Unit VIII: Post World War II Presidents

Domestic and Foreign Policy ~1945-1992~

A Meridian APUSH Study Guide by Staff: John Ho, Jeff Gu, Jason Liu, Tim Qi, Amy Young, and Willy Zhang

Post World War II Presidential Timeline

1945 Harry S. Truman

1952

1960

1963

1968

1974

1976 Gerald Ford

1980 Jimmy Carter

1988

1992

Dwight D. John F. Lyndon B. Richard M. Nixon Eisenhower Kennedy Johnson

Ronald Reagan

George H.W. Bush

*Not to chronological scale

Harry S. Truman (1945-1952)

Domestic Agenda:

The Fair Deal After WWII, the FHA offered insured housing mortgages and low interests on 30 year loans. This increased interest in buying Single-family homes and started the growth of the suburbanite class. Brannan Plan Provided federal support for farm income while still allowing farm product prices to be controlled by the open market. This ensured farm production while still keeping a competitive market. Desegregation of In 1948, Truman issued an order to organize the military regardless of race. the Military In response, Southern democrats rejected Truman and sponsored J. Strom Thurmond for the next Presidential candidate. Repeal Taft-Hartley 1947. Truman vetoes the bill but the House of Representatives repealed the Act veto and enacted it. The Taft-Hartley Act limited workers by reducing union powers and forcing union leaders to take pledges of loyalty to state. Legislation Defeated: 1) National Health Plan, 2) Federal School Aid, 3) Civil rights legislation Federal Housing Administration

Foreign Policy: Trumans Foreign Policy Action Truman Doctrine Marshall Plan Description Promised monetary & military aid to any country that is perceived to be threatened by the USSR. Joint plan to rebuild and recover the European nations after WWII. Most of the aid was given to the more developed capitalist countries. The now 3rd world countries were for the most part left out of the plan. USSR controlled East Germany and splits with the Western Europe, cutting of Berlin from the rest of Europe. US bombers sent much needed supplies to Berlin on the east

Issue European Containment

Berlin Airlift

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side of the Iron Curtain. An attack on one is an attack on all. Created to counter the possible attacks from communist USSR. U.S. enters the first entangling alliance since the alliance with France during the American Revolution. Vandenberg The resolution to create NATO. It was formed out of the Resolution fear that the USSR would try to change countries into communist regimes, one at a time. Asian Loss of China Democratic Jiang Jieshi looses to Communist Mao Zedong. Containment Jiang Jieshi flees to the island of Formosa (Taiwan). Many criticize America for not giving enough support to China. Acheson Perimeter Declares Japan, Okinawa, Philippines, and Aleutians inside Speech the perimeter of American defense. America pledges to defend these states from communist rule. It excluded S. Korea. Korean Conflict N. Korea, with the help of communist China, cross the 38th parallel surging into S. Korea. A DMZ is set up along borders before the war. Latin America Organization of Creates a collective security alliance of Latin American Containment American States states in order to protect Latin America from communist intrusions. Middle East Israel Recognized by U.S. as an independent country. This angers Arab and complicates relations with future oil monopoly nations. Containment: Policy proposed by advisor George Kennan; it became the primary foreign policy strategy against the U.S.S.R. during the Truman administration. The idea was to defeat the Soviets by preventing expansion of territory or influence, eventually forcing it to stagnate. NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

Dwight D. Eisenhower (1952-1960)

Domestic Agenda: Eisenhowers Domestic Agenda Encouraged the privately owned Dixon-Yates company to build a power plant to compete with the TVA Despite general dislike for New Deal programs, Eisenhower permanently stitched many New Deal programs into American society, knowing that if Social Security were abolished by a party, that party would die out Known as HEW, this department governed from 1953-1979 and later split into Department of Education and Department of Health and Human Services. Set aside $27 billion to build 42,000 miles of road; created countless construction jobs and aided to suburbanization of America. Also expanded auto and related industries, robbed railroads of business. Also known as NDEA; authorized $887 million in government loans to college students and grants for the improvement of teaching the sciences and languages. It benefited both public and private schools. Labor underwent house cleaning in 1959 due to recurrent strikes in critical industries and scandals in upper management of unions designed to bring labor leaders to book for financial shenanigans and to prevent bullying tactics; also prohibited secondary boycotts and certain kinds of picketing. Secretary of Agriculture Ezra Taft Benson tried to deal with costs of farm price subsidies; attempted to restore free market conditions, but he ended up spending the more money than any previous secretary. Important to Eisenhower, yet he only achieved this three times in eight years. Ironically, he had the biggest peacetime deficit thus far in American

Dixon-Yates Controversy Increased Social Security Benefits Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Interstate Highway Act of 1956 National Defense Education Act of 1958 Revision of the TaftHartley Act Landrum-Griffin Act of 1959 Lower Price Subsidies for Farmers Balancing the Budget

history due to Strategic Air Command, farm supports, etc.

Foreign Policy: Eisenhowers Foreign Policy Action Description NATO, SEATO, OAS Collective security philosophy led to the creation of several alliances in order to prevent the spread of Communism. Brinksmanship Policy where a dangerous situation is pushed to the brink of philosophy disaster in order to force the opposition to make concessions. Used in Korea, where Eisenhower threatened to nuke the North if they did not end the war. Massive retaliation Adopted in Eisenhowers administration; created an air theory fleet of bombers called the Strategic Air Command (SAC). Domino theory A policy theory that speculated if one land in a region came under the influence of Communists, then more would follow in a domino effect. Used to justify the Vietnam War. Suez Canal Crisis Nasser nationalizes the Suez Canal (owned mostly by British and French stockholders) when U.S. refuses to lend funds. French and British stage a joint assault on Egypt in late 1956; US refused to provide France and GB with needed oil. Warsaw Pact Signed 1955, the same year Germany joined NATO, between Soviet Union and Eastern European countries to counter NATO. Poland and East Became buffer states for Soviets. In 1953, an uprising in Germany in 1953 East Germany was sparked by worker strikes, which soon led to political demands. Soviet eventually troops crushed this with tanks. Hungarian Revolt Hungarian freedom fighters appealed to the US for help, of 1956 but Soviet tanks overpowered them. U.S. altered immigration laws to let refugees in. Open Skies Policy Eisenhower called for open skies over both Soviet Union and US to prevent either side from miscalculating the others military intentions. It was rejected by Khrushchev. U-2 Incident An American U-2 spy plane was shot down over Russia in 1960. Eisenhower took full responsibility and all hopes of a thaw with the Soviet Union were lost. End of Korean Eisenhower tried for peace by flying to Korea for a threeConflict day visit in December 1952; an armistice was signed only after Eisenhower threatened to use atomic weapons Treaty with Formosa Resolution passed in January 1955; Eisenhower Taiwan promised to protect Taiwan against invasion of Chinese communists. Cuba Fidel Castro led rebellion in Cuba that overthrew dictator Fulgencio Batista and seized American property. Washington broke diplomatic relations early 1961. This would lead to the eventual formation of the OAS Nixons Visit to Nixon visited Venezuela, only to be attacked. At the time, Venezuela US supported the repressive dictator Marcos Perez Jimenez. As a precaution, US marines were sent to military bases in the Caribbean.

Issue Influence of John Foster Dulles

Relations With Europe USSR and the Eastern Bloc

Asia

Latin America

John F. Kennedy (1960-1963)

Domestic Agenda

The New Frontier: Kennedys ambitious domestic program that promised medical care, federal funding of education, government intervention in the economy, and the end of racial discrimination.

The New Frontier Action Description Welfare Minimum wage Kennedy increases the minimum wage to curb poverty increase in the U.S. Federal housing An attempt to stimulate the economy, the act increased government spending by funding housing projects. Department of The proposed department would advise the president Urban Affairs on urban issues. It was defeated by Congress. Medicare Kennedy proposed medical insurance for the elderly, but was stalled by Congress. It was later incorporated in Johnsons Great Society. Education Federal Funding Kennedy proposed to increase federal funding of educational institutions (teacher salaries and construction grants). The bill was stalled by Congress and did not pass until after his death. Economic Regulation Price Ceiling The administration negotiated a price agreement with U.S. Steel, hoping to curb inflation by preventing price increases. Tax cuts Taxes were reduced after his death with the intention of stimulating the economy by placing more funds into private hands. His policies were predominantly Keynesian. Civil Rights Desegregation At the University of Mississippi, Kennedy ordered troops to escort black students to their classes. Civil Rights Act Passed under Johnson after Kennedys death (see of 1964 Johnson Great Society). Presidents Kennedy creates the commission by executive order as Commission on a part of the anti-communism movement. It would the Status of advise the president on issues regarding the equality Women of women. 9 Accomplishments: The program did not achieve many of its goals, mostly stalled by Kennedys assassination and a conservative Congress. It did, however, establish many of the ideas that were incorporated into later programs, such as Johnsons Great Society. Issue

Foreign Policy: Date 1961 1961 1961 1962 Kennedys Foreign Policy Description Organization proposed by Kennedy, intended to curb Communism by sending volunteers into underdeveloped countries and teaching them American skills. The CIA-organized invasion of Cuba by exiles failed partly as a result of Kennedys refusal to send air support. The actions pushed Cuba further into the Soviet camp. Soviets construct the Berlin Wall to prevent the population drain towards the West in response to Kennedys refusal to surrender West Berlin. Despite funds poured into the region, Laos underwent a civil war with the threat of becoming communist. The U.S. considered sending troops, but ultimately the U.N. imposed a

Event Peace Corps Bay of Pigs Invasion Berlin Wall Laotian Civil War

peace on the country. Cuban Missile Crisis When U.S. spy planes revealed Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba, Kennedy responds by instituting a naval blockade. Krushchev eventually agreed to pull out the missiles provided that the U.S. dismantles theirs in Turkey. 9 Test Ban Treaty: The multination treaty banned testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere. 9 Alliance for Progress: Aimed to establish economic cooperation between U.S. and Latin America and counter the Cuban threat. Vietnam War 1962 Kennedy continued to escalate troops in Vietnam, sending increasing numbers of military advisors. Space Race 1961- Kennedy advocated greater efforts to lead the space race and 1963 close the gap between the U.S. and the Soviets. He proposed the Apollo Program and requested several joint ventures with the Soviets. 9 Flexible Response: As massive retaliation proved too rigid, Kennedy adopted flexible response which incorporated Special Forces to respond to the exact crisis (such as Green Berets).

1962

Lyndon B. Johnson (1963-1968)

Domestic Agenda: The Great Society: Series of programs loosely modeled after Roosevelts New Deal aimed at reducing poverty and ending racial injustice. It adopted many of Kennedys New Frontier plans. The Great Society Act Date Description Water and Air Quality 1963 Congress passed a series of acts aimed at reducing smog and Acts pollution in general as well as preserving pure water. Economic Opportunity 1964 Central part of Johnsons War on Poverty. Created the Office Act of Economic Opportunity and included: 9 Project Head Start: Provided educational services to underprivileged children. 9 Job Corps: Provided vocational training to unemployed young people. Offered programs to allow underprivileged to obtain a job or enter college. Elementary and 1965 Legislation that authorized funding of various primary and Secondary Education secondary educational programs to ensure that underprivileged Act students have access to education. Medicare 1965 Amended Social Security Legislation to provided medical insurance to the elderly and disabled. Civil Rights Act of 1965 1965 The landmark act outlawed discrimination in the federal government and public facilities. It gave the government more authority to enforce desegregation. Immigration and 1965 Abolished the national origin quota, doubling the amount of Nationality Act immigrants allowed to enter annually. It also gave provisions for relatives and other family members. National Endowments 1965 Federal program designed to improve American culture by for Arts and offering monetary grants to programs with artistic merit. Humanities Department of Housing 1965 Cabinet department created to develop and enforce policies on and Urban housing and cities in development. Development (HUD)

The Great Society Big Four Legislation:

Great Society Education

Medical Care

Immigration Reform Voting Rights Bill

Foreign Policy: Johnsons Foreign Policy Description See Eisenhowers Foreign Policy See Truman Foreign policy A pair North Vietnamese gunboat allegedly attacked two U.S. destroyers in the neutral Gulf of Tonkin. Johnson used this as the primary reason to enter war against North Vietnam. Anti-war movements sprouted from the country especially in colleges as the war dragged on. Many of these protests led to tragic endings as they were shot by police. A series of operational offense launched by the NVA that started on Tet, the Vietnamese lunar New Year which targeted specifically to take down the southern capital of Saigon. Vietnam Policies Description Johnson escalated the Vietnam War by dumping huge amount of money and soldiers in war. However, the outcome yielded no positive result as the end of war was still not in sight. In order to prevent local support of the Viet Cong, U.S. soldiers would win hearts and minds of civilians. After numerous protests in U.S., Johnson finally to stop sending in troops into this black hole and slowly withdraw them from Vietnam. However, heavy bombing continued. U.S. operation to slowly turn the war into the Southern Vietnameses hands. U.S. wishes to eventually withdraw from the war and have the Southern Vietnamese fight their own war.

Event Domino Theory Containment Gulf of Tonkin Incident /Resolution Growing Anti-War Movement Tet Offensive

Issue Policies in Late Vietnam War

Action Escalation

Pacification Policies in Early/Mid Vietnam War De-escalation Vietnamization

Richard M. Nixon (1968-1974)

Domestic Agenda: Economic Policy Description Since paper currency can no longer be converted into gold, its values decreased dramatically. After the wage freeze, Nixon suspended the gold standard. This was a central point of the Bretton Woods system, allowing its value to

Policy Devaluation of the dollar End of gold standard

float in world markets. Wage/price/dividend/rent Nixon feared that taking off the gold standard, the nation would freeze plunge into a huge inflation. So he issued a 90 day wage freeze. War Powers Act: Passed in November 1973. This act required the president to report all orders for U.S. troops in foreign regions within 48 hours. Policy Environmental Groups Citizens Demands Description Nixon formed the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA) along with some other environmental laws. Watergate Scandal Description The main group of conspirators called the Watergate Seven planned to secretly record the Democrats conferences at a hotel. Nixon refused to admit his participation in the Watergate Scandal and refused to hand over the tapes to Congress In July 1974, The Supreme Court forced Nixon to give the tapes to Congress. When the House was preparing their first article of impeachment, Nixon handed over the rest of the tapes, and resigned a few days later to keep his income privilege as president. Nixons Foreign Policy Issue Europe Action Dtente Description When threatened by a possible U.S.-China alliance, the U.S.S.R. agreed to several deals. The formation of the ABM Treaty and SALT would usher in a period a relaxed tension between U.S.S.R. and U.S. The first treaty between U.S. and U.S.S.R. since the start of the Cold War. It froze or dismantled the ballistic missiles arsenals on both sides. This treaty is the first sign of Dtente and the future thawing of the Cold War. Nixons Vietnamization eventually evacuated almost all of the U.S. troops from Southeast Asia. However, U.S. still provided supply and money through the Nixon Doctrine and secretly bombed Cambodia and Vietnam. U.S. opened diplomatic relations with China. After China joined the U.N in 1971, Nixon visited China and the U.S. and opened diplomatic relations. Full recognition did not come until 1979 When U.S. backed Israel in the war against Egypt and Syria, OPEC nations put an embargo that limited oil exports to U.S. and caused a crisis through the nation through this oil shortage A policy used when a third party negotiates between two countries that would not directly talk to each other. Kissinger exercised this kind of diplomacy in the Middle East between Israel and other OPEC nations. After Senator Allende became president of Chile, the nation suffered from severe inflation. A military group invaded the presidents palace, establishing a military government in Chile.

Policy Break-in Cover-up Nixons Resignation

Foreign Policy:

SALT I Treaty

Asia

Ending of Vietnam War Recognition of China

Middle East

The 1973 War

Shuttle Diplomacy Latin America Chile and the overthrow Salvador Allende

Gerald Ford (1976-1980)

Domestic Agenda: Fords Domestic Agenda President Ford grants Nixon a pardon for his actions during presidency At the time inflation was around 7%, high enough to discourage investment and push capital overseas and into government bonds. The economic focus began to change as the country sank into a mild recession, and in March 1975, Ford and Congress signed into law income tax rebates to boost the economy. The Federal Election Campaign Act was amended to specifically sanction the formation of "political committees", enabling political groups (such as trade unions) to pool their dollars and give to the candidates of their choice. Fords Foreign Policy Location

Nixon Pardon Runaway Inflation Recession Campaign Finance Law of 1974

Foreign Policy: Date 1975 Description Helsinki Accords: Series of agreements signed between several nations, including the U.S. and Soviet Union. The talks were aimed at easing tensions in the Eastern bloc by convincing the Soviets to grant more human rights. 9 Vietnam: Withdrawal from the South and its fall to the Northern invasion. 9 Mayaquez Incident: The Cambodian Navy seized an American merchant ship, SS Mayaguez, in international waters off Cambodia's coast.

Europe

Asia

1975

Jimmy Carter (1976-1980)

Domestic Agenda: Issue Carters Domestic Agenda Action Description Department of Carter's government reorganization efforts separated Education the Department of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW) into separate agencies (Welfare was renamed Human Services). Government The Watergate scandal still fresh, Carter based his Reorganization campaign platform on government reorganization. Stagflation Inflation compounded by unemployment, unprecedented in American economy. Inflation: Caused by continued high levels of government spending and the rising price of imported oil imposed by OPEC. Limited Energy Carter proposed legislation imposing fuel efficiency Policy and fuel conservation, but his program failed against public apathy. Carters Foreign Policy Description Negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union on limiting nuclear arsenals. The treaty failed to pass Congress. The Peoples Republic of China was formally recognized, resuming full diplomatic relations. Congress passed the Taiwan Relations Act, unofficially recognizing Taiwan. Iran undergoes a civil war and a radical government emerges. A mob storms the U.S. embassy and holds the occupants hostage for 444 days. Carter brokered a peace treaty between the states of Israel

Reform

Economy

Foreign Policy: Date 1979 1979 19791981 1978

Event SALT II Treaty Recognition of China Iran Hostage Crisis Camp David Accords

Panama Canal

1977

and Egypt after inviting them to Camp David. Control of the Panama Canal was to be handed over to the Panamanians by the year 2000. The treaty received heavy criticism in the United States for giving away the canal.

Ronald Reagan (1980-1988)

Domestic Agenda: Reagans Domestic Agenda In the summer of 1981, Reagan fired a majority of federal air traffic controllers (members of the PATCO union) when they went on an illegal strike. It signaled that it was acceptable for businesses to play hardball with unions, some of which began to rapidly shrink. 9 Federal requirements that set maximum interest rates on savings accounts were phased out. Eliminated the advantage previously held by savings banks. 9 Eliminated the distinction between commercial and savings banks. An initiative undertaken by the United States to carry out an "all-out offensive" (as President Nixon described it) against the prohibited use of certain legally controlled drugs. Reagans economic policy of supply-side economics, noted for a 25% cut in the income tax and increased military spending. He continued deregulation of business and temporarily suspended Social Security programs. The policies cause an enormous rise in national debt. The Reagan administration looked for ways to formalize responses to economy threatening market movers after the crash. He established the Working Group on Financial Markets to study the causes and advise future policies. Nominated by Reagan to the Supreme Court in 1987, Bork was rejected by Senate. Senate debated over his nomination concerned by his strong opposition by civil and women's rights groups. Reagans Foreign Policy

Labor Unions- The Air Traffic Controllers Deregulation of Industry Drug War Reaganomics

1987 Stock Market Crash Robert Bork nomination to the Supreme Court

Foreign Policy: Action Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) USSR thaw IntermediateRange Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty Trade with Japan Arms for hostages controversy Lebanon Description Reagan advocated the defensive measure "Star Wars", a space-based missile shield that would end "mutually assured destruction". Although considered impossible by critics, the project forced the Soviet Union further into an arms race, straining its already weak economy. Mikhail S. Gorbachev becomes the premier of the USSR in March 1985 introducing a period of thaw where the nation undertook a series of democratic reforms. The treaty was an agreement between the United States and the Soviet Union which eliminated nuclear and conventional ground-launched ballistic missiles. It also allowed both sides to inspect each others military installations. Reagan advocated protectionism against Japanese competition, imposing large tariffs on imported goods. The Reagan Administration, using an Israeli supply line, began supplying U.S.-made missiles and weapons parts to Iran in exchange for Iran's aid in freeing Americans held hostage in Lebanon in 1985 U.S. involvement in Lebanon followed a limited-term United Nations mandate for a multinational force. U.S. forces were withdrawn shortly after the October 23, 1983 bombing of a barracks in which 241 Marines were killed.

Issue Europe

Asia Middle East

Libya

Iran-Contra Affair Latin America Debt

Response to commie threat

United States-Libyan tensions erupted in April 1986 when Libyan agents planted a bomb in a Berlin nightclub. The explosion killed American servicemen. In retaliation, the United States launched air strikes on Tripoli and Benghazi. A political scandal where President Ronald Reagan's administration sold arms to Iran, and used proceeds to illegally fund the Contras, a right wing guerrilla group in Nicaragua. To receive their new loans from the U.S., debtor nations in Latin America had to agree to reduce government programs, slash investments, and run trade surpluses to repay the interest. It fueled bad relations between the U.S. and Latin American. The Reagan administration increased military funding for anti-communist dictatorships throughout Latin America, and has been widely accused of ordering the assassination of several Latin American presidents and prime ministers.

George H. W. Bush (1988-1992)

Domestic Agenda:

Read My LipsNo New Taxes Education

Bushs Domestic Agenda A famous pledge made by George H. W. Bush in his acceptance speech. The no tax pledge had been a consistent part of Bush's 1988 election platform. He failed to keep the promise. Emphasized the desegregation and importance of public education. Bushs Foreign Policy

Foreign Policy: Action Fall of Berlin Wall Changing role of NATO Description Ended the Cold War division of Germany. Bush announced that the world needed a new world order to replace the superpower rivalry of the Cold War. The end of the Cold War caused a strategic re-evaluation of NATO's purpose, nature, and tasks. NATO continues to expand into Eastern Europe Originally founded on March 25, 1957 under the Treaty of Rome as the European Economic Community. It eventually became the first of three pillars of the European Union. Previous American monopolies, such as the automobile industry, rapidly lost ground to foreign competitors, creating an enormous trade deficit. A lightning air war against Iraq in response to the Kuwait invasion. It was led by the U.N. and U.S. forces. U.S. supported Israel in the Middle East conflict. In December 1989, Bush sent troops to Panama to assist military forces in a coup against Panamanian drug lord President Manuel Noriega. Predominantly fought between the Salvadoran military dictatorship and a unified leftist opposition guerrilla movement known as the Farabundo Mart National Liberation Front (FMLN) between 1980 and 1992. The Bush administration used US leverage to return Nicaragua to the free-market path. US aid was tied directly to meeting the conditions of an unusually strict structural adjustment plan.

Issue Europe

Asia

European Community (1992) Trade deficit Operation Desert Storm Israel Invasion of Panama El Salvador Civil War Nicaragua

Middle East Latin America