Lectures for ES912, Term 1, 2003.

R.M. Kerr, University of Warwick

November 13, 2003
Outline
1. Introduction, Marking
(a) What is turbulence?
(b) Types of Turbulent Flow
(c) Properties (Navier-Stokes equations.)
(d) Reynolds averaging
2. Classical phenomenological equations
Mixing length models
k models
3. Statistical theory of turbulence
4. Engineering applications (Reynolds averaging)
5. Large-eddy simulations versus Direct numerical simulations
6. Coherent structures
(a) Laminar-turbulence transition (Kelvin-Helmholtz)
(b) Mixing layer
(c) Boundary layer
7. Vortex dynamics
1
1 Introduction
u
t
+ (u

)u =
1

P +
2
u

u = 0 (1)
R = UL/ (2)
1.1 What is turbulence?
1.2 Marking
1.3 Assignment titles
1.4 Types of turbulent ows: Pictures
Coherent Structures
1.5 Properties
1.6 Reynolds averaging
u
i
= U
i
+ u
i
(3)
(

U

)U
i
=
1

i
P +
2
U
i

j

ij
(4)
2 Classical phenomenological equations
2.1 Mixing length models

12
=
dx
2
dt
x
2
U
1
y
=
1
2

dx
2
2
dt
U
1
y
(5)

12
= u

U
1
y
= c
1
c
2
LU
s
U
1
y
(6)
2
2.2 Derivation of a simple eddy viscosity

12
= (c
1
c
2
LU
s
)
U
1
y
=
T
U
1
y
and
ij
=
T
U
i
x
j
(7)
2.3 Derivation of log-law of a boundary layer using mixing length theory
U
1
u

=
1

ln x
2
+ constant (8)
3
3 Similarity solutions
Start with the Reynolds averaged equations again (4). This time in addition to U
1
= 0 we will assume
that U
2
= 0. This is because the proles are spreading and because U
1
is changing with x
1
, so U
2
= 0
is required by incompressibility:



U = 0.
Assumptions:

U = (U
1
, U
2
, 0)
Wakes : U
1
(x
2
) U
0
U
s
(9)
Jets and mixing layers : U
1
U
s
(10)
/x
1
<< /x
2
or << L
Due to U
1
/x
1
+ U
2
/x
2
= 0
U
2
O(U
s
/L)
Assume a small u (magnitude relative to U
s
to be determined) such that:
uv = u
1
u
2
= O(u
2
), u
2
1
= O(u
2
) u
2
2
= O(u
2
)
3.1 Momentum equations for

U = (U
1
, U
2
, 0)
U
1
U
1
x
1
+ U
2
U
1
x
2
+

x
2
(uv) +

x
1
(u
2
1
) =
1

P
x
1
+
_
_
_

2
U
1
x
2
1
+

2
U
1
x
2
2
_
_
_ (11)
U
1
U
2
x
1
+ U
2
U
2
x
2
+

x
1
(uv) +

x
2
(u
2
2
) =
1

P
x
2
+
_
_
_

2
U
2
x
2
1
+

2
U
2
x
2
2
_
_
_ (12)
4
Cross-stream momentum equation (for U
2
)
U
1
U
2
x
1
+ U
2
U
2
x
2
+

x
1
(uv) +

x
2
(u
2
2
) =
1

P
x
2
+
_
_
_

2
U
2
x
2
1
+

2
U
2
x
2
2
_
_
_
Now we identify the order of the terms. U
1
for the advection of the rst term will be retained and
labeled U
1A
, but express everything else in scaling variables, large scales: U
s
, L, and small scales: u, .
U
1A
U
2
x
1

U
1A
L
U
s

L
U
2
U
2
x
2

_
_
U
s

L
_
_
2
1

x
1
(uv)
u
2
L

x
2
(u
2
2
)
u
2

P
x
2
=?

2
U
2
x
2
1

L
2
U
s

2
U
2
x
2
2

2
U
s

L
5
Write all the terms as a factor times u
2
/ to estimate which terms are signicant.
U
1A
U
2
x
1

U
1A
L
U
s

L
=
_

_
U
1A
u
U
s
u
_
_

L
_
_
2
_

_
u
2

(13)
U
2
U
2
x
2

_
_
U
s

L
_
_
2
1

=
_

_
_
_
U
s
u
_
_
2
_
_

L
_
_
2
_

_
u
2

x
1
(uv)
u
2
L
=
_
_

L
_
_
u
2

x
2
(u
2
2
)
u
2

= [1]
u
2

P
x
2
=?

2
U
2
x
2
1

L
2
U
s

L
=
_

_
U
s
u
1
R

_
_

L
_
_
3
_

_
u
2

2
U
2
x
2
2

2
U
s

L
=
_
_
U
s
u
1
R

_
_

L
_
_
_
_
u
2

where R

= U
s
/. All the terms are multiplied by u
2
/ on the right. Now, compare the terms
in brackets. We expect that u will be the order of U
s
, so U
s
/u will not be very large and will not
compensate /L, so that all but two of the terms have factors of /L multiplying them. They are
(u
2
2
)/x
2
and P/x
2
, which if u
2
= v and x
2
= y gives (v
2
)/y =
1
P/x
2
. Therefore the
mean pressure will be
P + v
2
= P

(14)
Which is just the Bernoulli principle.
6
Streamwise momentum equation (for U
1
)
U
1A
U
1
x
1
+ U
2
U
1
x
2
+

x
2
(uv) +

x
1
(u
2
1
+
1

P) =
_
_
_

2
U
1
x
2
1
+

2
U
1
x
2
2
_
_
_
Now we identify the order of the terms. Retain U
1A
, but express everything else in scaling variables.
U
1A
U
1
x
1
U
1A
U
s
L
U
2
U
1
x
2

_
_
U
s

L
_
_
U
s

x
2
(uv)
u
2

replacing
1

P
x
1
by
v
2
x
1
(14)

x
1
(u
2
1
v
2
)
u
2
L

2
U
1
x
2
1

U
s
L
2

2
U
1
x
2
2

U
s

2
7
Write all the terms as a factor times u
2
/ to estimate which terms are signicant.
U
1A
U
1
x
1
U
1A
U
s
L
=
_
_
U
1A
u
U
s
u
_
_

L
_
_
_
_
u
2

(15)
U
2
U
1
x
2

_
_
U
s

L
_
_
U
s

=
_

_
_
_
U
s
u
_
_
2
_
_

L
_
_
_

_
u
2

x
2
(uv)
u
2

= [1]
u
2

x
1
(u
2
1
v
2
)
u
2
L
=
_
_

L
_
_
u
2

2
U
1
x
2
1

U
s
L
2
=
_

_
U
s
u
1
R

_
_

L
_
_
2
_

_
u
2

2
U
1
x
2
2

U
s

2
=
_
_
U
s
u
1
R

_
_
u
2

All the terms are multiplied by u

2
/ on the right. Now, compare the terms in brackets. The only term
with O(1) in the brackets is the 3rd, (uv)/x
2
. We now look for a term to balance this. All the
remaining non-viscous terms have one factor of /L, so we must look at the velocity terms for the next
order. This is the rst term, and maybe the second, which requires that
U
1A
u
U
s
u
_
_

L
_
_
O(1) and maybe
_
_
U
s
u
_
_
2
_
_

L
_
_
O(1) (16)
Therefore, the equation we will solve is
U
1A
U
1
x
1
+

x
2
(uv) = 0 (17)
Separate simplications for U
1A
will now be made for wakes and for jets and mixing layers.
8
The question now is how to set U
1A
, U
s
and u. We will assume in all cases that U
s
u.
Wakes: From (9) U
1A
U
0
U
s
. If U
s
u, then by (16),
U
s
U
0

u
U
1A
O(

L
) which is small.
Therefore we can replace U
1A
by U
0
and (17) becomes
U
0
U
1
x
1
+

x
2
(uv) = 0 (18)
Note that in this case U
2
U
s
(/L) U
0
(/L)
2
and is very small.
Jets and mixing layers: Assume U
1A
U
s
. Then the rst two terms in (15) are the same order of
magnitude and (17) is replaced by
U
1
U
1
x
1
+ U
2
U
1
x
2
+

x
2
(uv) = 0 (19)
In this case U
2
U
s
(/L) U
1
(/L) so that U
2
(/x
2
) O(U
1
(/L)/) O(U
1
/L), the same
order as the rst term.
The objective now is to assume self-preservation forms for U
1
and
12
U
1
(y) = U
s
(x
1
)f(y/) and
12
= uv = U
2
s
g(y/) (or u
2
g(y/) ), (20)
make an additional eddy viscosity assumption to relate g and f, and use (18) to predict the f and g
dependence upon y/ and the x
1
dependence of U
s
and . And use (19) for jets and mixing layers. Note
that for (19) incompressibility must be used to predict U
2
, which leads to integral equations.
9
3.2 Wakes: self-preservation
Assume (U
0
U
1
) = U
s
f(y/) and uv = U
2
s
g(y/)
giving
U
x
=
dU
s
dx
f +
U
s

d
dx
f

where = y/ and

refers to derivative with respect to y/.
uv
y
=
U
2
s

and then inserted in (18) gives

U
0
(
dU
s
dx
f +
U
s

d
dx
f

)
U
2
s

= 0
U
0
_

U
2
s
dU
s
dx
_

_f + U
0
_
_
1
U
s
d
dx
_
_
f

= g

=
1
R
T
f

(21)
where the red shows the terms that must be independent of x, the downstream distance. This is possible
if
x
n
and U
s
x
n1
To x n we must introduce two new concepts
The momentum integral
The momentum thickness
and then make an eddy viscosity assumption to determine g

in terms of f

.
10
3.2.1 Momentum integral
Rewrite (19) using incompressibility as (adding derivatives of U
0
, which are 0):

x
[U
1
(U
1
U
0
)] +

y
[U
2
(U
1
U
0
)] +

y
uv = 0
Consider the integral over y of the 1st term, which for the 2nd and 3rd terms yields the values inside
the y-derivatives at large y. Then, because U
2
and uv vanish for large y,
d
dx
_

U
1
(U
1
U
0
)dy = 0
that is the integral is constant or

U
1
(U
1
U
0
)dy = M (22)
To set n for U
s
and for a wake, take the largest term U
1
U
0
and substitute using f from (20) to
get
U
0
U
s

f()d = constant = M (23)

which requires that
U
s
= Ax
1/2
= Bx
1/2
(24)
for a plane wake. Axisymmetric wakes will be dierent, as will jets and mixing layers. For an axisym-
metric wake U
s
x
2/3
and x
1/3
3.2.2 Momentum thickness
At this point the prole for U
s
could be calculated. But rst we should to dene the Momentum
thickness.
Note that the momentum integral goes as V
2
y, where V is a velocity and y is the average thickness
of the wake.
11
Let us dene the momentum thickness such that
U
2
0
= M (25)
would be the spanwise extent of a region of 0 velocity that would yield the same momentum decit
as M.
M is often called the drag D. For an obstacle of frontal height d, then dene D = c
d
1
2
U
2
0
d. Then
(25) gives c
d
= 2/d. If the obstacle is a cylindrical cylinder, c
d
1.
3.2.3 Mean-velocity prole
Make the following eddy viscosity assumption:
g =
uv
U
2
s
=
1
U
2
s

T
U
y
=
T
1
U
s

=
1
R
T
f

(26)
and dene the turbulent Reynolds number as R
T
= U
s
/
T
Now insert (24) U
s
= Ax
1/2
and
= Bx
1/2
and (26) into (21)
U
0
_

U
2
s
dU
s
dx
_

_f + U
0
_
_
1
U
s
d
dx
_
_
f

=
1
R
T
f

to get (f

+ f) + f

= 0 (27)
using

U
2
s
dU
s
dx
=
1
U
s
d
dx
=
1
2
B
A
and dening A, B such that
1
2
R
T
U
0
B
A
= 1 or
A
B
=
R
T
U
0
2
The solution of (27) is
f = exp(
1
2

2
)
12
Summary
U
0
U
1
x
1
+

x
2
(uv) = 0
Use
U
x
=
dU
s
dx
f +
U
s

d
dx
f

Use
uv
y
=
U
2
s

=
T
U
y
=
U
2
s

T
U
s

=
U
2
s

1
R
T
f

U
0
(
dU
s
dx
f +
U
s

d
dx
f

)
U
2
s

= 0
U
0
_

U
2
s
dU
s
dx
_

_f + U
0
_
_
1
U
s
d
dx
_
_
f

= g

=
1
R
T
f

U
0
_
_
B
2A
_
_
f + U
0
_
_
B
2A
_
_
f

=
1
R
T
f

U
s
= const U
s
= Ax
1/2
= Bx
1/2
(f

+ f) + f

= 0
Dening A, B such that
1
2
R
T
U
0
B
A
= 1
The solution is:
f() = exp(
1
2

2
)
13
Find C
U
and C

if
U
s
/U
0
= C
U
(x/)
1/2
/ = C

(x/)
1/2
using R
T
= 12.5 for a plane wake and (22) U
0
U
s

f()d = U
2
0
. Using
_

exp(
1
2

2
)d =
(2)
1/2
we get the condition
=
U
s
U
0

f()d = (2)
1/2
U
s
U
0
= (2)
1/2
AB
U
0
AB = U
0
(2)
1/2
Combining with
A
B
=
R
T
U
0
2
we get A
2
= U
2
0
R
T
()
2(2)
1/2
, A = U
0
()
1/2
_
_
_
12.5
2(2)
1/2
_
_
_
1/2
= 1.58U
0
()
1/2
The large-scale Reynolds number for a plane wake will go as R

= U
s
/ = C
U
C

/U
0
, which will
be constant with x
1
.
Example problem: Find C

and show that

R

= U
s
/ = 0.4U
0
/
Therefore, turbulence will persist arbitrarily far downstream in a plane wake.
This will not be the case for an axisymmetric wake. Experiments show that for an axisymmetric wake
R
T
= 14.1. In that case we still need:

U
2
s
dU
s
dx
=
1
U
s
d
dx
But the momentum integral is cylindrical:
U
0
U
s

2
_

f()(2)d = U
2
0

Example problem: if (1/U

s
)(d/dx) =constant and U
s

2
=constant, how will U
s
and depend on x
1
?
When plotted against experimental data, the predicted prole is in very good agreement with the
experimental prole in the middle of the wake. Near the edges the theoretical prediction is somewhat
higher than the experiments. It is believed that this is due to intermittency. Intermittency is the
14
property that vortical motion in turbulence is not uniformly distributed, but tends to be patchy. Near
the centre of the wake the turbulence is close to being homogeneous. But near the edges where there
is constant entrainment of non-turbulent uid, so the degree of intermittency will be higher and the
eective eddy viscosity that should be used should be smaller.
3.3 Jets and mixing layers: self-preservation
In a wake the width gets narrower with respect to x
1
By (16)
u
U
s
O(

L
)
1/2
But in turbulence u U
s
, so /L is constant. That is
Bx
The nasty equation that determines f in this case is

U
s
dU
s
dx
f
2
+ ... + (...)
_

0
fd + ... = g

It is

U
s
dU
s
dx
not U
2
s
in the denominator because U
0
= U
s
in U
0

U
2
s
dU
s
dx
Taking a look at the rst term, we want

U
s
dU
s
dx
= constant
which can be satised by any power law for U
s
= Bx
m
, including m = 0. This is the case for mixing
layers. For a jet the momentum integral is
_

U
2
1
dy = U
2
s

f
2
()d = U
2
j
d
Giving U
s
x
1/2
and R

=
U
s

x
1/2
15
3.4 Energy budget
4 Statistical theory of turbulence
5 Engineering applications and k models
Zero-equation models
Cebeci-Smith model
Baldwin-Lomax model
Two-equation models such as k
Stress equation models
6 Large-eddy simulations versus Direct numerical simulations
7 Coherent structures
7.1 Laminar-turbulence transition (Kelvin-Helmholtz)
7.2 Mixing layer
7.3 Boundary layer
8 Vortex dynamics
16