Compact High Voltage Power Supply

CHAPTER 1
PREAMBLE
1. INTRODUCTION
High voltage (HV) power supplies are used in industrial, medical, and air borne applications. In many high-power, high-voltage applications such as laser based systems, X-ray equipment, radar power supplies, high quality power is required. In addition, radar power supplies are subjected to pulsed load. In the present project we have developed a power supply used to generate a high voltage in a very compact system using the basic concept of high frequency conversion. Once a power supply operates in 50 Hz, all basic parameters of the system like ripple, regulation, load regulation, line regulation and other factors like purity of dc generated all are dependent upon the kind of operating frequency and these factors associated with 50Hz and 20msec wave front. To generate 50kV at 50Hz, power supply will obviously become a very big, but suppose 50Hz frequency is boosted up to 400Hz or as in this project to 20kHz automatically get an advantage of 20000Hz divided by 50Hz which is direct ratio of 400,50Hz based power supply require a capacitor of 1micro farad, but this project require a capacitor of 1/400 micro farad. Similarly heavy and bulky components like transformer, diodes etc, as great in saving cost, weight, dimension and also regulation, when the frequency is boosted up from low frequency of 50Hz to a high frequency of 20kHz,other factors which contribute makes the system becomes very light weight, very small and becomes portable and any portable system which can generate high voltage has got lots of application because once it is portable it can be carried and taken it from one place to another place.
1.2 OBJECTIVE
To design and develop high voltage power supply with a output of 40,000V to 50,000V D.C. with the help of high frequency switching technique in the region of 6kHz to 20kHz by using a pair of NPN transistors.
Department of EC&E, PESITM,Shivamogga
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1.3 SCOPE OF STUDY

The project uses the state of art technology to generate high voltage in the range 45kv to 50kv D.C. Since many years, high voltage has become necessity of the day. In earlier days, the power supply units used to be very large due to use of large transformers. However, nowadays, the necessity of generating high voltage using compact system has increased in applications such as medical electronics, weapon system etc. Hence, we have developed compact high D.C voltage power supply unit. Hence the chapter 1 throws light on the objective and scope of study of the project. The block diagram and its explanation are provided in the next chapter.
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CHAPTER 2
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF HIGH VOLTAGE POWER SUPPLY
INPUT 230V, 50Hz,A.C
Controls and Indication + fusing
Auto-stat variation
Step down transformer
Rectifier and filter
Push pull transistor system
OUTPUT 50kV D.C
Over current Protection
Voltage multiplier + Filter
High voltage/High Frequency transformer
FEEDBACK
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Fig 2.1 : Block diagram of High voltage power supply. The block diagram of High voltage power supply unit is as shown in Fig 2.1 and it consists of following blocks: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Control-Indication and Fusing Auto-stat Variation Step down transformer Rectifier and filter Push-Pull transistor system High Voltage/High Frequency transformer(HV/HF) Voltage Multiplier and Filter Over Current protection Control-Indication and Fusing: This block consist of Toggle switch and neon LED for control and indication purpose. Fuse is used to provide the protection to the power supply against the fluctuation from input signal. Auto-stat Variation: This block consist of Dimmer Stat(Auto transformer) which is used to vary the input A.C signal. Step down transformer: Here a step down transformer of 0-30Volts is used to step down the 230Volts A.C signal to 30Volts A.C. Rectifier and filter: This block consists of bridge rectifier for A.C. to D.C. conversion and electrolytic capacitors to filter pulsating D.C. to smoothen D.C. Push-Pull transistor system: It is a transistorised oscillatory unit having its own feedback and oscillatory mechanism. It consists of two NPN transistors operating in pushpull configuration.
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High Voltage/High Frequency transformer (HV/HF): Fly-back transformer is used as a HV/HF transformer, to step up the input low voltage across the primary to high voltage across the secondary. Voltage Multiplier and Filter: It is a six stage multiplier consisting of six capacitors and six diodes, in order to boost up the voltage to desired range. Over Current protection: It consist of three resistors of 25M, connected in parallel to protect the power supply unit from short circuit. A single phase 230 volts, 50Hz signal is applied as input to auto-stat variation through the control-indication and fusing unit. The auto-stat variac consists of auto-transformer to vary the input signal. The output of this variac is applied to the step-down transformer, where the stepped down voltage is applied to rectifier and filter block to get the smoothen D.C. The output of this rectifier and filter unit is given to the push-pull transistor system, where frequency is boosted up. The output from the push-pull transistor unit is applied to the high voltage/ high frequency transformer, which is used to step up the low input voltage to high voltage in kilo volts range. This high voltage is applied to the multiplier unit of six stages, and it consists of six capacitors and six diodes to obtain the desired output. Over current protection is used at the end before deriving the final output. The chapter 3 deals with the design of the high voltage power supply.
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CHAPTER 3
DESIGN OF HIGH VOLTAGE POWER SUPPLY

This chapter deals with the design considerations of high voltage power supply. In order to design any system following parameters are considered.
3.1 DESIGN CONSIDERATION:

1. Input: Input voltage, current and frequency are considered. The input of the present project is single phase 230Volts,50Hz A.C signal 2. Output: Output voltage, current and Power rating are considered. The desired output of the present project is 50kV D.C. and of Power rating 300W. 3. Load Condition: It defines the load, across which output is taken.
Following sections describes the design considerations of each block of power supply unit.
Department of EC&E, PESITM,Shivamogga Page 6
3.1.1 Bridge rectifier:

For input voltage Vi of 30V, Peak input voltage: Vpin =1.414 *(Vi ) = 1.414*30 = 42.42Volts. Peak Output voltage:Vpout=Vpin-2Vf ,where Vf is forward breakdown Voltage. =42.42-(2*0.7) =41 volts Output D.C.voltage Input r.m.s voltage Vdc=(2*Vpin)/ Vrms=(Vpin)/2
Filter: Electrolytic Capacitor In industrial application, there is a thumb rule, For 1 Amps of current 1000F is used.
For better filtering 2000F capacitor is used for 1Amps of output current. The project uses two 2200F capacitors, however cost of such capacitors are more.
3.1.2 HV/HF Transformer:

By trial and error method, number of turns of primary winding and secondary windings of HV/HF Transformer is calculated. Required no load output Voltage across the multiplier is 60kV.Since, the project uses six stage multiplier. Voltage across each stage=60kV/6
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=10kV. Input r.m.s voltage across the multiplier unit ,Vrms=10kV/2 =10kV/1.414 =7.072kV. This is the required voltage across the secondary of HV/HF transformer. Consider secondary windings of 800 turns, voltage across each turn=7.072kV/800 =8.75Volts/turn. Consider the primary windings of 4 turns, then Voltage across the primary=(8.75Volts/turn) *(4 turns) =35Volts. Hence by trial and error method : Secondary windings(Sw)=800 turns Primary windings(Pw)=4-0-4 turns Turns ratio(T)= Sw/Pw =800/4 T=200:1
3.1.3 Multiplier Unit:

Direct ratio=(Line Frequency)/(Main Frequency). =20,000Hz/50Hz =400:1
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There is a thumb rule that for 50Hz ,Capacitor of 1F is used in each stage of multiplier unit. Therefore for 20000Hz, the capacitor of (1/400) i.e., 2.5F is used in each stage. However, in the project, a capacitors of 3.5 F has been used. Multiplier unit in the present project 3.5F capacitor is used.
3.2 BILL OF MATERIALS (BOM):

The components required for building the High voltage power supply is listed in the table 3.1 Table 3.1: Bill of Material
COMPONENT
Toggle Switch Led Voltage Meter Auto- Transformer 5-Pin Military Connector 230v Socket Fuse Holder Bolt Transformer Transistor Resistors
SPECIFICATION
QUANTITY
1 1
0-50kV 0.7
1 1 1 1 1
M6/35 o/p(15-0-15),50Hz,230V i/p 2N3773 Band resistor 220 100 10k
Required number 1 2 1 each
Signal Diodes
IN4148
6
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Rectifier Capacitor Heat Sink Multiplier
FR607 2200 microfarad
4 2 1
3.5nf/25kv(Capacitor),2CL20(High 6 voltage diode) Primary- (4-0-4 0-2) Secondary 800 turns 1
Transformer
Safety Resistor Fan Shields 230v,80/80
3 1 2
Next chapter explains the hardware description of the High Voltage power supply unit.
CHAPTER 4
HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
4.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF HIGH VOLTAGE POWER SUPPLY
Fig 4.1: Circuit diagram of High voltage power supply unit.

Circuit diagram of High voltage power supply unit is as shown in Fig 4.1.A single phase, 230v, 50Hz A.C. supply is applied through auto transformer to the primary of 030volts step down transformer. The step-down transformer steps down high voltage of 230volts to 30volts.This stepped down voltage are applied to the bridge rectifier built using FR607 for A.C. to D.C. conversion. Output of bridge rectifier yields pulsating D.C. and this output is applied to the filter consisting of two capacitors of 2200f. Output of capacitor filter is applied to the transistorised circuit of push pull oscillator which has got its own feedback and oscillatory mechanism. The two transistors, 2N3773 are operated in a push-pull mode with one primary of the transformer T2 being connected to the collectors of two transistors, one of these transistors is self oscillatory. Once the selfoscillation starts, the transistor goes into oscillatory mode by which, due to induction, the voltage is developed across the primary of the transformer T2 and voltage will be boosted up from 50Hz to 20 kHz. The transformer T2 used is the fly back type of the transformer, the primary of this transformer is wound on a ferrite core and it induces voltage across the secondary. The typical primary voltage is in the range of 24V to 36V D.C. But the typical secondary voltage is in the range of 7kV to 10kV ac at 20 kHz. The transformer T2 will generate 7kV to 10kV A.C. rms and this ac voltage is fed to six stage multiplier consisting of six diodes and six capacitors. All capacitors are high energy capacitors in the range of 3.5nF, -10% to +10% of 25 kV D.C. Once an input voltage of 10kV A.C. rms is applied to the first stage of the multiplier. Then multiplier unit generates around 60kV D.C. as output. This 60kV dc is obtained at the output of the multiplier for no load condition. The instant load is applied to the multiplier, the no load voltage will go down to 40kV to 50kV dc depending upon the load impedance.
4.2 BRIDGE RECTIFIER

Bridge rectifier is the standard bridge rectifier which is built by using the diodes in the bridge configuration. Typical diodes selected for this is FR607, which is a fast recovery diode and whose average voltage rating and current rating are 700 volts and 6 amps respectively.
Filter circuit is built using two electrolytic capacitors of 2200 f, which are connected in parallel. Circuit diagram of bridge rectifier and filter module is as shown in the Fig 4.2
Fig 4.2: Bridge rectifier and filter module. During positive cycle of input voltage, diodes D1 and D4 will conduct and connects the input voltage across the filter circuit. During negative cycle of input voltage diodes D2 and D3 will conduct and connects the input across the filter circuit. In this way, the rectifier converts A.C voltage of 30 volts to pulsating D.C. of 28 volts approximately. Bridge rectifier outputs pulsating D.C., which is applied to the filter module consisting of two capacitors of 2200f. It filters the pulsating D.C. and produces smooth D.C. Fig 4.3 and Fig 4.4 shows the diodes FR607 connected in bridge configuration and the capacitors 2200 f connected in parallel to form filter circuit.
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Fig 4.3:Diodes connected in bridge rectifier configuration.
Fig 4.4: D.C Filter.
4.3 TRANSISTORISED OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT
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Fig 4.5: circuit diagram of transistorised oscillator Fig 4.5 shows the circuit diagram of a transistorised oscillator. A transistorised oscillator operating in push pull mode employs two similar transistors in phase opposition and also it consists of six IN4148 diodes D1 to D6.Among these, D1,D2,D4 and D5 which are used as circuit breakers, D3 and D6 are used for isolation purpose. Fig4.7 shows the diodes and resistors connected on the oscillatory feedback board The output of rectifier, approximately around 24volts D.C. is applied to push pull transistor. The push pull transistor consists of two NPN transistors, 2N3773, one transistor will operate in the push mode and another will be in pull mode. Fig 4.6 shows the circuit diagram of feedback circuit of oscillator. Voltage from the feed-back of the fly back transformer T2 is applied to the base of the transistors Q1 and Q2 to make it conducting. Primary of the fly-back transformer is connected to the collector of the two transistors.
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Fig 4.6:Feedback circuit of oscillator
4.4 FLYBACK TRANSFORMER

A fly back transformer (FBT), also called a line output transformer (LOPT), is a special transformer which is used to generate high voltage (HV) signals at a relatively high frequency.
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Fig 4.7: Symbolic representation of fly-back transformer. Fig 4.7.shows symbolic representation of fly-back transformer. It consists primary winding of 4-0-4 turns, feedback winding of 0-2 turns and secondary winding of 800 turns.
Specifications of the primary and secondary windings, input and output voltage and the operating frequency of the fly-back transformer are listed in the table 4.1. Table 4.1: Design of HV/HF Transformer Primary winding Feedback Secondary winding Input voltage Output voltage 4-0-4 turns 0-2 turns 800 turns 36 volts 10 kilo volts
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Input frequency
20kHz
Unlike mains transformers and audio transformers, a LOPT is designed not just to transfer energy, but also to store it for a significant fraction of the switching period. This is achieved by winding the coils on a ferrite core with an air gap. The air gap increases the reluctance of the magnetic circuit and therefore its capacity to store energy. The alternating current trough the fly back transformer is converted to direct current by a high-voltage rectifier. In case of high output voltage, a voltage multiplier is preferred in place of rectifier.
4.4.1 MATERIALS REQUIRED

Following are the specifications of the materials used in the winding of primary and secondary of the fly back transformer as listed in the table 4.2. Table 4.2: list of materials required for primary and secondary winding
Core material bobbin Size of core Primary wire Secondary wire Inter layer insulation Moulding material Die material
ferrite Poly carbonate E55 Teflon Super enamelled copper Poly ester tape Epoxy CY230 Poly propylene methyl acetate
4.4.2 BOBBIN
Bobbins for off-line fly back transformers should be chosen with regard to the safety creep age distances required by the applicable safety regulations. Particular areas of consideration are the total creep age distance from primary pins to secondary pins through the core, and the creep age distance from primary pins to the secondary winding area. With some bobbin styles, extra insulation may be necessary to meet the creep age requirements. Bobbins should preferably be made from thermosetting materials such as phenol resin in order to withstand soldering temperatures without deformation. Polybutylene or polyethylene teraphtharate (PBT, PET) and polyphenylene sulphide (PPS) are also acceptable materials, though more sensitive to high temperatures than phenol resins.
4.4.3 FERRITE CORE

E cores are the best choice for transformer cores for reasons of low cost, wide availability and lower leakage inductance. The fig 4.8 shows the typical E 55 ferrite core.
Fig 4.8: Ferrite core
4.4.4 INSULATING MATERIALS
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A common insulating material used in transformers is polyester or Mylar, available in sheet or tape form. This material is also manufactured as an adhesive tape that is particularly useful in transformer construction.
4.4.5 SUPER ENAMELED COPPER WIRE

Secondary is wound by super enamelled copper wire. It is coated with fine coating of insulating material like poly ester warmish. These wires have got a very thin insulating coating and occupy very little space between two winding wires.
4.4.6 SLEEVING:
Fig 4.9: Sleeving
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The sleeving of secondary winding is shown in fig 4.9.Insulating tubing is used to insulate the start and finish leads of windings in a margin wound transformer. The tubing should be recognized by the applicable safety agencies, with a minimum wall thickness of 0.4 mm to meet thickness requirements for reinforced insulation. The tubing should also be heat resistant, so that it does not melt when exposed to the temperatures required to solder the transformer lead wires to the pins on the bobbin. Materials commonly used for sleeving include Teflon tubing or polyolefin heat shrink tubing.
4.4.7 Poly Ethylene Teraptharate (PET)

It is highly insulated material used in electrical instruments. Its trade name and scientific name commonly called as Polyester. Dielectric strength of this material is typically 2.5 million volts/meter. Dielectric constant of material is typically 3.2.This material is extremely useful for high voltage insulation and keeping away moisture from winding. Once this material is moulded in EPOXY, it is impervious to dielectric losses and also very good for high frequency dissipation up to 1MHz.This material gives a excellent protection and insulation for high voltage application. With this the transformer is designed for high voltage and high frequency use.
4.4.8 Process Of Developing The Fly Back Transformer

The process of Developing the Fly back transformer are described in the following subsections. SECONDARY WINDING The super enamelled copper wire of 34SWG (30 gauge) is wound on the black plastic bobbin. The bobbin is of poly carbonate material. As per the design 800 turns of secondary winding is wound layer by layer. A polyester tape is used in between layers to provide insulation between the layers. PRIMARY WINDING
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Primary winding of 4-0-4-0-2 turns is wound of Teflon material to get the connection of start, positive, stop and negative. During the process silicon sleeves and mould release spray is used. The core material is of ferrite material of E55 size, and then core is fixed onto the bobbin. OILING The transformer element is immersed in the HT oil and the element is heated at 105 degree celcius for 16 hours. Heating is essential to remove all the moisture in the element. Then element is placed in the into the vacuum chamber to remove air bubbles. PREPARATION OF DIE The material used in preparing a die is Poly Propylene Methyl Acetate (PPMC).The dimensions of the die that is used in the procedure are listed below, 50x100mm 110x120mm 50x75mm To mould the fly back transformer EPOXY CY230 is used, then Hardener HY951 is mixed with the EPOXY in the ratio as specified in the table 4.3. Table 4.3: Mixing Ratio of epoxy and hardener. EPOXY in gms 1000 Powder in gms 750 Total in gms 1750 Colour pigment In gms 30.00025 Hardener In gms 80
4.4.9 Advantages of Fly-Back Transformer

The main advantages of the fly back transformer over a standard mains transformer are its small size and light weight, which are the results of operating it at the line frequency
(many kilohertz) instead of the mains frequency (50 or 60 Hz). Another advantage is that it provides a failsafe mechanism i.e., in case the horizontal deflection circuitry fails, the flyback transformer will cease to operate and shut down the rest of the display, preventing the screen burn that would otherwise result from a stationary electron beam. Fig 4.10, 4.11,
4.12 and 4.13 shows the various stages of developing HV/HF Transformer.
Fig 4.10:HV/HF transformer
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Fig 4.11:Cross section of HVHF transformer
Fig 4.12: Transformer before moulding
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Fig 4.13: HVHF Transformer after moulding
4.5 MULTIPLIER UNIT

A voltage multiplier is an electrical circuit that step up a lower A.C voltage to higher D.C voltage with the use of capacitors and diodes. Voltage multipliers can be used to generate bias voltages ranging from a few volts for electronic appliances, to millions of volts for purposes such as high-energy physics experiments and lightning safety testing. While the multiplier can be used to produce thousands of volts of output, the individual components do not need to be rated to withstand the entire voltage range. Each component only needs to be concerned with the relative voltage differences directly across its own terminals and of the components immediately adjacent to it. Typically a voltage multiplier will be physically arranged like a ladder, so that the progressively increasing voltage potential is not given the opportunity to arc across to the much lower potential sections of the circuit. Note that some safety margin is needed across the relative range of voltage differences in the multiplier, so that the ladder can survive the shorted failure of at least one diode or capacitor
component. Otherwise a single-point shorting failure could destroy each component in the multiplier and hence, potentially destroying the entire multiplier unit.
The circuit diagram of the multiplier unit is shown in the Fig 4.14. It consists of six multiplier stages, each stage made up of a diode and a capacitor.
Fig 4.14: Circuit diagram of the six stage multiplier unit. The multiplier unit is built using six high voltage diodes of 2CL20 and six capacitor of 3.5F/25kV. During the positive half-cycle of the input, the capacitors charge in parallel to the peak value of the voltage presented through the forward biased diode. The other diode is reverse biased. Each capacitor charges to peak volts. During the negative half-cycle of the input, the forward biased diode becomes reversed biased while the reversed biased diode becomes forward biased. This effectively connects the capacitors in series allowing them to discharge into the load at the output. The
result is a doubled voltage at each stage of multiplier unit. Each connected stage adds its potential to the total output.
4.5.1 CAPACITORS: The capacitor used in multiplier is a film file version. These capacitors are wound with plastic film typically kapton or polyamide. An aluminium foil was kept between two plastic or polyamide films and the same was wound by hand or machine as desired. When the capacitor is wound, it is terminated using 2 types of strips on the two sides to produce the electrodes, which are called tabs. Then the capacitors are wound with the cellophane
tapes.This film file version of capacitor at the initial stage is called as element. Then the element is heated at 105 degree centigrade for 16 hours. Heating is essential to remove all the moisture in the element. Once the elements are heated, the ends of the elements are soldered using copper wire. Once the wires are soldered, the element is ready for test. Since the capacitor can withstand up to 25kV, it is normally preferred to do a dry test at 10kV. Apply 10kV dc on the element and test is carried out. Once the capacitor has passed the test of 10kv, then it is kept into a small oil container, typically silicon oil of 20CST with a dielectric strength of 55kv/mm. At first the silicon oil is heated, later the hot elements will be immersed in the heated oil. These oiled elements are kept inside the vacuum vessel. Once the vacuum is created for about 15 to 16 hours, all the trapped air, which is there inside the element will come out and the elements absorbs the oil. Ensuring that the capacitor element is instigated fully. The typical instigation cycle is about 12 to 15 hours. Once the instigation is over, capacitors are taken out and are wiped and inserted these elements into the containers. Containers are peak materials and they are automatically manufactured on an injection moulding machine and the same is ready for installation. Once the elements are inserted in the container box, epoxy is poured into the box. The epoxy is slowly poured into the containers and the containers are kept in vacuum. Once creating sufficient vacuum, i.e. for about 30 minutes at 1m bar, the extra oil which is present will be replaced by epoxy.
Hence the capacitor element is either covered with oil or epoxy. At the end of clearing cycle of 24 hours, the capacitor is ready for use. Once the capacitors are ready, the same will be tested for capacitance, dissipation factor, and also for test voltage of 25kV D.C. Then the capacitor is declared as fit for use.Dissipation factor has to be less than 0.01 at around 1kv and ten delta is nothing but quality factor of the capacitor, higher the ten delta, higher is the dissipation factor in the capacitor and lower the ten delta, lower is the dissipation factor in the capacitor. Hence the losses in the capacitor will not heat up when it is used in the high frequency. With this capacitor fabrication is over.
Fig 4.15 Capacitor element before moulding
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Fig 4.16 Capacitor With Transformer The next chapter deals with the advantages and applications of High Voltage Power Supply unit.
CHAPTER 5
ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

5.1 ADVANTAGES
The advantages of the High frequency transistor based High voltage power supply are: 1. 2. 3. 4. Very light weight Very compact size Short circuit proof Smoothly variable from 0-50kv
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5.
Very good rate of change of voltage
5.2 APPLICATIONS
There are many applications of the High voltage power supply unit in various fields. Some of the main applications are listed below, 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. Electro optics for Q-switching E-beam curing/cross-linking Capacitor chargers Particle accelerators General Laboratory and Research Usage CT Scan/X-ray Imaging E-beam Sterilization Electrostatic Precipitators General Laboratory and Research Usage Excimer Lasers Ion Implantation Radar Power Sources Digital Television Transmission E-beam Evaporation/Deposition E-beam Welding Electrostatic Paint, Powder, Lubricant & Precipitator Systems Industrial CO2/Gas Laser Supplies
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18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.
Semiconductor Microlithography Spectroscopic Analysis Instrumentation X-ray Instruments Compact Medical CO2 Laser Supplies General Laboratory and Research Usage X-ray system supplies with filament control
The chapter 6 deals with the conclusions and futuristic scope of High Voltage Power Supply unit.
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CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURISTIC SCOPE

This chapter conclude the project based on the topics discussed in above chapters. The future scope of the present project also been discussed in this chapter
6.1 CONCLUSIONS
As earlier chapters describes the design and hardware description and also based on the advantages we conclude that, In this present project a high voltage is generated in a very compact system using the basic concept of frequency conversion. The major volume is not taken by the equipment, but still equipment can become very powerful and useful in very compact areas .As we vary the input supply, the output is smoothly variable from 0-50kVDC.
6.2 FUTURISTIC SCOPE

In the present system since the output power is low; still there is a scope for improvement in the power and frequency by using more transistors in parallel in oscillatory circuit. It can be made more reliable using over current protection .The power supply unit can be made lighter using advanced plastic. It can be made as regulated power supply using regulators. The ripple filtering capacity can be increased using -filter or T-filter. Since in present system the power dissipation is high because resistance in series. This can be avoided in future power supply using an inductor at the output. The results of the power supply unit are discussed in the next chapter.
CHAPTER 7
RESULTS
In this chapter the waveforms across the transistorised circuit and the ripple across output voltage are discussed.The open air testing and the results are also tabulated.
7.1 WAVEFORMS
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Fig 7.1:Waveform of input signal 230V,50Hz AC Fig 7.1 shows the A.C signal waveform of single phase 230Volts,50Hz which is applied as input to the high voltage power supply unit.
Fig 7.2: Waveform across transistor in Push mode. Fig 7.2 shows the waveform across the transistor in push mode,with the transistor voltage of 30volts.
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Fig 7.3 : waveforms across the collectors of two NPN transistor 5.556 kHz and peak to peak voltage of 52.8V. In Fig 7.3 shows waveform across the two transistors,which are operating in pushpull mode at the operating frequency of 5.556kHz and peak-to-peak voltage of 52.8Volts.
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Fig 7.4: Elaborated oscillatory output across the transistor
Fig 7.5 Elaborated oscillatory output across the transistor
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Fig 7.6 Elaborated oscillatory output across the transistor Fig 7.4,7.5 and 7.6 shows the elaborated waveforms across the output of oscillatory transistors operating at 5.55kHz and the peak to peak voltage of 52.8Volts
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Fig 7.7 waveform of the ripple at the output voltage Fig 7.7 shows the waveform of the ripple at the output voltage of 15.2kV.The ripple voltage is of 850Volts. Table 7.1: Open air testing result Input A.C (Volts) (Variac output) 25 50 75 80 Output DC (kilo Volts) 6.38 15.78 23.35 25.03 The results of open air testing of high voltage power supply are tabulated in table 7.1.As the input A.C voltage is varied from 0-230V,the voltage across the output is varied smoothly from 0-50kV D.C. Table.7.2: Tabulation of output voltage and ripple voltage. Output DC voltage 1.15kV 8.56kV 14.8kV Output ripple voltage 64V 480V 800V
The ripple across the output voltage is tabulated in table 7.2.
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High Voltage Power Supply Control Unit
REFERENCES
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APPENDIX
A.DATASHEETS
1.IN4148 (HIGH-SPEED DIODES)
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2. 2N3773
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3. 2CL2
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4.CAPACITOR(2200uF)
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5. TOGGLE SWITCH
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6. 5-PIN MILITARY CONNECTOR
During high voltage operation it is evident that partial discharge and crinoids fact, once high voltage is applied beyond 2.7kv/mm, in air at 25 deg Celsius, sea level, then the free electrons in the air break down and air starts conducting electricity, this is called partial discharge or electrostatic spray generating ozone gas and over a period of time electrical permanent damage happens. To avoid any electrical system going for permanent damage in the electrical equipment at high voltage, it is very important that we avoid any open metal context operating at a high voltage. If we have to enclose high voltage metal context in a enclosure or container, the best option we are left with are two: either to cover it with insulating gel, or epoxy or have connector system where metal is not exposed to the atmosphere. The other advantage having this connector system , is which is very easily possible to join or disconnect a system. It also helps us in easily interconnecting two systems. Connectors are designed, developed, manufactured in such a way that they are universal in dimension and hence are interchangeable between equipment and hence servicing, repair and maintenance became very easy. The connectors are made up of glass filled polycrytal which are very high dielectric strength and dielectric constant.
Dielectric strength being in excess of 32kv/mm and dielectric constant being close to 2.8. These materials are processed under high levels of vacuum to ensure that no porosity or holes are found in the material.
B. FABRICATION PROCESS
1.PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD
Printed circuit board, popularly known as PCB, PCB is a piece of plastic insulating board, on one side of which a complete layout diagram of an electronic circuit consisting of copper silver conducting paths is printed by a special photo etching process.
FABRICATION OF PCB: The steps involved in the manufacturing of PCB are as

follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. Design and preparation Pattern design Resist application Etching Clearing and resist remover Finishing DESIGN AND PREPERATION: Art work should be prepared on transparent polystyrene film using block ink or adhesive taps and pads. In modern technique screen printing method is used for art working of PCB. This is the primary step in fabricating the PCB.
2.
PATTERN DESIGN: In industrial work, pattern is usually transformed to the surface of the laminate by means of screen printing or by photographic method.
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3.
RESIST APPLICATION: Adhesive tapes and pads which have high chemical resistance and excellent adhesion can be attached to copper clad laminate.
4.
ETCHING: Etching soul can be prepared using available etchers like ferric chloride, cupric chloride etc. ferric chloride is popularly used. Etching can be carried out in a spray etching chambers. Few drops of HCL can be added FeCl3 to spread an etching action. The etching may take 30-40 minutes depending upon the PCB.
5.
CLEARING AND RESIST REMOVER: After etching, board should be washed under running water and then dried by applying turpentine pads or spirit, the tapes can be cleaned of from PCB. Now printed pattern will be clearly visible.
6.
FINISHING: After PCB is cleaned, centre of terminals can be center punched and holes can drill over board. The drilling machine can be used to drill the holes. Then terminal points can be lightly tinned. Afterwards suitable components can be mounted on PCB.
2. FASTENERS
Fasteners are the devices used to fasten the things together. The fasteners are characterized based on the following specification
CAPABILITY
Every screw nut and bolt are used to fasten two engineering entities; these could be plates, rod, or any other article which has to be held firmly during times of transition,
vibration, shock and lateral movement. At this time, it is very important that the right materials are selected, so that the fasteners and the object in which the fastener is fixed retains its strength and care should be taken that neither the fasteners should be of tough material and the member of soft material or the reverse should not be used, that is one cannot use the hard stainless to tighten two plates of aluminium.
MATERIAL
Different materials are used in this fastener, they are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Mild steel Stainless steel Brass Copper Hardened high carbon steel
STRENGTH
Considering this property, stainless steel fasteners are the strongest among all.sizes aof fasteners are specified in terms of metric drill size. Some examples are as follow: M1-0.75 M2-1.60 M3-2.4 M4-3.25 M5-4.10 M6-5.0 M12-8.5 M14-12.0 M16-14.0 M18-15.5 M20-17.5 M22-19.5
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M7-6.0 M8-6.8 M9-7.8
M24-21.0 M27-24.0 M10-8.5
Fasteners are used in electrical and electronics industries as current carrying members, it is very important that they are installed tightly and they are firmly fixed. Hence it allows large amount of current.The dimensions of the fasteners are dependent on their current carrying capacity, which is calculated as follows: Take a bolt size of M6,that is the average diameter of the bolt is 6mm. Take the overall cross section area of this bolt which is ( .
SHAPES
Considering the shapes, the fasteners are classified as follows: 1. 2. 3. Cheese head fastener. Counter sunk screw (CSK). Round head. Pan head. Hex head.
4. 5.
3. SOLDERING
Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a relatively low melting point. Soft soldering is characterized by the melting point of the filler metal, which is below 400 C (752 F). The filler metal used in the process is called solder.
WHAT IS SOLDER?
Solder is an alloy (mixture) of tin and lead, typically 60% tin and 40% lead. It melts at a temperature of about 200C. Coating a surface with a solder is called tinning. Solder for electronics use contains tiny cores of flux, like the wires inside a mains flex. The flux is corrosive like an acid and it cleans the metal surfaces as the solder melts. This is why, the solder should be melt actually on the joint , not on the iron tip. Without flux, most joints would fail because metals quickly oxidize and the solder itself will not flow properly on to a dirty oxidized metal surface.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
1. Never touch the element or tip of the soldering iron.
They are very hot (about 400C) and will give a nasty burn. 2. Take great care to avoid touching the mains flex with the tip of the iron.
The iron should have a heat proof flex for extra protection. Ordinary plastic flex melts immediately if touched by a hot iron and there is a risk of burns and electric shock. 3. Always return the soldering iron to its stand, when not in use.
Never put it down on the work bench, even for a moment!
4.
5.
The joints should be allowed a minute or to cool down before touching them. Work in a well-ventilated area.
The smoke formed as solder is melt, it is mostly from the flux and quite irritating. Avoid breathing it. 6. Wash the hands after using solder.
Solder contains lead, which is poisonous.
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PREPARING THE SOLDERING IRON:

7. Place the soldering iron in its stand and plug in.
The iron will take a few minutes to reach its operating temperature of about 400C. 8. Dampen the sponge in the stand.
The best way to do this is, to lift the sponge out of the stand and hold it under a cold tap for a moment, then squeeze to remove excess water. It should be damp, not dripping wet. 9. Wait a few minutes for the soldering iron to warm up.
Check if soldering iron is ready by trying to melt a little solder on the tip. 10. Wipe the tip of the iron on the damp sponge.
This will clean the tip. 11. Melt a little solder on the tip of the iron.
This is called tinning and it will help the heat to flow from the irons tip to the joint.
MAKING SOLDERED JOINTS: 12.

13. Hold the soldering iron like a pen, near the base of the handle Touch the soldering iron on to the joint to be made.
Make sure it touches both the component lead and the track. Hold the tip at the joint for a few seconds.
14.
Feed a little solder onto the joint.
It should flow smoothly onto the lead and track to form a volcano shape, make sure that the solder is applied to the joint, not to the iron. 15. Remove the solder, then the iron.
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Allow the joint a few seconds to cool before the circuit board is moved. 16. Inspect the joint closely
It should look shiny and have a volcano shape. If not , it should be reheated and a little more solder should be fed. This time, ensure that both the lead and track are heated fully before applying solder.
4. MOULDING
Modules are moulded for enabling them to work in harsh environment, with high humidity and dust. Epoxy is a thermosetting material, which is used for moulding electrical circuits giving them more electrical insulation which is formed from reaction of an epoxide "resin" with polyamine "hardener". Epoxy has a wide range of applications, including fiber-reinforced plastic materials and general purpose adhesives.
MOULDING PROCEDURE
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. First clean the component with alcohol or thinner Pump hot air to remove dust and moisture Take epoxy powder as required Heat the epoxy and mix it well Take hardener as per ratio Mix epoxy and hardener well
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7. 8. 9. 10. 11.
Fill 75% of the item with epoxy Vacuum the product for 10 to 15 minutes Clear the air bubbles which are on top surface of epoxy After it gets dried ,excess epoxy is removed Care should be taken that air bubbles are clear
C.BASIC CONCEPTS
1. BIASING
Biasing in electronics is the method of establishing predetermined voltages and/or currents at various points of an electronic circuit to set an appropriate operating point. The operating point of a device, also known as bias point, quiescent point, or simply Q-point, is the point on the output characteristics that shows the direct current (DC), collector-emitter voltage (VCE), and the collector current (IC) with no input signal applied. The term is normally used in connection with devices such as transistors.
In electrical engineering, the term bias has the following meanings:
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1. 2. 3.
A systematic deviation of a value from a reference value. The amount by which the average of a set of values departs from a reference value. Electrical, mechanical, magnetic, or other force (field) applied to a device to establish a reference level to operate the device.
4.
In telegraph signalling systems, the development of a positive or negative DC voltage at a point on a line that should remain at a specified reference level, such as zero. Bias s refers to a fixed DC voltage applied to the same point in a circuit as an
alternating current (AC) signal, frequently to select the desired operating response of a semiconductor or other electronic component (forward or reverse bias). For example, a bias voltage is applied to a transistor in an electronic amplifier to allow the transistor to operate in a particular region of its trans-conductance curve. For vacuum tubes, a (much higher) grid bias voltage is also often applied to the grid electrodes for precisely the same reason. A hot bias can lower the tube life span, but a "cool" bias can induce crossover distortion.
2.BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS:

A bipolar (junction) transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal electronic device constructed of doped semiconductor material and may be used in amplifying or switching applications. Bipolar transistors are so named because their operation involves both electrons and holes. Charge flow in a BJT is due to bidirectional diffusion of charge carriers across a junction between two regions of different charge concentrations. This mode of operation is contrasted with unipolar transistors, such as field-effect transistors, in which only one carrier type is involved in charge flow due to drift. By design, most of the BJT collector current is due to the flow of charges injected from a highconcentration emitter into the base where they are minority carriers that diffuse toward the collector, and so BJTs are classified as minority-carrier devices. STRUCTURE: A BJT consists of three differently doped semiconductor regions, the emitter region, the base region and the collector region. These regions are, respectively, p type, n type and p type in a
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PNP, and n type, p type and n type in a NPN transistor. Each semiconductor region is connected to a terminal, appropriately labeled: emitter (E), base (B) and collector (C). The base is physically located between the emitter and the collector and is made from lightly doped, high resistivity material. The collector surrounds the emitter region, making it almost impossible for the electrons injected into the base region to escape being collected, thus making the resulting value of very close to unity, and so, giving the transistor a large . A cross section view of a BJT indicates that the collectorbase junction has a much larger area than the emitterbase junction. The bipolar junction transistor, unlike other transistors, is usually not a symmetrical device. This means that interchanging the collector and the emitter makes the transistor leave the forward active mode and start to operate in reverse mode. Because the transistor's internal structure is usually optimized for forward-mode operation, interchanging the collector and the emitter makes the values of and in reverse operation much smaller than those in forward operation; often the of the reverse mode is lower than 0.5. The lack of symmetry is primarily due to the doping ratios of the emitter and the collector. The emitter is heavily doped, while the collector is lightly doped, allowing a large reverse bias voltage to be applied before the collectorbase junction breaks down. The collectorbase junction is reverse biased in normal operation. The reason the emitter is heavily doped is to increase the emitter injection efficiency: the ratio of carriers injected by the emitter to those injected by the base. For high current gain, most of the carriers injected into the emitterbase junction must come from the emitter. Small changes in the voltage applied across the baseemitter terminals causes the current that flows between the emitter and the collector to change significantly. This effect can be used to amplify the input voltage or current. BJTs can be thought of as voltage-controlled current sources, but are more simply characterized as current-controlled current sources, or current amplifiers, due to the low impedance at the base. NPN NPN is one of the two types of bipolar transistors, consisting of a layer of P-doped semiconductor (the "base") between two N-doped layers. A small current entering the base is amplified to produce a large collector and emitter current. That is, an NPN transistor is "on" when its base is pulled high relative to the emitter.
Most of the NPN current is carried by electrons, moving from emitter to collector as minority carriers in the P-type base region. Most bipolar transistors used today are NPN, because electron mobility is higher than hole mobility in semiconductors, allowing greater currents and faster operation.
PNP The other type of BJT is the PNP, consisting of a layer of N-doped semiconductor between two layers of P-doped material. A small current leaving the base is amplified in the collector output. That is, a PNP transistor is "on" when its base is pulled low relative to the emitter.
The arrows in the NPN and PNP transistor symbols are on the emitter legs and point in the direction of the conventional current flow when the device is in forward active mode.Region of operation for NPN transistor is tabulated in Table.1. Table 1: Regions of operation for NPN transistors.
Applied voltages
Junction Mode (NPN) B-E Junction B-C Bias (NPN) Bias (NPN) Forward Forward Reverse Reverse Reverse Forward Reverse Forward Forward active Saturation Cut-off Reverse-active
E<B<C E<B>C E>B<C E>B>C
Bipolar transistors have five distinct regions of operation, defined by BJT junction biases.
Table 2: Regions of operation for PNP transistors.

The modes of operation can be described in terms of the applied voltages (this description applies to NPN transistors; polarities are reversed for PNP transistors):
Applied voltages
B-E Bias (PNP)
Junction B-C Bias (PNP) Forward Reverse Forward Reverse
Junction
Mode (PNP) Reverse-active Cut-off Saturation Forward active
E<B<C E<B>C E>B<C E>B>C

1.
Reverse Reverse Forward Forward
Forward active: base higher than emitter, collector higher than base (in this mode the collector current is proportional to base current by F).
2. 3.
Saturation: base higher than emitter, but collector is not higher than base. Cut-Off: base lower than emitter, but collector is higher than base. It means the transistor is not letting conventional current to go through collector to emitter.
4.
Reverse-active: base lower than emitter, collector lower than base: reverse conventional current goes through transistor.
Region of operation for PNP transistor is tabulated in Table .2. In terms of junction biasing: ('reverse biased basecollector junction' means Vbc < 0 for NPN, opposite for PNP)
1.
Forward-active (or simply, active): The baseemitter junction is forward biased and the basecollector junction is reverse biased. Most bipolar transistors are designed to afford the greatest common-emitter current gain, F, in forward-active mode. If this is the case, the collectoremitter current is approximately proportional to the base current, but many times larger, for small base current variations.
2.
Reverse-active (or inverse-active or inverted): By reversing the biasing conditions of the forward-active region, a bipolar transistor goes into reverse-active mode. In this mode, the emitter and collector regions switch roles. Because most BJTs are designed to maximize current gain in forward-active mode, the F in inverted mode is several (23 for the ordinary germanium transistor) times smaller. This transistor mode is
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seldom used, usually being considered only for failsafe conditions and some types of bipolar logic. The reverse bias breakdown voltage to the base may be an order of magnitude lower in this region. 3. Saturation: With both junctions forward-biased, a BJT is in saturation mode and facilitates high current conduction from the emitter to the collector (or the other direction in the case of NPN, with negatively charged carriers flowing from emitter to collector). This mode corresponds to a logical "on", or a closed switch. 4. Cut-off: In cut-off, biasing conditions opposite of saturation (both junctions reverse biased) are present. There is very little current, which corresponds to a logical "off", or an open switch. 5. Avalanche breakdown region
3 BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR BIASING

For bipolar junction transistors the bias point is chosen to keep the transistor operating in the active mode, using a variety of circuit techniques, establishing the Q-point DC voltage and current. A small signal is then applied on top of the Q-point bias voltage, thereby either modulating or switching the current, depending on the purpose of the circuit. The quiescent point of operation is typically near the middle of DC load line. The process of obtaining certain DC collector current at a certain DC collector voltage by setting up operating point is called biasing. After establishing the operating point, when input signal is applied, the output signal should not move the transistor either to saturation or to cut-off. However, this unwanted shift still might occur, due to the following reasons: 1. Parameters of transistors depend on junction temperature. As junction temperature increases, leakage current due to minority charge carriers (ICBO) increases. As ICBO increases, ICEO also increases, causing an increase in collector current IC. This produces heat at the collector junction. This process repeats, and, finally, Q-point may shift into the saturation region. Sometimes, the excess heat produced at the junction may even burn the transistor. This is known as thermal runaway. When a transistor is replaced by another of the same type, the Q-point may shift, due to changes in parameters of the transistor, such as current gain () which varies slightly for each unique transistor.
2.
To avoid a shift of Q-point, bias-stabilization is necessary. Various biasing circuits can be used for this purpose.
Bipolar transistor amplifiers must be properly biased to operate correctly. In circuits made with individual devices (discrete circuits), biasing networks consisting of resistors are commonly employed. Much more elaborate biasing arrangements are used in integrated circuits, for example, band gap voltage references and current mirrors. The operating point of a device, also known as bias point, quiescent point, or Q-point, is the point on the output characteristics that shows the DC collectoremitter voltage (Vce) and the collector current (Ic) with no input signal applied. The term is normally used in connection with devices such as transistors.
4. OSCILLATORS
An Electronic device, that generates oscillations (Signals), is called an oscillator. Simply says an oscillator receives DC energy and converts it into AC energy of desired frequency. The frequency of oscillations depends up on the constants of the device. Oscillators are extensively used in electronic equipments. Oscillators can produce sinusoidal or non sinusoidal signals. Sinusoidal Oscillators. An electronic device that generates, sinusoidal oscillations of desired frequency is known as a sinusoidal oscillator.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATOR

The basic structure of a sinusoidal oscillator consists of an amplifier and a frequency selective network connected in a positive Feedback loop as shown in fig.2.
Fig 2 .Basic principle of sinusoidal oscillator A feedback amplifier is one that produce a feedback voltage Vf which is in phase with the input signal. A phase shift of 180 is produced by the amplifier and a further phase shift of 180 is introduced by the feedback network. Thus the signal is shifted by 360 and fed to the input. That is feedback voltage is in phase with the input signal. But, oscillator is a circuit
which produces oscillations without any external signal source .A signal Vin is first supplied to the network and removed .Then a feedback signal Vf is still applied to the input signal. The oscillator will respond to this signal and Vf will be amplified and send to the o/p. the feedback n/w will send a portion of the o/p again back to the i/p. Hence the amplifier receives another i/p cycle and another o/p cycle is produced. This process continues and amplifier will produce oscillations without any ext input .That is , at this condition the circuit will produce oscillations. Where A is the loop gain. In the above circuit
Barkhausen Criterion: The frequency for which a sinusoidal oscillator will operate is the frequency for which the total phase shift introduced,-as a signal proceeds from the input terminals through the amplifier and feedback network, and back to the input,- is precisely zero ( or of course an integral multiple of 2 ). That is the frequency of a sinusoidal oscillator is determined by the condition that the loop gain phase shift is zero. Another condition is that the magnitude of the feedback signals (o/p of the mixing circuit i.e. Xf=-Xf . Oscillations will not be sustained if, at the oscillator frequency, the magnitude of the product of the transfer gain of the amplifier A and the feedback factor of the feedback network is less
than unity.
The condition of unity loop gain, -A =1, is called Barkhausen criterion. This condition implies that, of course, both that A=-1, and phase of A is zero.
Means that, there exists o/p signals even in the absence of an externally applied signal voltage.
1. COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
The Colpitts oscillator is shown below. In this two capacitors are placed across a common inductor as shown below so that C1, C2 and L forms the tank (tuned) circuit. WORKING: When the power supply is turned on, C1 and C2 get charged .These capacitors then discharge through the coil L, setting up oscillations whose frequency depends on the values of L, C1, and C2.The oscillations across C1 are applied to the Base-Emitter junction and appears in the amplified form in the collector circuit. The amount of feedback depends on the values of C1 and C2. Smaller the C1 the greater will be the feedback. The capacitors C1 and C2 act as a simple voltage divider. Therefore the points 1 and 2 are 180o out of phase. A
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further 180o phase shift is introduced by the amplifier. Hence a proper positive fed back is obtained (for sustained un-damped oscillation). LOOP GAIN: The above circuit can be redrawn by its equivalent circuit by replacing Z1 and Z2 by its equivalent capacitive -jX1 (=-j/C1) and jX2 (=-j/C2) respectively and Z3 by inductive impedance jXL(=jL)
Fig3:circuit diagram of colpitts oscillator
2. HARTLEY OSCILAATOR
It is also an LC tuned oscillator and has the following advantages 1. Adaptability to wide range of frequencies. 2. Easy tuning. WORKING A Hartley oscillator using BJT is shown below. When the power supply is turned on due to some transient disturbances in the circuit the collector current starts increasing and charges the capacitor C. C then discharges. Through L1 and L2 setting up oscillations. These oscillations across L1 are applied to the base-emitter junction and appear in the amplified
form at the collector. The coil L2 couples collector circuit energy back by means of mutual induction b/w L1 and L2. In this way, energy is continuously supplied back to the tank (L1L2-C1) circuit to overcome the losses in it. Consequently continues un-damped oscillations will obtain.
Fig 4: circuit diagram of Hartley oscillator
The loop gain is given by
Where fo is the frequency of oscillation of the circuit.
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CHAPTER 1

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1.3 SCOPE OF STUDY

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BLOCK DIAGRAM OF HIGH VOLTAGE POWER SUPPLY

INPUT 230V, 50Hz,A.C

Controls and Indication + fusing

Step down transformer

Rectifier and filter

Push pull transistor system

OUTPUT 50kV D.C

Over current Protection

Voltage multiplier + Filter

High voltage/High Frequency transformer

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DESIGN OF HIGH VOLTAGE POWER SUPPLY

3.1 DESIGN CONSIDERATION:

3.1.1 Bridge rectifier:

3.1.2 HV/HF Transformer:

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3.1.3 Multiplier Unit:

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3.2 BILL OF MATERIALS (BOM):

M6/35 o/p(15-0-15),50Hz,230V i/p 2N3773 Band resistor 220 100 10k

Required number 1 2 1 each

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Rectifier Capacitor Heat Sink Multiplier

FR607 2200 microfarad

3.5nf/25kv(Capacitor),2CL20(High 6 voltage diode) Primary- (4-0-4 0-2) Secondary 800 turns 1

Safety Resistor Fan Shields 230v,80/80

4.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF HIGH VOLTAGE POWER SUPPLY

Fig 4.1: Circuit diagram of High voltage power supply unit.

4.2 BRIDGE RECTIFIER

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Fig 4.3:Diodes connected in bridge rectifier configuration.

Fig 4.4: D.C Filter.

4.3 TRANSISTORISED OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT

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Fig 4.6:Feedback circuit of oscillator

4.4 FLYBACK TRANSFORMER

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4.4.1 MATERIALS REQUIRED

4.4.3 FERRITE CORE

Fig 4.8: Ferrite core

4.4.4 INSULATING MATERIALS

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4.4.5 SUPER ENAMELED COPPER WIRE

Fig 4.9: Sleeving

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4.4.7 Poly Ethylene Teraptharate (PET)

4.4.8 Process Of Developing The Fly Back Transformer

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4.4.9 Advantages of Fly-Back Transformer

Fig 4.10:HV/HF transformer

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Fig 4.11:Cross section of HVHF transformer

Fig 4.12: Transformer before moulding

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