assertions that project based learning activities should initiate student inquiry while aiding with concept integration and critical thinking (2005)

To illustrate further, consider an instructor needs to teach students about chemical reactions and how to identify compounds based upon chemical and physical properties. A traditional approach would entail the presentation of the types of chemical reactions followed with definitions of properties and illustrations of chemical and physical properties, possibly through the use of a demonstration.

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In the example that follows, adapted from the Active Chemistry text (Freebury & Eisenkraft, 2007), deals with similar content goals and ideas as stated above. In this activity, students are forensic chemists attempting to identify an unknown white powder that was confiscated during a routine traffic stop earlier in the morning. The white powder could be harmless, possibly flour or sugar, or a dangerous narcotic. The framing of the challenge in this manner heightens student interest and engagement prior to data acquisition in the lab setting. This initial introduction provides the context, content and connection for the activity, as prescribed by Hung (2006).

Figure 1: Preparing section of White Powders lab

184 185 186 187 188 189 190 After the preliminary framing of the situation, students are presented with several known white powders, as well as several testing reagents in a section of the lab activity called the Preparing section. Notice that the are subtle scaffolding techniques embedded in the preparing section, namely the organization of different compounds by bolding or the use of italics (figure 1):

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Students work in groups during the activity, collaborating as they gather data in a lab journal. Upon the conclusion of the experimentation, students are tasked to generate a 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 flow chart, which will allow for the identification of a particular white powder when the chemist has access to the reagents used in the lab activity. Since many students have little experience working with and designing flow charts, a sample is provided, minimizing student frustration as to the expectation of the type of

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Figure 2: Student sample flow-chart

flowchartrequired, as well as illustrating

important components inherent in the construction of the flow chart.

Note that in the flow chart sample (figure 2), students are presented with organization of familiar objects; this lessens the cognitive load on the learners as they collaborate on how to best organize their white powders, and delineate between important and nonimportant aspects of the testing they have finished.

Figure 3: Critical Thinking section 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 Both the flow chart and critical thinking section (figure 3) of the lab illustrate scaffolding structures to help students better organize and make meaning of their lab data, but also illustrate different purposes. The flow chart specifically addresses the need to take research information and organize the data so that other powders can be tested using the framework, whereas the critical thinking section is specifically designed to address student reasoning and reflection upon the overall patterns observed in the lab. The critical thinking section also draws learners back into prior experiences, to make connections with past activities and strengthen conceptual understanding of previous, yet related concepts. CONCLUSION Scaffolding and inquiry are two techniques that can improve the quality of instruction as well as enhancing the learning experience of the learner through the provision of an appropriate contextual environment. Inquiry promotes natural curiosity in students, and scaffolding tools provide a means for learners to investigate unfamiliar concepts

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and make meaning of the data acquired. Implementation of inquiry activities supported by appropriate scaffolds frequently result in an overall increase in performance by the learner in a variety of contexts (Vanosdall et. al, 2007).

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RESOURCES
Bain, K. (2004). What the Best College Teachers Do. (Anonymous, Ed.)What the best college teachers do (pp. 24-26; 99). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction. (A. Burvikiovs, Ed.)Learning and Instruction (3rd ed., Vol. 3). Allyn & Bacon. Freebury, G., & Eisenkraft, A. (2007). Active chemistry. It's About Time. Hmelo-silver, C. E., Duncan, R. G., & Chinn, C. A. (2007). Scaffolding and Achievement in Problem-Based and Inquiry Learning: A Response to Kirschner , Sweller , and Clark ( 2006 ). Educational Psychologist, 42(2), 99-107. Routledge. doi:10.1080/00461520701263368 Hung, Woei (2006) The 3C3R Model: A Conceptual Framework for Designing Problems in PBL, Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning: Vol. 1: Iss. 1, Article 6. Liu, M., Horton, L., Olmanson, J., & Toprac, P. (2011). A study of learning and motivation in a new media enriched environment for middle school science. Educational Technology Research & Development, 59(2), 249-265. doi:10.1007/s11423-011-9192-7 Liu, M. (2005). Motivating Students Through Problem-based Learning. English. Retrieved from https://center.uoregon.edu/conferences/ISTE/uploads/NECC2005/KEY_6778393/Liu_NECC05_hand outMinLiu_RP.pdf Malopinsky, L., Kirkley, J., Stein, R., & Duffy, T. (2000, October). An instructional design model for online problem based learning (PBL) environments: The learning to teach with technology studio. Paper presented at the National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, Denver, CO. McNeill, K. L., Lizotte, D. J., Krajcik, J., & Marx, R. W. (2004). Supporting students construction of scientific explanations using scaffolded curriculum materials and assessments. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association San Diego CA . Instructional Scaffolding. (n.d.) . In Wikipedia. Retrieved February 18, 2012, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_scaffolding Simons, K. D., & Ertmer, P. A. (2005). Scaffolding Disciplined Inquiry in Problem-Based Environments Scaffolding Disciplined Inquiry in Problem-Based Environments. Cognition. Retrieved from http://www.edci.purdue.edu/ertmer/docs/Simons_LC05.pdf Vanosdall, R. (Tennessee S. U., Klentschy, M. (El C. U. S. D., Hedges, L. (Northwestern U., & Weisbaum, K. (Tennessee S. U. (2007). A Randomized Study of the Effects of Scaffolded Guided-Inquiry Instruction on Student Achievement in Science (Vol. 1). Retrieved from http://www.nsrconline.org/pdf/Klentschy_07.pdf

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