SUBCOURSE DI0370

EDITION 7

BASIC TELEVISION LIGHTING AUDIO AND SCENERY

(BROADCASTING)

MOS71RSKILLLEVELS1AND2 BASICTELEVISIONLIGHTING,AUDIOANDSCENERY SubcourseDI0370 October,1987

ArmyPublicAffairsCenter FortGeorgeG.Meade,Maryland
TenCreditHours

GENERAL TheBasicTelevisionLighting,Audio,andScenerypartofthe BroadcastJournalist71RSkillLevel1and2Subcourse,1sdesignedto introduceArmybroadcasterstoanentrylevelunderstandingofthree pointlightingtechniques,microphonesusedinvariousproductionsand relatedaudioequipmentandtelevisionscenery/backgrounds.This subcourseispresentedinthreelesson. ADMINISTRATIVEINSTRUCTIONS SUBCOURSECONTENT Thissubcoursecontainsthreelessons,eachrelatedtothefundamental tasksoftelevisionlighting,audioandsceneryfortheArmy Broadcaster.Theselessonswillprovideabasicknowledgeand understandingofthedifferentphasesofbasictelevisionlighting, audioandscenery. SupplementaryRequirements: Thislessonmaybetakenwithoutanyprerequisites. MaterialNeeded:YouwillneedpaperandTNo.2penciltocomplete thissubcourse.Noothermaterialsareneeded. Reference.Nosupplementaryreferencesareneededforthissubcourse.

GRADINGAND CERTIFICATIONINSTRUCTIONS Tencredithourswillbeawardedforsuccessfulcompletionofthis subcourse.. Task:Intheselessons,youwillfirstbecomefamiliarwithbasic lightingtechniquesandtherequirementsusedforsetupofsimple televisionsets.Secondly,youwilllearnthetwocategoriesandfive typesofmicrophones,theircharacteristicsandusage.Thefunctions ofthetwotypesofaudioboardsandrelatedequipment.Andfinally, therolescenery,propertiesandsetdressingsplayinthetelevision environment. Conditions:Giventhematerialpresentedinthissubcourse. Standards:Demonstrateabasicknowledgeandunderstandingofthe fundamentaltechniquesoflighting,lightingequipment,andthethree pointlightingmethod.Knowthetypesofmicrophones,their characteristicsandhowtheyareused.And,theimportantrole televisionsceneryplaysinthevisualportionofaTVprogram.

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TABLEOFCONTENTS SECTION TITLEPAGE....................................................... TABLEOFCONTENTS................................................ Lesson1:BASICTELEVISIONLIGHTING............................. LearningEvent1:TechnicalObjectives...................... LearningEvent2:Aesthetics................................ LearningEvent3:LightingInstruments...................... LearningEvent4:ThreepointLighting...................... LearningEvent5:ControllingLight......................... PracticeExercise........................................ AnswerstoPracticeExercise............................. Lesson2:INTRODUCTIONTOBASICAUDIO........................... LearningEvent1:SoundTheory.............................. LearningEvent2:Microphones............................... LearningEvent3:ElectronicCharacteristics................ LearningEvent4:CategoriesofMicrophones................. LearningEvent5:MicrophonePlacement...................... LearningEvent6:KindsofMicrophones...................... LearningEvent7:Acoustics................................. LearningEvent8:Accessories............................... LearningEvent9:ConsoleFunctions............................. Page i iii 1 1 5 6 9 11 15 16 17 17 17 19 21 23 24 28 29 32

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LearningEvent10:ControlConsoles......................... LearningEvent11:RelatedEquipment........................ LearningEvent12:Glossary................................. PracticeExercise........................................ AnswerstoPracticeExercise............................. Lesson3:BasicScenery..................................... LearningEvent1:Scenery................................... LearningEvent2:Property.................................. LearningEvent3:StudioBackgrounds........................ PracticeExercise........................................ AnswerstoPracticeExercise.............................

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LESSON1/LearningEvent1

BASIC TELEVISION LIGHTING

INTRODUCTION TO LIGHTING Lightingfortelevisionisnotonlyanart,it'salsoascience.The artoftelevisionlightingiscreatingcertainmoodsandeffectswith lightingtechniques.Thescienceistheapplicationofspecific technicalrules. Thebroadcastjournalistneedstobeawareofthesedifferences becausetheywillaffectthequalityoftheworkinbothstudioand fieldproduction. Televisioncameraswillnotreproduceaqualitypicturewithoutproper lighting.Youreyesneedmuchlesslighttoseethandoesa televisioncamera.Outside,thesun,moonandevenstarsprovide illumination.Inside,tablelamps,overheadlights,recessedlights andotherlightingfixturesprovideillumination.However,whenyou starttocontrolilluminationforthepurposeofcreatingspecial moodsorfortechnicalreasons,youareinvolvedinlightingfor television.

TECHNICAL OBJECTIVES Thefirstthingyouneedtoconsiderwhenlearningthebasicconcepts oftelevisionlightingarethetechnicalrequirementsofthe televisionsystemitself.Therearetwobasicobjectivesyoumustbe concernedwith:QuantityandQualityoflight. Quantity Inorderforthetelevisioncameratoseethesubject,theremustbe enoughillumination/light.ATVcamerarequiresconsiderablymore lightthanthehumaneye.Iftheoveralllightlevelistoolow,you getwhatiscalleda"noisyorsnowypicture,ornoneatall.When thepictureisnoisy,itlooksgrainySimilartoaphotographthat hasbeenenlargedagreatdeal. Anotheraspectofthequantityoflightistheintensityofthe shadowsinthescene.Atelevisionsystemcanaccommodateacontrast range,ofNOTmorethantwentytimesdarkerthanthebrightestelement ofthescene.

LESSON1/LearningEvent1 Ifshadowsaredarkerthan20:1therewillbereproductionproblems forthecamera.Forexampleputyourselfinadarkroomandhavea flashlightavailable.Youwillbeabletofindanyobjectinthe room.Butatelevisioncamerainthesameroom,underthesame conditions,wouldnotbeabletoidentifyathing.That'sbecause youreyeshaveacontrastratioof160to1,butacameraonlyhasa ratioof20to1. Withtoomuchlight,subjectshaveanappearanceofglowingor "blooming".This,whenseenontelevision,showsawashedout appearance.Obviouslybothsituationsareunacceptable. LightMeter.Themostcommonmethodoffindingoutifasceneor subjecthasenoughlighttoreproduceagoodqualitytelevisionimage, isbymeasuringtheamountoflightfallingonorreflectedbythe sceneorsubject.Thisisdonewiththeaidofalightmeter.The metermeasureslightbyallowinglighttostrikealightsensitive striporcellwhichproducesasmallelectriccurrent.Theamountof currentproducedisdirectlyproportionaltotheamountoflight enteringthemeter.Alotoflightproducesmorecurrentandalittle lightlesscurrent.Thecurrentinturnmovesaneedleoveraprinted scale.(Fig.11)

Figure11 LightMeter

LESSON1/LearningEvent1 Thescaleiscalibratedtoindicatehowmuchlightisenteringthe meter.Thescaleisnormallycalibratedinfootcandlesbutmayalso bemarkedinlumens(whichareequaltofootcandles).Thefootcandle scaleisnormallyusedintelevision.

Quality Let'stakealookatthesecondtechnicalconsideration.Thequality oflightreferstothecolortemperatureofthelightsource.Color temperatureisproperlytermed"KelvinTemperature."Thisrefersto theamountofred,yellowandbluewhitequalityinthelight,andis expressedin"degreesKelvin".Donotconfusecolortemperaturewith footcandles.Footcandlesmeasuretheintensityofthelight,notits colortemperature. Colorcamerasmaybebalancedtoanycolortemperature.But,the televisionindustryhasset3,200degreesKelvinasthestandardfor studiolighting.Theoutsidecolortemperaturefromthesunona brightdayisratedat5,600degreesKelvin.Thisstandardmaynot alwaysbeconsistent,becausecloudsfilterthesun'slightandcreate adifferentcolortemperature.Differentcolortemperatureswill causeunpredictablecolordistortions.Suchdistortionsmightproduce purplefaces.Mixinglightsofdifferentcolortemperatureswill produceothertechnicalproblems.Mostquartzhalogenbulbsusedin televisionproduce3,200degreesofcolortemperature.DONOTtryto usestagelightsfromatheater.Stagelightsuseadifferentcolor temperature,andwillthrowthecolorTVcamerasoffbalance.Using lightsotherthanthosedesignedfor3,200degreesKelvinwillcause engineersmanyproblems. Therearemanydifferentmakesandmodelsoflightmeterswith multipleoptionsandfunctions.Whenyoustarttoworkwithalight meter,takethetimetoreadtheoperatinginstructionsandbecome familiarwiththemeter.Alittlepracticeinreadingthemeterand youwillhavethetechniqueinnotime.

LESSON1/LearningEvent1 MeasuringLight.Therearetwomethodsofmeasuringthelightinyour studio. a.Incident b.Reflected 1. Incidentlightreading.Measuringtheactuallightfalling onthesubjectiscalled"incident"lightmeasurement.To takeanincidentlightreading,alightmeterisheldnear thesubject,butthetopofthelightmeterpivots,and shouldbefacingthelightsource.Themetermeasuresthe amountoflightfallingonthesubject.Theincidentlight meterreadingisthemostcommonlyusedmethodintelevision (Fig.12).

Figure12 Incidentlightmeasurement

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2. Reflectedlightreading.Thesecondmethodofmeasuring lightiscalleda"reflected"lightreading.Areflected lightmeterreadingmeasurestheamountoflightreflected fromthesubject.

Figure13 Reflectedlightmeasurement Thereflectedmeterreadingisusedintelevisionprimarily whentheoverallsceneiscomposedofdarkcolors.(Fig.13)

AESTHETICS Theneedsofalightingtechniciandonotendoncethetechnical requirementsoflightingthesethavebeenmet.Certainaestheticor nontechnicalobjectivesaremood,formordimension,anddirecting attention. 5

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Mood Usingshadowsanddifferentlightlevelsdiscreetlywillsetthemood ofaprogramorscene,andeventhetimeofday,whennecessary. Everyscenehassomesortofmoodtoconvey.Usually,thesetand lightingshouldworkhandinhandtoaccomplishthiseffect. Dimension or Form Televisioniscurrentlyatwodimensionalmedium.Inthefuture, theremaybe3dimensionalhologramTV.RightnowtheTVscreenhas onlyheightandwidth,buttherearewaystocreatetheillusionof thethirddimension"depth,"witheffectivelighting.Whileweneed tobecarefulofcreatingharshshadows,weneedsomeshadowsto createform.Byusingbacklightonasubjectweseparateobjectsin theforegroundfromsubjectsinthebackground.Thistechniquegives theillusionofdepthanddimension. Directing Attention Directingtheviewer'sattentioncanbedoneinanumberofways.The mostobviouswayistousea"followspot."Afollowspotisa spotlightthatkeysinonaparticularsubjectandfollowsthat subject,directingtheviewer'sattention.Normallythough,wewill wanttobealittlemoresubtle.Usingkeyandfilllightsproperly todirectattentionwilldothesamethingwithoutbeingsoobvious. ImportantNote:Eachsituationforlightingasetorsceneis different.Separateilluminationshouldbeusedforthe background,foregroundandsubjectatalltimes.Attentionto eachstepofthelightingsetupisneededtoaccomplishspecific requirements.Taketimewhenattemptingthesetasks.Asa broadcastjournalist,beawareoftheobjectivesandhowthey applytoeachproject.Thedifferencebetweenexcellentlighting andadequatelightingisthededication,notthetimespent.

LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS Therearetwoprimarytypesoflightsusedinthethreepointlighting methodspotlightandthefloodlight.

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Spotlight Alensspotlightprovidesavariablefocusorbeamspreadoflight (Fig14).Thelightfieldissmooth,even,and

Figure14 Spotlight theouteredgeofthespotlightbeamislessintensethanthecenter. Theyareverydirectional,haveahighlypolishedreflectoranda relativelythin,lightweightclearlens.Theymaybeusedinmany situationssuchaskeylight,backlightandotherspotlight applications.

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Floodlights Thefloodlightisawideangled"scoop"usedtoprovidefillandbase lightwithaverywide,diffusedbeam(Fig.15).Thebulbsare exposedinsideabrushfinishedreflectorwithnolens.Fiberglass scrimormetalmeshmaybeplacedacrossthefrontinaspecialholder todimthelight.

Figure15 Floodlight(Scoop)

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THREE-POINT LIGHTING Withalltheinformationpresentedhere,itmayseemverydifficultto providelightfortelevision.However,followingprovenphotographic lightingtechniquesmakesthetaskmanageable. Themethodsforlightingallnonvisualmediumssuchasmotionpicture photographyandtelevisionoriginatedfromstillphotography.The basicthreepointlightingformat(Fig.16)isstillthebasic photographylayout.

Figure16 Threepointlighting

LESSON1/LearningEvent4 KeyLight.Thekeylightistheprimarysourceofilluminationwhen settingthreepointlighting,andshouldbesetupfirst.Generally, thekeylightsplacedata45degreeangletotheleftorrightof thecameraandabove.Whenlightingisnatural,thelightcomesfrom above.Sothekeylightshouldalsobeelevatedabovethelevelof thecamerainrelationtothesubject.Themainfunctionofthekey lightistobringoutthebasicshapeofthemainsubject.The subjectwillhaveaverydarkshadow.Akeylightorspotlightallows agreatdealofdirectionalcontroloverthelightsource. Backlight.Thesecondarylightsourceisthebacklight.The backlightisusedtoseparatethesubjectfromthebackgroundand providestheillusionofathirddimensiondepth.Aspotlightor keylightthathasbeenshadedtoprevent"flare"isalwaysusedfor thebacklight.Flareistheexcesslightthatentersthecameralens whenthebacklightisnotpositionedproperly."Barndoors"mustbe usedtopreventdirectlightfromenteringthecameralens.Barn doorsareusedtodirectlightcomingfromalightinginstrument.The doorsshadethelightitselfonthetopandbottom. Oncethekeylightandbacklighthavebeenset,thedefinitionor dimensionoftheobjectshouldshowquitewell.Butthefalloffarea fromthelighttodarkareaisveryfast.Soweneedtofillthese areasin,andthisisaccomplishedbyusingafilllight. FillLight.Thefilllightisthethirdlightsourceandhasamore diffusedcharacteristiccomparedtothekeylightandbacklight.In threepointlighting,afilllightorscoopisusedtofillinthe darkareascreatedbythekeyandbacklight.Themainfunctionofa filllightistoreduceshadows.Don'teliminatealltheshadows, becauseweneedsomeshadowstocreatedepth.Thefilllightshould beplacedoppositethekeylightata45degreeangleabovethe camera. Theratioorcontrastrangeofkeylighttofilllightisbestwhen kepttoabout2:1.Thismeansthatthekeylightistwiceasbright asthefilllight.Thisreducesthecontrastrangeorshadowdensity butstillleavesenoughshadowareatocreate,ratherthaneliminate, thethreedimensionaleffect.

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CONTROLLING LIGHT Thelightinginstrumentsthemselveswillhangfromtheceilingona seriesofpipesorbattenscalleda"grid."Theselightsplugintoa seriesofelectricaloutletswhicharenumberedandareattachedto, ormountedinastrategiclocation,alongthelightinggrid. Thelightsarefastenedtothegridbya"C"clampthatisattachedto anaccordionlikedeviceortelescopingpole,calleda"pantograph." TheCclampisaclampthatlookslikea"C"withalockingbolt thatisthreadedthroughtheopenendsoftheCclamp.Pantographs allowvertical(upanddown)movementtovarytheheightofthelight. Theelectricaloutletsinthegridconnecttoacentralelectrical "lightingpatchpanel"eitherinthesamestudiooranotherroom.The patchpanelisusedtoassigneachindividuallighttoaspecific controlordimmerswitch. Theseinturnareconnectedtoadimmerbankofswitchesthatareused tocontrolagroupoflights.Thisallowsthetechniciantogroup lightstogether.Therefore,allfilllightsareputononebank,key lightsonanother,etc. Lightinginstrumentshavemanyphysicalsizesbuttheyallproducetwo basictypesoflight: o Directional o Nondirectionalordiffusedlight Rememberthattheobjectisnotsimplytoturnallthelightsonand pointthemtowardthesubject.Thecontrolsthatareusedtoblend andshapelightstomeetourtechnicalandaestheticobjectivesmust nowbeputintopractice.Wewilllookathowwecancontrolthe intensity,directionandcolorofourlight.

Intensity Thereareseveralwaystocontrolthebrightnessorintensityofthe lightfallingonthesubject.Themostconvenientwayisbyusing dimmercircuits.Thesecircuitsworkbyreducingtheamountof electricalcurrenttothebulb.Whiledimmersareveryconvenientand easytouse,theyhaveonemajordrawback.Astheamountof electricity

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LESSON1/LearningEvent5 decreases,thefilamentofthebulbdimsandcolortemperature changes,givinganincreasinglyreddishlight.Mostexpertsagree thatwemaydimalighttoabout85percentofitsratedvoltage. Thisdecreasesthecolortemperatureabout200degreesKelvinwithout anoticeablechangeincolor. Bewareofusingdimmers,especiallyforlightthatfallsona subject'sfaceorskin.Fleshtonesaretheonlytruewayof adjustingcolorlevelsonaviewersset.Ifwealterthatcolorin anyway,ourreferencewillbelost.Andallthecolorlevels,onall thetelevisionsetsreceivingthevideopicture,willendupoutof adjustment. Anotherwaytoreducethelightintensityisbyincreasingthe distancebetweenthesubjectandthelight.Remember,asthedistance increases,theangle,distributionandlightintensitychangesin directproportiontothesubject.Putting"screens"and"scrims"in frontofyourlightalsoreducestheintensityofyourlight.Screens areusedmostlyondirectionallightsbecausetheydonotalterthe harddirectionallightbeamoraffectcolortemperature.Ascrimis madeoftranslucentgauzeorglassfibermaterial.Thefiberdiffuses thelightbeamanddecreaseslightintensity. Barndoors.Barndoorsareadjustablemetalshutters,resembling doors,thatallowtheoperatortocontroltheedgeofthebeamof light.Thebarndoorsslipintoaslotonthefrontofthelighting instrument(normallyfresnels).Barndoorsareusedtoshapethe light.Thedoorscomeintwoandfourdoorvarieties. Somespotlightshaveabuiltin"lens"controlthatdoesthesame thingasasetofbarndoorsbutwithmoreaccuracy. Thelenscontrolallowsaveryaccurateamountoflighttobetargeted toaspecificarea. Scrimsandscreens.ScrimsandScreensareplacedinfrontofalight sourcetosoftenanddiffusethelight.Onelayerofscrimmaterial willnormallyreducelightoutputby50percent.Thus,thescrim reduceslightoutputandsoftensanddiffusesthelight.Thescrim doesnotaffectthecolortemperatureofthelight.Ifthereisstill difficultyingettingtherightintensity,thewattage,notthe voltage,ofthebulbinthefixtureischanged.

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LESSON1/LearningEvent5

Direction Thedirectionalcontrolforlightingcomesfromthegrids,clamps,and pantographsorotherhangingdevicesinthestudio.Lightsmaybe hungandpointedinanydirection. Effectslighting.Lightscomingthroughwindowsanddoorsmaybeused tohighlightaspecificareaorobjectdictatedbythescriptor setting.An"eyelight"canaddsparkletoaperformer'seyesand teethorsmallobjectsindarkcorners.Theeffectslightsarethe lastlightsaddedtotheset.Theseareaddedtocorrectdeficiencies ofthekey,backandfilllights.Poorlightingshouldbecorrected byadjustingorrelocatingthekeyorfilllightalreadyinplace. Colorgels.Gelsareavailableinawideselectionofcolors.They areplacedinfrontofthelightinthesamewayscrimsandscreens arepositioned.Colorlightingisusedsparinglyintelevision becausefleshtonesareusedasacolorreference.Donotsplash coloronthesubjectunlessthereisaspecialreason,andthen,only whentheengineershavebeeninformed.Colorgelsareusedprimarily toplacecoloroncycloramasand/orsets. Lightforcolortelevision.Amajorconsiderationinlightingfor colortelevisionisthecolortemperatureofthelighting.Color camerasarenormallybalancedelectronicallyforlightingthathasa colortemperatureof3,200degreesKelvin.Mosttungstenhalogenor quartziodinebulbsaremanufacturedwiththisspecificcolor temperature. Wearemostinterestedinlightsthataffectskintonesofasubject. Forthisreasonwewillseldom,ifever,usecolorlightsona televisionsubject.Whenthelightsareonadimmer,alwaystryto maintainthecolortemperatureof3,200degreesKelvin(plusorminus 200degrees). Finalcheck.Thefinalcheckfordeterminingadequatelightlevels maybemadebyviewingtheresultsonthecontrolroomTVmonitors. Theengineerswillindicatewhichlevelisthemosttechnically accurate.

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************************** SAFETY WARNING *************************** Alltelevisionlightsbecomeextremelyhotwhentheyareused. Youmayreceiveseriousburnsifyouarenotcareful.Becareful whenyouareadjustingbarndoors,scrims,etc.,afterthelights havebeenon.Afteruselightsremainextremelyhotforabout5 to10minutes.

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PRACTICALEXERCISE LESSON#1 BASICSTUDIOLIGHTINGFOR TELEVISION SUBCOURSENo.DI0370

INSTRUCTIONS: Reviewthematerialinthislesson.Answerthequestionsbelowby circling"TorF"nexttoeachquestion.Compareyouranswerswith theanswerkeyonthenextpage.Ensurethatyouunderstandthe lessonmaterialandanswersbeforeproceedingtothenextlesson. TF1. TF2. Therearetwobasiclightingobjectives. Youcancontroltheintensity,directionandthecolorof lightinastudio.

TF3. Thecolortemperaturethatistheindustrystandardis 3,100degreesKelvin. TF4. Backlight,properlyused,isthemaincontributingfactor usedtocreatetheillusionofathirddimension. TF5. Thebestlightingratioforkeylighttobacklightis1:1.

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ANSWERKEY PRACTICEEXERCISE LESSON#1 BASICTELEVISIONLIGHTING SUBCOURSENo.DI0370 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. TRUE TRUE FALSE TRUE FALSE Page Page Page Page Page 1 4 5 9 9

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INTRODUCTION TO BASIC AUDIO

SOUND THEORY Inthislesson,wewilldescribethefundamentalsofsoundandhowit istransmitted.Let'sbeginwiththetheoryofsound.Everything thattakestheformofmattersolid,liquidorgasismadeupof microbitsofmaterialcalledmolecules.Wecan'tseethemolecules becauseoftheirsize.Thesemoleculesstayapproximatelyinthesame locationuntiltheyaredisturbed.Whenthishappenstheycollide. Duringthecollision,themoleculestransferenergytoeachother throughwhatevermaterialtheyaremadeofsolid,liquidorgas.In soundtheory,moleculescontinuetocollidewitheachotheruntilthey makecontactwiththeear.Theearpicksupthevibrationsor pressurewaves(energy)andchannelsthevibrationsintotheeardrum wheretheyareconvertedintoelectricalsignals.Thebrainthen processthesignals.Theconversionfrompressurewavetoelectrical informationinthebrainproduceswhatweknowassound.

MICROPHONES Amicrophone,liketheear,isatransducerthatconvertsacoustical soundenergyintoelectricalenergy.Theenergyisthenamplifiedand transmittedtoaspeaker.Allmicrophonesarebasicallythesame. Theyallhavetheirownhousing,diaphragm,magneticfieldandmoving partswithinthatfield.Untilasoundwaveischangedfromthewave intheairtoanelectricalform,itcan'tbeusedelectronically. Thisisthefunctionofthemicrophone. Microphonesareclassifiedbythewaytheychangethesoundwavesinto electricalenergy.Therearetwocomponentsmicrophonesmusthaveto changesoundenergyintoelectricalenergy: 1. adiaphragm,whichvibratesinresponsetosoundpressure 2. ageneratingelement,whichchangesthephysicalvibrations ofthediaphragmintousableelectricalenergy.

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LESSON2/LearningEvent2 Accordingtotheirprinciplesofoperation,microphonesareseparated intotwocategories.Theyare: 1. pressureoperatedmicrophones 2. velocitymicrophones

Pressure-Operated Microphones Thereareseveraltypesofpressureoperatedmicrophones:carbon, crystalorceramic,andcondenserorcapacitor.Whensomeonespeaks intoapressureoperatedmicrophone,thediaphragmvibratesin responsetotheairpressurefromthesound(SeeFigure21).These vibrationscausethevoicecoiltomovebackandforthwithina magneticfield.Thecoilproducesafluctuatingelectriccurrent which,whenamplifiedandtransmittedtoaspeaker,reproducesthe exactsoundthemicrophonepickedupinitiallyandmakesthesound audibletothelistener.

Figure21 Pressureoperatedmicrophone 18

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Velocity Microphones Thevelocityorribbonmicrophoneemploysthemovingconductor principle,inwhichathin,flatpieceofmetalissuspended,sothat itvibratesfreelyinamagneticfield.Inthiscase,theribbon elementisthediaphragm.Again,ageneratingelementchangesthe vibrationsofthediaphragmintoelectricalenergy(Fig.22).The ribbonisnotencasedinaclosedhousing;it'sexposedtotheairon allsides.Thistypeofmicrophoneisveryfragile.Anysharp,loud blastofairclosetothemicrophone,maydamageorevendestroyit.

Figure22 Velocityoperatedmicrophone

ELECTRONIC CHARACTERISTICS Allaudiobroadcastingand/orrecordingbeginswiththeuseofa microphone."Mike's"astheyarecommonlyreferredto,maybegrouped intothreeclassificationsaccordingtotheirdirectionalpickup properties. 1. unidirectional(onedirection) 2. bidirectional(twodirections) 3. omnidirectional(alldirections).

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LESSON2/LearningEvent3 Somemikesbelongtoonlyoneclasswhileotherscanbechangedor adjustedtoeitheroftheothertwo.Microphonesdonotpickupsound equallyfromalldirections.Thepickuppatternofamikewilltell youhowtobestplacethemicrophoneorsubjectforoptimumsound reception. Unidirectional Microphones Thepickuppatternoftheunidirectionalmicrophoneis,roughly,the shapeofaheartorcardioidpattern.Thesemicrophonesacceptsound bestatthe0degreepointwithminimalresponseatthe180degree point(Fig.23).

Figure23 Unidirectional

Figure24 Bidirectional

Anexampleofthevalueofaunidirectionalorcardioidmicrophone wouldbeasingerperformingwithanorchestra.Let'ssaythesinger usesaunidirectionalmike.Itsdeadsidemaybeturnedtowardan orchestrasotheorchestrawillnotoverpowerthesinger.Another examplewouldbeaspeakeraddressingagroup.Theunidirectional mikewillonlypickupthespeakertalking.Thesidenoisewillnot beheard,orifitis,itwillbeveryfaint.Theunidirectional microphonemustbepointedinthedirectionofthesoundsourcefor bestresults.

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Bidirectional Microphones Thisparticularmicrophonehasafigureeighttypepickuppattern. Thedeadsideofthemicrophoneisoneitherside.Thisconfiguration acceptssoundbestatthe0degreeand270degreeaxispointsorsides (Fig.24).Inradio,withtwoormoreperformers,thebidirectional microphoneisusuallypreferred.Whentwoormorepeopleperformata bidirectionalmike,theynotonlyfeellesscrowded.Theyhavethe advantageofplayingtoeachother,thusgivingthemafeelingof natural,humaninteraction. Omnidirectional Omnidirectionalmikesacceptsoundequallywellfromalldirections withoutanyloss.Therearenovariationsinthispattern(Fig.2 5).Thismicrophoneallowstheperformertotalkfromanydirection. Theomnidirectionalmikeisparticularlyvaluableforroundtable discussionsandforvoicesinagroup.

Figure25 Omnidirectional

CATEGORIES OF MICROPHONES Therearetwotypesofmicrophones:thedynamicandthevelocity.

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Dynamic Themostpopularmicrophoneinbroadcastingisthedynamicmicrophone. Thedynamicmikeisthemostruggedlyconstructedofallthe microphones.Thedynamicmicrophoneisusedinalltypesof environments,bothinstudioandonremoteassignments.Thisis becausethedynamicmikehasalowwindnoisecharacteristic.This traitanditsdependabilitymakethedynamicmikethemosttrustedof allmicrophones.Thedynamicmiketendstofavorhighfrequencyover lowfrequencysounds.Becauseofitsinherenthighfrequencycutoff, thedynamicmiketendstoaccentuatesibilanceinaperson'svoice. Sibilanceisahissingsoundmadewhentheletter"s"ispronounced. Dynamicmikesarepressureoperatedmicrophones. Velocity Acloserelativeofthedynamicmikeisthevelocitymicrophone.This istheoldstandbyforthebroadcastandrecordingindustry.The velocityorribbonmikehasasuperbuniformfrequencyresponse between20to20thousandhertz.Thismaybeseenwithanaudiotest generator.Theribbonmikeisextremelysensitiveandshouldneverbe usedoutdoors.Astrongwindmaybreaktheribbonrenderingthemike useless.Theribbonelementisenclosedbyascreen.Thevelocity microphonehasatendency,becauseit'ssosensitive,tomake performers"pop"theirp's,b'sandt'siftheygettooclosetothe mike.Theexplosivequalityoftheseletterscausesaverysharp, momentaryincreaseinthepressurecomponentofthesoundwave.This maysoundtothelistenerlikeaverysmallfirecrackerexplodedin frontofthemicrophone. Thevelocitymiketendstofavorlowfrequencyoverhighfrequency sounds.Consequently,avelocitymikemaybeusedtodeepenthe voice.Auniquecharacteristicofthismikeisthecloserthe announcergetstothemicrophonethedeeperhisvoicewillsound. Condenser Thecondenserorcapacitormicrophoneisthemikethatischosenmost byprofessionals.Thismicrophonehasthemostexactingreproduction ofsoundwithperfectuniformityandfullrangeresponse.The condensermikeisapressureoperatedmicrophoneandoperatesonthe storageofan

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LESSON2/LearningEvent4,5and6 electricalchargewhichrequiresabatteryorpowersupply.Thehead ofthemikecontainstwoplates.Oneplateisthediaphragm,the otherisaheavybackplate.Thebackplateisinsulatedfromthe diaphragmandspacedparalleltoits'rearsurface.Assoundwaves enterthemike,thesoundpressurecausesachangeinthespacingof thetwoplates.Thisvariestheinternalcapacitanceandthevoltage ofthebatteryorpowersupplytothesignalcurrent.Thecondenser mike,withitsbattery,hasanextremelylowelectricaloutputand requiresitsownpowersupply.Becauseofitstechnicalcomplexity andaccuracy,itisoneofthemostexpensivemicrophonesto manufacture.

MICROPHONE PLACEMENT Microphoneplacementinaradiostudioissimple.Themikesare normallyplacedonadeskstandreadyforuse.Radiostudio microphonesareusuallyplacedona45degreeangle,aboutfourtosix inchesfromtheannouncer'smouth.However,thisisonlyasuggested guideline.Aseachannouncerbecomesmoreaccustomedtoaparticular mike,theymaywanttomoveitaroundtogetthebestresultsfor themselves. Microphoneplacementismorecriticalfortelevisionifandwhenthe mikeistobeseenoncamera.Themikeshouldnotinterferewith viewingthepictureordistracttheeyeoftheviewerbybeingin strangelocations.

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KINDS OF MICROPHONES Lavalier Microphone Themostcommonlyusedmicrophoneintelevisionisthelavalier(Fig. 26).The"lav"isalwaysomnidirectional.Whenanannouncerusesa lavalier,hetalksacrossthemikeratherthandirectlyintoit. Becauseitisomnidirectional

Figure26 Lavaliermicrophone thelavhasatendencytopickupstudionoiseandmustbepositioned properlytoavoidthissituation.Havetheproductionpersonnelplace themikeonthesubject.Theuntrainedguestwhoputsonhisown microphoneprobablywillpositionthelavwhereitlooksbestrather thanforbestsoundpickup. AgoodruleofthumbforpositioningaLavaliermicrophoneistoplace themikeinthedirectiontheperformerwillface.Forexample, duringinterviews,thehostandguestshouldfaceeachotheratabout a45degreeangle.Themicrophoneshouldbeattachedtotheirlapels onthesidewherethehostandguestfaceeachother.

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Figure27 Lavalierplacement Donotplacealavaliermicrophoneunderatieorclothing(Fig27). Thismayresultinmuffledaudioorextraneousclothingnoisewhenthe microphonerubsagainstthematerial. Thelavaliermicrophoneisagoodtooltousewhenmovementis requiredontheset.Forexample,aweatherreportwheremovementis requiredbytheweathermanfromasittinglocationtoastanding locationintheweathermapsarea.Thelavisattachedtohis clothingwhichallowsfreedomofmovementtotheweatherman.This enableshimfreedomtomovetothemapsandbackagaintothesetwith aminimumofproblems.

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LESSON2/LearningEvent6

Desk Microphone Thedeskmicrophoneisattachedtoasmallstandandplacedonadesk ortabletop.Thefrontofthemikeshouldbepointedinthe directiontheannouncerwillnormallyfaceduringtheproduction(Fig. 28).Deskmikesareverysensitivetoexternalnoise.Announcers shouldberemindednottotaporkickthedesk.

Figure28 Deskmicrophone

Hand Microphone Thehandheldmicrophone(Fig.29)iscommonlyusedbyradioand televisionreportersforinterviewinginthefield

Figure29 Handmicrophone

26 LESSON2/LearningEvent6 andbyentertainers.Theinterviewerandperformerhavecomplete controloverthepositioningofthemicrophone,sincetheyhandhold themike.Becausebothnewspeopleandentertainersneedtomove around,thismikeisanexcellentchoice. Stand Microphone Thisisbasicallyahandheldmicrophonepositionedonatallstand andfrequentlyusedbysingersorplacednearmusicalinstruments (Figure210).Thestandmicrophoneisnormallypresettothe subject'sheightforeaseofuse.

Figure210 Standmicrophone

Shotgun Microphone Theshotgunmicrophoneisdesignedtopickupsoundandnotbeinthe picture.Thisisparticularlyusefulwhenitisnotpossibletoplace amicrophoneonaspeaker'slectern.Theshotgunmikemaybeseveral feetfromthespeakerandstillpickupacceptableaudio.Because thismikeishighlyunidirectional,theshotgunlocksinonthemain sourcewhileeliminatingmostambientorsidenoise.Theshotgun

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LESSON2/LearningEvent6and7 microphoneisspecificallydesignedtogathersoundfromthefrontand suppresssoundatthesidesandrearofthemicrophone(Fig.211).

Figure211 Shotgunmicrophone

ACOUSTICS Moststudiosareacousticallycontrolledforrecording.However,many recordingsituationswillnotbeinthecontrolledenvironmentofa studio.Anemptyroomreflectssoundandtherefore,records differentlythanthatsameroomfilledwithfurniture;asmallroom soundsdifferentlythanalargeroom;insideacousticsaremuch differentthanoutside. Forexample,whencoveringanopenairspeechwherealargecrowdis present,themainconsiderationshouldberecordingthespeechand keepingtheambientoroutsidenoisefrominterfering.An omnidirectionalmicrophonewillpickupthespeakerandtheambient sound.Inthissituation,aunidirectionalmicrophoneshouldbeused, eliminatingmuchoftheambientnoiseandkeyinginonthemain speaker. Aninterviewconductedinaroomthathasahollowsoundpresents otherproblems.Roomswithhighceilingsorsparselyfurnishedand containingmanyhardsurfaceswillcreatethisholloweffectby causingthesoundwavestobounceoffthehardsurfaces.A bidirectionalmikeshouldbeusedherebecausethistypeofmikepicks upsoundbestdirectlyinfront,andinback,withdecreasing sensitivityatthesides.(SeeFig.24)

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LESSON2/LearningEvent7and8 Whenconductinganacousticalanalysis,itisimportanttoknowthe directionalcharacteristicsofthemicrophonesthatareavailable. Theaudiopersonmusttakeallpossibleaudiosituationsandproblems intoconsideration.Examinethealternativesandthenselectthetype microphonethatwillprovidethebestpickupforthespecific situation.

ACCESSORIES Professionalmikesandcablesusestandardjacksorconnectorplugs called"CanonXLR"connectorsor"CanonPlugs".Thecanonplugisa threeprongedplugwithmaleandfemaleconnectors.Generallymost audiooutputs,suchasthemicrophoneend,usethemaleplugwhile mostinputsinthestudioaudioconnectorboxuseafemalereceptacle. Whenconnectingtheseplugs,listenforaclickwhichtellswhenthey arejoined.Whentakingthemapart,besuretoreleasethesafety lockorthewiresmaybepulledoutoftheconnector. Windscreens/Filters Mostmicrophonesaresensitivetoloud,sudden,soundsandwindnoise. "Popfiltersandscreens"areusedonmikestodiminishthesesounds. Popfiltersarebuiltinelectronicallyandareusuallyusedin dynamicmicrophones.Windscreensareexternalattachmentsonanymike thatcoverthemicrophone.Popfiltersandscreenswillnoteliminate alltheunwantedsoundbuttheywillhelp.Theyareexcellenttools touseagainstunwanteddistortionorloudsounds.

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LESSON2/LearningEvent8 Thesefiltersslightlyreducethefrequencyresponseofamicrophone (Fig.212).

Figure212 Windscreens

Connectors Audioconnectorboxesareusuallylocatedlowtotheflooralongthe studiowall.Theseboxesusuallywillcontainfemalereceptacles. Connectingamicrophoneiseasy.Justlineupthepinstothefemale connectorandpushthemtogether.Toreleaseamikefroma receptacle,pushthereleasebutton.Usecautionwheninsertingand removingacableandhandlethecablebythemetalconnector,NOTby thewire.Pullingonthecablemaydamagethewiresinside.Alittle carewillpreventalotofproblems.

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LESSON2/LearningEvent8 Fig.213showsthedifferenttypesofconnectorsthatyoumayrun intoinastudioorfieldsituation.

Figure213 Connectors Cablesthatarenotinuseshouldbeneatlycoiled.Becarefulnotto wrapthemtootightordamagetothewiresinsidemayoccur.If cablesorconnectorsareabused,theymaynotfunctionwhenyouneed them.Beforeleavingforanassignment,alwaysinspectthecablesand connectorsbeforeyouplugthemintoaninput. Makesureyouhaveenoughaudiocable.Youneedtohaveasufficient amounttoallowforsubjectorcrewmovementandtokeepitoutofthe cameraview.Itisimportanttohaveenoughaudio(mike)cablesoit canbetapedoutofthewayoftrafficareas.Whencablesarerun acrossthefloor,tapethemdownsothatnoonewilltrip.

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LESSON2/LearningEvent9and10

CONSOLE FUNCTIONS Allcontrolconsolesinthebroadcastindustryhavethesamebasic similarities.Learnonecontrolconsolethoroughlyandbeableto operateitproperlyand,inmostcases,theotheraudioboardswillbe lessdifficulttooperate.Sotakethetimenowatyourearliest opportunitytolearnaudiooperationsandprocedures. Anaudiocontrolconsolehasthreeprimaryfunctions: 1. amplifysound 2. controlsound 3. routesound

Amplify Sound Amplificationisaccomplishedwhendifferentlevelsofsoundare receivedbyamicrophone,turntable,ortapeplaybacksources.The audiolevelsarethenamplifiedintoagreaterorusablesoundwithout distortingthequalityofthatsound.

Controlling Sound Soundiscontrolledthroughtheuseofpotentiometers(pots)orfaders thatincreaseordecreasethelevelorintensityoftheaudio elements.

Routing Sound Thischannelsthesoundbyactivatingspecificinputprogramselector switchesandturningorslidingthefaderstoadesiredlevel.The soundissenttoaspecificarealeftforAudition,themiddleforOff andrightfor"OnAir".

CONTROL CONSOLES Theoperatorsitsinfrontoftheaudioboardandoperatesthe equipment.Theaudioconsoleisanindispensablepartofanyaudio systemusingmorethanoneortwo

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LESSON2/LearningEvent10 "inputsources".Inputsourcesareitemsofequipmentlikemikes, turntables,etc.,thatareconnectedtotheaudioboard.Theconsole allowsselectionfromalargenumberofaudioinputs,allowingthe operatortoblendormixthoseselectedsourcesintoasignaloutput. Therearetwobasictypes: 1. Traditionalmonaural/stereoconsole. 2. Modularmono/stereoconsole.

Figure214 Traditionalmonaural/stereoconsole 33

LESSON2/LearningEvent10

Traditional Mono/Stereo Board Thefrontpanelhasafixedplacementofknobs,pots,switches,volume speakercontrols,andoneortwoVUmeters(Fig.214).Thesearethe olderboards.

Modular Mono/Stereo Console Thesearethemostcurrentaudioboards.Thesehaveoperatingpanels designedforspecificapplications.Theyhavevolumespeaker controls,faders,mixerkeysandVU(volumeunit)meters(Fig.215). However,"verticallinearfaders"areusedinsteadofthestandard circularpotsformixing.Averticalpotisalsocalledalinear fader.

Figure215 Modularmono/stereo 34

LESSON2/LearningEvent10 Theverticalfadersappearontheconsolefaceasslidingknobsthat aremovedupanddowntocontrolthesoundlevelorintensity. "Outputchannels"directthesoundtoaspecificlocation,i.e. PROGRAM,OFForAUDITION.

VU Meter Abovetheindividualfaders/potsorcontrols,rightinfrontofthe operator,isalargemeter(s)calledthe"volumeunit"orVUmeter. Thevolumemeterisanessentialtoolindealingwithaudiolevelsor signals.Itisimpossibletodeterminehowloudasoundis,orhow loudwethinkthesoundiswithoutaVUmetertotellus.VUmeters areexpensiveanddelicate.AllaudiolevelsaresetwiththeVU meter.LookattheVUmeter(Figure216).Noticetherearetwo scales.Theupperscaleisreadinvolumeunits,from20to0and then+3.Thezeromarkisarepresentationof"decibelsordb"with zerodbequalto100percentmodulationoraudiowithoutdistortion. ThenewerVUmetershave0to100onthetopscaleandthedecibelson thebottomscale.Beyondzero,thescaleismarkedinred.Sound levelreadingsinthisarea,shouldonlybepermittedmomentarily becausethesereadingsindicatevolumeunit(VU)distortioninthe audiosignal.

Figure216 VUmeter

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Lesson2/LearningEvent10and11 Thelowerscalehasarangefrom0to100andisareflectionofthat percentofmodulation.Whentheaudiosignalexceeds100percent modulationthescaleindicatesred.Thisiscalled"inthered"and isnotadesirableplacetobe.Whentheneedleisallthewaytothe right,wesay"theneedleispegged".Peggingtheneedlemaydamage theneedlemechanismbybendingtheneedle.Thiswillcause inaccuratereadings.Whentheneedlereadingisdownaroundtheminus 20mark,attheleft,wesaywe're"ridinginthemud".Ridinginthe mudmeansthattheaudiolevelistoolowandshouldbebroughtup. Theterm"RidingGain"referstotheamountofsoundlevelorvolume thattheneedleismeasuring.RidingormonitoringgainwiththeVU meterthenconsistsofwatchingthemovingneedlewhileadjustingthe potthatcontrolsthesound.Thenormalacceptablelevelforriding audioisbetween80100percentVUmodulationandshouldreadthisat alltimes.

RELATED EQUIPMENT Additionalcontrolroomequipmentincludesturntables,cartridge and/orcassettetaperecorders,speakers,clocks,remotecontrolsand filters.

Turntables Aturntableisahighqualityrecordplayerthatplayrecordsat speedsof78,45and331/3revolutionsperminute(rpm).The78rpm speedisseldomusedtoday.Themostcommonspeedsare45and331/3 rpm.

Tape Recorder Audiotaperecordershavethreeoperatingformats:reeltoreel, cartridgeandcassette.Entireprograms,specialevents,andonthe spotnewsitemsarerecordedontape,inthesethreeformatsforlater insertion.Talksbyinexperiencedspeakersmaybetapedandlater "edited"toremovethoseembarrassinglongpauses.Theeaseof editing,plustheabilityto"erase"thetapeandreuseitmakesthe taperecorderarequirementofgoodbroadcastoperations. ReeltoReel.Taperecordersforbroadcastuseareoperatedat33/4, 71/2and15inchespersecond(ips).The

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LESSON2/LearningEvent11 playbackandrecordingheadsonataperecorderaretheheartofthe recorder.Thethreeelectromagnetsarecalledheads.Thetapeheads arearrangedinalinenearthetapetransfermechanism.Theyare alignedfromlefttoright:erasehead,recordingheadandplayback head.Thetaperecorderconsistsof: 1. Atapetransfermechanismwhichmovesthetapefromafeed reel,pastthetapeheads,toatakeupreelataconstant speed.Theconstantspeedismaintainedbyacapstanmotor thatpullsthetapethroughapairoftangentwheelsor rollers. 2. Aspeedchangingandstartswitchwhichallowstheoperator tochangespeeds.Thespeedsareeither33/4to71/2or 15ipsand/oranycombinationofthethreedependingonthe designsoftherecorder/reproducer.Thestartswitchis positionedtostarttherecord/playbackprocessand/orfast forwardandreverse. 3. Arecordingamplifiertoimpressthesoundontothetape throughtherecordhead. 4. Aplaybackamplifiertofeedthesoundfromapreviously recordedtapetotheaudiocontrolboard.Thesoundonthe tapeactivatestheplaybackheadwhichinturnsendsitto theplaybackamplifier. 5. Aneraseheadoroscillatortocleanunwanted,previously recordedsoundfromthetape.Theeraseoscillatoroperates theeraseheadwhichthenerasesthetape.Thisoscillator operatesatafrequencyabovehumanhearingatabout25 kilohertz. CartridgeRecorders/Reproducers.Cartridgemachinesuseaplastic casecontainingacartridgethathasanendlesstapeloop.Thetape rewindsitselfasitisplayedback.Aninaudibletoneisplacedona tapebytheoperatorforcueingpurposes.Thistonewillrescueor stopthetapeatanyspecificlocationonthetapetheoperatorwants, automatically.Inrecentyears,cartridgetapeshavebeenusedin placeofturntablesforplaybackofrecordedtranscriptionsor records.Thissavestherecordsfromrepeatedusewhentheyfirst appearonmusiccharts.Newsandsportsannouncersusecartridge tapesforrecordingonthespotevents.Cartridgesarealsowidely usedinradio

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LESSON2/LearningEvent11 andtelevisionforrecordingstationidentifications(ID's),program themes,soundeffects,announcementsandpublicserviceannouncements (PSA's). Thecartridgetaperecorderisdesignedtouseastandardtape cartridgeholdingtapelengthsoffrom20secondsto31minutesplay time,at71/2ips.Cartridgetapeusesthehalftrackformatwith programmaterialrecordedononetrackandcuepulsesrecordedonthe other.Thecueportionofthetapehasapulseatthebeginningof theprogrammaterialtocuethetape.Aftertheaudioprogram materialhasplayed,thetapecontinuestorollsilentlythroughthe cartuntilanothercuetoneisreached.Thetapewillthen automaticallystop.Thecartmaythenberemovedandplayedata latertime. Cartridgetapemaybebulkerasedandreusedjustlikereeltoreel tape.Cartmachinesaremanufacturedaseitherrecorder/reproducers orasreproducersonly.Storageracksareavailableforwallmounting oras.mobilerotatingstandsthatholdfrom20to200cartsfor studiouse. CassetteRecorder/Reproducer.Thecassetterecorderwasoriginally designedforuseinhomeentertainment.However,inrecentyears, theyhavebeenputtouseinbroadcastingbyreportersforonthe scenecoverage,conductinginterviewsandasanaudiocassette broadcastsystem.

Speaker Thecontrolroomspeakerisanimportantguidetobothoperatorand director.Duringabroadcast,thespeakerreproduceswhatisonthe air.Duringrehearsals,whatisheardoverthespeakeristhebasis foraudiocorrectionsandforthedirector'ssuggestionstothe announcerorperformers.Thecontrolroomspeakermaybeturnedupor downtoacomfortablelevelinthecontrolroom.Thisdoesnotaffect what'sgoingovertheairforbroadcastorrecording.Thereare normallytwosetsofspeakers.Thebroadcastmonitorspeakersandthe cuechannelspeaker.

Clocks Inradioandtelevision,everythingrunsbytheclock.Forthis reason,allclocksshouldbesetproperly.This

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LESSON2/LearningEvent11 indicatesawellrunstationtothelisteners.Adequateconsideration shouldbegiventowhatclocksareusedforandwhattypesare available. Roundfaceclocksarethemostcommonlyusedtimeinstruments.They shouldbelargeenoughtobereadeasilyfromanywhereinthestudio. Largeplainnumeralsandhandsareamust.A12hourfaceismore desirablethana24hourfacewithsmallmarkings.Asecondhandis essential. Thesecondhandshouldmoveinonesecondincrements,ratherthanone smoothcircularmotionfoundonmosthouseholdclocks.Allclocks shouldbesynchronizedeitherbyamastertimerorbyresettingonce ortwiceadayasneeded.Itisnotunusualforamajorityofthe nonessentialclocksonamilitaryinstallationtobesetfromtimes givenovertheradioortelevision.Don'tconfusethelisteners. Clockswithadigitalreadouthavebecomeextremelypopularinrecent years.Theelectronicreadoutispreferableandgenerallymore accurate.Someoftheseunitsmaybeusedasclocks,standard counters,countdowntimers,andstopclocks.However,some individualscan'tvisualizetheremainingtimeinaprogram,the elapsedtimeorcuetime,asreadilyastheycanwiththemore familiarcircularfaceclocks.

Timers Timersareessentialtoolsforgoodproductionworkinbroadcasting. Theymayrangefromasimplestopwatchorphotographer'stimer,toan elaborateelectronictimercapableofstartingandstoppingequipment. Inbroadcasting,it'sgenerallypreferredthatthetimerhaveatleast startandstopcapabilitywithouthavingbetoresettozero.

Remote Controls Remotecontrolsareswitchesthatoperateequipmentlocatedsome distancefromtheaudiocontrolboard.Thesecontrolsallowthe operatortofunctionfromacentrallocationwithouthavingto physicallytouchtheequipment.Theseremotecontrolsareavailable fromtheequipmentmanufacturer.

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LESSON2/GLOSSARY

TERMS Thefollowingisalistoftermsthatwillhelpthestudentbetter understandbroadcastterminology. Pots.Potsaretheroundknobsorlinear(vertical)fadersusedto increaseordecreasesoundlevelsonanaudiocontrolboard. Inputs.Audio"inputs"totheconsolearenormally"hardpatched," thatis,permanentlywiredintotheconsole.Forexample,mikenumber oneandtwowillprobablyalwaysbefedtotheirindividualpot.The operatorusestheselectorkeytodetermineifmicrophonenumberone ortwowillbeintheauditionorintheprogrammodeandfedintothe pots.Newerboardsusealinearfader.Thistypeoffaderisa verticalattenuatororpot.Thelinearfaderslidesupanddowna graduatedscale.Thestrengthofthesignalincreasesinalinearor straightlineoutput.Thescalegraduationhasaclosertolerance. Outputs.Thenextstepistodeterminewherethesignalisgoing.We normallyhavethreechoices:cue,auditionorprogram.Thecuesystem amplifierwilllettheoperatorheartheinputsignal.Thissignal doesnotreflectontheVUmeternordoesitgooutovertheair.The cuesystemissolelyfortheoperatortohearwhatisgoingtoair. Thecuesystemhasitsownlowerqualityspeaker,anddistinctsound. Thespeakerqualityallowstheoperatortotellthedifferencebetween theonairaudioandthenextsourceaudioincue. Channelselectorswitch.Immediatelyaboveeachpotisathree positionedswitch.Thisswitchdirectsthesoundtothedifferent audiochannels.Intheleftposition,thesignaloraudioisfedto theauditionmonitor/speakerchannel.Themiddlepositionisoffand inthefarrightpositionthechannelissenttotheprogramoronair output.

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LESSON2/GLOSSARY

Terms continued Audition/Program.Theauditionchannelisprimarilyusedtosetup thenextsoundsource.Onmanyaudioboards,theauditionsystemwill havethesamequalityastheprogramchannel.Inorderforthe operatortoseetheVUlevelreadinginauditiontheoperatormust turntheaudition/programmonitorswitchtothepositionthat indicatesauditionVUmonitor.Likewise,fortheoperatortomonitor orheartheprograminformation,thisswitchmustbeintheprogram channel. MasterProgramSwitch.Themasterprogramselectorswitchnormally hasonlytwopositions;OffandProgram.Iftheprogramistobe heardbythelistener,theaudiomustbesenttothetransmitterand thisswitchmustbeintheprogramposition. Themasterprogramlevelispredeterminedandset.Theengineer calibratesthesignaltodeterminewhatthebestaudiooutputlevelof theconsoleistothetransmitter.NEVERchangethispresetlevel unlessdirectedtodosobyanengineeroryoursupervisor. OperatingTechniques.Operatingtechniquesrefertotheoperators abilitytomix,blendandcontrolsoundsources.Let'smakesurewe aretalkingthesameaudiolanguageforbasicaudiotechnique. "FADING"isopeningandclosingthepot."CROSSFADE"istoreducethe levelofanexistingsoundsourcewhileincreasingthelevelofa secondsound."SEGUE"(pronouncedsegway)isanaudiotransition wherebytheprecedingsoundisfadedoutandthefollowingsoundfaded inimmediately."DOWNandUNDER"isthefadingdownofmusictoalow levelfortheentranceofavoiceandthenholdingthemusicsourceat alowlevel."UPandUNDER"isthegradualincreaseofmusictoalow levelwhileanannouncementisbeingmade,usuallybeingfollowedby "UPandFULL"whentheannouncementisconcluded."DOWNandOUT"is fadingdownthemusictoalowlevelfortheentranceofavoiceand thentakingthemusiccompletelyout.Remember,avoidcrossfading withmusicvocalswherethevoicewillbecutineitherdirection. Onlyusedownandunder,andupandunder,etc.,whenvocalsare neededforemphasis.

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LESSON2/GLOSSARY

Terms continued PatchPanel.Inacontrolroomthathasapatchpanel,patchbay,or patchboard,themajorpiecesofequipmentinthestudiomaybe connectedtotheprecedingunitthroughpatching.Apatchpanellets theoperatororengineerconnectorbypasstheoutputofonepieceof equipmenttotheinputofanotherthroughasystemofstandardjacks thatareattachedtoshortlengthsofshieldedcablewithmaleplugs onbothends.Theprocessiscalled"patching".Thebypassingis alwaysdonefromthe"output"ofthelastgoodpieceofequipment, aroundthebadpieceofequipment,inlinetothe"input"ofthe replacementpieceofequipment.Thisprocesswillallowthebroadcast processtocontinue.Theseinterconnectingcablesarecalledexternal patchcords. Patchcordsshouldalwaysbeinoneoftwoplaces;hungupona storagehook;orwithbothplugsinsertedintothepatchpanel.Do notleaveoneendofapatchcorddangling.Thecordmaybecome damagedorbecomethesourceofunwantedstaticornoiseintheaudio system.Givefrayedordamagedcordstomaintenancepersonnelfor repair.Keeponlywellmaintainedcordsinthestudio.

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PRACTICEEXERCISE LESSON#2 BASICAUDIO SUBCOURSENo.DI0370 INSTRUCTIONS: Reviewthematerialinthislesson.Answerthequestionsbelowby circlingthe"T"or"F"nexttoeachquestion.Compareyouranswers withtheanswersonthenextpage.Ensurethatyouunderstandthe lessonmaterialandanswersbeforeproceedingtothenextlesson. TF1. Inapressureoperatedmicrophone,thediaphragmvibrates withthepressurefromthesoundandmakesthevoicecoil movebackandforthinamagneticfield. TF2. Theomnidirectionalmikeacceptssoundqualityfromonly onedirection. TF3. Themostcommonlyusedmicrophoneintelevisionisthe lavalier. TF4. Windscreensareexternallymountedonthemicrophonesand canhelpeliminatelouddistortion. TF5. Allaudiocontrolconsolesaresimilar. TF6. Whenpatching,patchfromtheinputtotheoutput. TF7. Whenthechannelselectorswitchisintheprogram position,thesignalwillbesenttothetransmitter.

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ANSWERKEY PRACTICEEXERCISE LESSON#2 SUBCOURSENo.DI0370 INTRODUCTIONTOBASICAUDIO

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

TRUE FALSE TRUE TRUE TRUE FALSE TRUE

Page Page Page Page Page Page Page

16 19 21 25 28 37 37

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LESSON3/LearningEvent1 BASICSCENERY

SCENERY Televisionsceneryplaysamajorroleinthequalityofthevisual portionofaTVprogram.Guidelinesapplicabletoothervisual elementsalsoapplytoscenery,especiallytheconceptsofcontrast anddetail. Today,theemphasisisonsimplicitywhendesigningscenery.Scenery createdfortelevisionshouldbesymbolicratherthantoorealistic. Size,texture,colorandlocationofsetsarespecificallyadaptedto whatthetelevisioncameracansee.Thescenicenvironment,though important,remainssecondary.However,broadcastersshouldknow somethingaboutthedesignandconstructionofsceneryandproperties. Sceneryisdividedintotwocategories.Simplyput,allscenery eitherstandsorhangs.

Standing Scenery Themostcommonlyusedstandingsceneryunitsareknownas"flats". Flatsconsistofaframeandmuslinorcanvascovering,plustacks, glue,nails,screwsandhingesasrequired.Standingflatsshouldbe highenoughtopreventovershootingbythecameraduringwideangle longshots.Theheightisusually8to10feetandthewidthmayvary from3to5feetdependinguponstudiorequirements.Scenery constructedtodayismuchlighterthanitwasseveralyearsago. Remembertomakethescenerylightenoughtobeassembledor disassembledwithaminimumoftimebyoneperson.Papercovered sheets,andplywood,orotherconstructionmaterialsservethis purposeverynicely. Flatsmaybesingle,twofold,orthreefold,withdifferenthorizontal dimensionsandfoldforstorage.Flatsmaycontainopeningsfordoors orwindowsintowhichtheseunitsmaybefastened.Setsmayrequire miscellaneousstandingunitssuchaspylons(whichlooklikethree sidedpillars),stepblocks,pedestal,platforms,plasticbushesanda varietyoffoldingscreens.Allofthesespecialsetpiecesare consideredasstandingscenery.

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LESSON3/LearningEvent1and2

Hanging Scenery Hangingsceneryiseithersuspendedfromanarrangementofpipes, battens,grids,orfromsomeotherpieceofstandingscenery.The mostversatilehangingbackgroundunitisthecyclorama. Acycloramaisalargecurtainthathangsdownfromthegridsin sections.Theyusuallycomeinthreecolorswhite,blackandchroma keyblue.Usuallytheycoverthreesidesofastudio. Otherhangingscenerymayincludepaintedcanvasdrops,curtainswhich maybeslidortraversedhorizontally,drapes,muralsandsometimes photomurals.Thechromakeydropisawiderollofbluecanvasthat isfor"keying"Keyingiselectronicallyinsertedinformationtothe sideorbehindtheannouncer.Theelectronicinsertaddssupport informationfortheannouncer.Normally,thistechniqueisusedin newscastsforslidesandvideotapes.

PROPERTY Studiosetsarenormallybuiltfromanumberofseparate, prefabricatedscenicunits,positionedandfastenedtogether. Subsequently,theyaredressedwithappropriatefurnishings, properties,drapes,etc.,tocreatethetotalsceniceffect.There arethreetypesofproperties: 1. stageproperties,orprops, 2. handprops 3. setdressings.

Stage Props Therearemanytypesofstageproperties,butthetermgenerally referstofurniture:newsdesks,tables,lectern,chairs,etc.

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LESSON1/LearningEvent1and2

Hand Props Handpropsconsistofallitemsthatareactuallyhandledbypeople duringashow.Theyincludesuchitemsasashtrays,telephones, typewriters,dishes,silverware,glasses,bottlesandfood.

Set Dressings Setdressingsarefurnishingsthatnormallygiveanapartmentorset itsdistinguishingcharacteristicsoflocale,mood,etc.Set dressingsalsoincludepictures,draperies,bookcases,fireplace, lampsandchandeliers,indoorplants,andmiscellaneousdecorative items,etc.

STUDIO BACKGROUNDS Inpreparingstudiobackgrounds,themainproblemofcontrastand layoutareimportanttoconsiderintheoverallprogram.Before preparingthebackgroundorsceneryforaprogram,broadcastersneed toidentifycameramovement,whetherornotthebackgroundwillbe seeninacloseup,andwhattypeofactionwilltakeplaceinfront ofthebackground.Thebackground,asageneralrule,shouldbe darkerthantheforeground.Adarkerareatendstorecedefromthe viewerwhilealighterareatendstostandout.Thisgivesgreater separationordepthbetweenbackgroundandsubject.Separationisa featurewhichisalwaysdesirablefortelevisiontransmission.Ifthe backgroundisnottobeshowninacloseup,thelinesanddesignsmay becourse.But,ifoneareaistobeseencloseup,thenmoredetail shouldbeaddedtothatparticulararea.

Contrast Televisionlightingcontrastisimportant.Backgroundsmaybe adjustedbyvaryingcolor,materialtexture,orlightintensity.The mostimportantcharacteristicsofanyparticularlightaredirection, intensityandquality. Allthreecharacteristicswillinfluencethereflectivevalueofthe backdropbutinnocaseshouldthecontrastrangeexceedthelimitsof thetelevisionsystemof20to1.Thebrightnessofcolorisusually measuredbyhowmuchlightobjectsreflect.

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LESSON3/LearningEvent3 HighlyreflectiveobjectsshouldneverbeincludedonTVasproperty oraspartofacostume.Ifitisnecessarytouseahighly reflectivesurface,dullitwithaspecialdullingspray.Ifdulling sprayisnotreadilyavailable,usesoaporasolutionofEpsomsalts andstalebeer(1tablespoonofsaltto1cupofstalebeer). Sprayingorbrushingashinysurfacewiththismixturewill appreciablydullreflectingproperties.Brassowillalsodullvery shinyobjects.Justdabitonandletitdry.

Storage Smallstationoperationswillbeprimarilyconcernedwithnondramatic localpresentations.Forthisreason,thestationwardrobeor costumeswillbesomewherebetweennonexistentandverysmall.What thereis,ifanything,willprobablybemiscellaneousitems occasionallynecessarytocorrectclothingcontrastproblems. Wedefinedsceneryatthebeginningofthislessonusingtheterms "standing"and"hanging".Inanycase,ifthereisalotofscenery, storagemaybeaproblem.Fromthestandpointofavailability, storageinthestudioisbestbecausesomesceneryisquiteheavy. However,somescenerymayrequiretoomuchstudiospacewhennotin use.Ifso,operationspersonnelmayhavetomoveitintohallwaysor adjacentroomsortoapropsandsceneriesstoragearea.Wherever sceneryisstored,it'sbesttohavescenedocksfortheflats.A scenedockhasslotsintowhichthetopandbottomedgesoftheflats slideforverticalstoragelikebooksinabookcases.Ifthereisno roomforscenedocks,scenerymayhavetobeleanedagainstwallsor stackedinlayers.Ifnecessary,itisbesttoreserveanareafor eachtypeofflatwhichwillatleastsegregatesingles,twofolds, andthreefolds.Pileflatsinflathorizontallayers,backtoback toavoiddamage.Spacearoundthewallsshouldbeassignedspecific typesofflats.Drapeswillbelessapttowrinkleordevelop horizontalfoldsiftheyarehungonhighracks.Costumesandset dressingsshouldbestoredinaproproomadjacenttothestudio.

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LESSON3/LearningEvent2

Flameproofing Fireregulationsrequirematerialsthataretobeusedforsceneryto beflameproofed.Thismaybedonebysprayingorpaintingthescenery (eitherbeforeorafterithasbeenmadeorpainted)withspecial FLAMEPROOFINGchemicals.Thesechemicalsareavailablefromcompanies thatdealinstageorsceneryequipmentormaybemixedatthestudio fromingredientsfoundinalmostanygrocerystore.Oneformula commonlyusedis: a. 1poundborax(sodiumtetraborate) b. 1poundsalammoniac(ammoniumchloride) c. 3quartswater WARNING Althoughthescenerymaterialmayhavebeen flameproofed,thisdoesnotmeanthatthescenery willnotburn.Flameproofingonlyretardsor slowstheignitionprocess.

Issue Control Aswithallstationequipmentandsuppliessubjecttointermittent use,itisbestthatissueslipsbecompletedbypersonnelrequiring sceneryorothermaterialfromstorage.Theissueslipshould identifythematerial;showthelengthoftimethematerialwillbe needed;andgivetheprobabledateofreturn.Asuspensefiling systemisadvisablesothatthesceneryand/orpropertycustodianhas informationimmediatelyavailableonthelocationandfuture availabilityofitems.Thecustodianshouldestablishcontrolsfor suchsuppliesaspaint,fabrics,andhardware.Thereasonforsupply controls,otherthanavoidingwaste,istoinsureadequateinventory andsufficientleadtimeforplanning,requesting,andpurchasing.

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PRACTICEEXERCISE LESSON#3 SCENERY SUBCOURSENo.DI0370 INSTRUCTIONS: Reviewthematerialinthislesson.Answerthequestionsbelowby circlingthe"T"or"F"nexttoeachquestion.Compareyouranswers withtheanswerkeyonthenextpage.Ensurethatyouunderstandthe lessonmaterialandanswers beforeproceeding. TF1. TF2. TF3. Acycloramahasmanydifferentpiecesthatcoveronlyone wall. Themostcommonlyusedstandingunitsareflats. Thebrightnessofcolorisusuallydeterminedbytheamount oflightitreflects.

TF4. Studiosettingsarebuiltfromanumberofseparate prefabricatedscenicunits,positionedandfastened together. TF5. Thebestwaytostoreflatsistoputthemalltogetherone ontopoftheother. TF6. Fireregulationsrequirematerialsthataretobeusedas scenerytobeflameproofed. TF7. Issuecontrolslipsshouldberequiredofpersonnel requestingsceneryandothermaterialsfromstorage.

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ANSWERKEY PRACTICEEXERCISE LESSON#3 SUBCOURSENo.DI0370 SCENERY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. FALSE TRUE TRUE TRUE FALSE TRUE TRUE Page Page Page Page Page Page Page 42 41 43 42 44 44 45

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