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Study of through-thickness residual stress by numerical and experimental techniques

S Rasouli Yazdi, D Retraint and J Lu Lasmis (Mechanical Systems and Concurrent Engineering Laboratory) Troyes, France

Abstract: The quenching process of aluminium alloys is modelled using the nite element method. The study of residual stress eld induced by quenching is divided into two: the thermal and mechanical aspects. In the thermal problem, the general heat conduction equation is solved and the temperature eld during quenching is calculated. In the mechanical problem, the calculated temperature eld and mechanical properties are used to predict the residual stress eld. In this paper, the two different boundary conditions used in the thermal problem are examined. The rst is surface convection using the appropriate heat transfer coefcient. The second is the temperature variation measured at the surface of the part. These boundary conditions are compared, and the advantages and the drawbacks of each are shown. The inuence of different quenching parameters on the level of residual stress is studied. To validate the quenching modelling, the incremental hole drilling and neutron diffraction methods are used to measure the residual stress eld in the studied parts. The hole drilling technique has been adapted to measure the residual stress through a larger thickness of the part. The aim of this paper is the combination of numerical and experimental techniques for the investigation of the through-thickness residual stress eld. Keywords: residual stress, quenching, neutron diffraction, incremental hole drilling, aluminium

NOTATION A Asn, Bsn b Cis Cp di , d0 e e E h k K m p q r t Dt T T0 x surface area of specimen (m2) calibration coefcients for geometry n and layer s plate thickness (m) constants at layer s with i 1; :::; 5 specic heat capacity (J/kg C) interreticular spacing of the diffracting planes (m) internal energy (J) time derivative of internal energy (J/s) Youngs modulus (MPa) heat transfer coefcient (W/m2 C) conductivity matrix (W/m C) coefcient of the RambergOsgood law (MPa) mass (kg) number of time steps heat ux (W/m2) coefcient of the RambergOsgood law time (s) time interval (s) temperature (C) uid temperature (C) position from the centre of the plate (m)

a dij p r del ij dp ij dtij dTh v 1, v 0 l n r j jel j 1K, j 2K j r, j t trt

angle between the gauge and the principal direction 1 (deg) Kronecker delta strain component plastic strain radial strain elastic strain increment related to the stress increment by Hookes law plastic strain increment total strain increment thermal strain related to the temperature increment by the thermal expansion coefcient Bragg angle (deg) monochromatic wavelength of incident neutrons (m) Poissons ratio density (kg/m3) stress component (MPa) yield stress (MPa) principal stresses (MPa) radial and tangential stresses respectively (MPa) shearing stress (MPa)

Subscripts BC E boundary condition experimental

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The MS was received on 11 February 1998 and was accepted after revision for publication on 1 October 1998.
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i j n s 0

normal orientation along the i direction principal directions 1, 2 or 3 time interval number layer number quantities measured in the stress-free material

Superscripts a TC ambient thermocouple position

INTRODUCTION

Heat treatments can improve the mechanical properties of different alloys. The general heat treatment for aluminium alloys is quenching with different quenchants such as air, water and polymer solutions. Each of these quenchants has a different cooling rate. If the cooling rate is rapid, the mechanical properties obtained are very interesting but the level of residual stress and distortion can be great. For a slow cooling rate, the levels of residual stress and distortion are lower but the mechanical properties obtained may not be very useful. Problems with quench distortion, distortion induced by machining, and residual stress are common, affecting castings, forged products, extrusions and rolled plates. The residual stress does not always have harmful effects as it is known a compressive residual stress can improve fatigue life [1]. Therefore it would be interesting to optimize all the quenching conditions to obtain the best mechanical properties, the least distortion and the best fatigue life. Fatigue life prediction can be deduced from the residual stress eld, but the residual stress level is modied by cyclic loads [2]. To predict the exact fatigue life, it is necessary to

know the stabilized level of residual stress. Figure 1 shows the ow diagram for integrating the residual stress in a fatigue life prediction. This study can be divided into three: residual stress eld calculation or measurement, residual stress relaxation and fatigue life calculation. The fatigue relaxation of residual stress due to quenching in aluminium alloy 7075 is shown in Fig. 2 [3]. The relaxation has been modelled using nite element methods. As shown, the relaxation level depends on the level of applied loading. The studied alloy is a cyclic hardening material in which, after a few cycles, the residual stress level was stabilized. A three-dimensional program has been developed in order to calculate the fatigue life of different parts with different types of applied loading and consideration of the residual stress [4]. In this paper the rst part of the global study is developed. The residual stress induced by quenching is studied. This process is modelled by numerical methods using less complex boundary conditions. The residual stress eld in the quenched part has been measured by the modied incremental hole drilling method and the neutron diffraction method. The modied hole drilling method has been used because it gives rapid results. The neutron diffraction method is the only technique by which to obtain the complete residual stress eld. However, globally as in the future the measured or calculated residual stress will be integrated in the fatigue life calculation, measuring the compressive residual stress in the critical zone near the surface will be sufcient. 2 NUMERICAL MODEL DESCRIPTION

The thermal and mechanical problems are considered as uncoupled during modelling in the sense that (a) the internal energy depends on only the temperature and (b) the heat ux

Fig. 1
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Residual stress integration in the fatigue life calculation

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The conductivity can be fully anisotropic, orthotropic or isotropic. In the present case the conductivity is considered as isotropic; therefore the matrix k is reduced to the scalar k. Equation (1) together with Fouriers law [equation (2)] give the general equation of heat [7]: rCp T div k gradT t 3

To obtain the temperature eld during quenching, the general heat equation is solved by numerical methods. For the time integration, the backward-difference algorithm is used. The non-linear system obtained is solved by a modied Newton method [8]. 2.1.1
Fig. 2 Residual stress relaxation in a quenched cylinder

Boundary conditions

per unit area of the body, owing into the body, and the heat supplied externally to the body per unit volume do not depend on the strains or displacements of the body. In heat-treatable aluminium alloys, precipitation hardening during quenching does not induce changes in volume. Figure 3 shows the necessary procedure for residual stress prediction. The physical and mechanical data obtained from the literature are included in the program. 2.1 Temperature eld calculation

As the thermal and mechanical problems are not coupled, the equation of energy conservation is as follows [5]: div q 0 re 1

In the case of quenching at the part surface there is heat transfer between the part and the quenchant. To dene this heat transfer, boundary conditions must be known. For the temperature eld calculation, the boundary conditions may be specied as the prescribed temperature T T x; t, the prescribed surface heat ux per area, the prescribed volumetric heat ux per volume and surface convection q hT T0 . The heat transfer coefcient h depends on the geometry, quenchant, quenching temperature and material. This parameter cannot be determined by pure numerical methods. It is determined by experimental measurement of temperatures at different points in the quenched material. After the inverse resolution of the heat transfer conduction equation for one dimension, using the measured temperatures, the expression for the heat transfer coefcient is [9, 10]:
TC mCp T a Tn E ln a h TC p Dt A T Tnp E

! 4

Heat conduction is assumed to be governed by Fouriers law [6]: q k: grad T 2

In equation (4), the time and the position appear, although

Fig. 3 Modelling diagram

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the heat transfer coefcient does not depend directly on the time and the position. The coefcient h depends on the temperature; as the temperature depends on the time and the position, therefore h depends on them too. This boundary condition requires temperature measurement at different points of the sample and complex calculations. Another possible boundary condition is the prescribed temperature T T x; t. The best solution is to measure the temperature variation during quenching using thermocouples, but measuring the temperature at the surface is very difcult. Generally it is preferable to measure the subsurface temperature. However, applying this measured temperature as a boundary condition does not represent reality since it is not the exact temperature variation at the part surface. Although in the case of quenching of aluminium alloys, the heat transfer coefcient and the heat conductivity are very high, the temperatures at the surface or at a slight distance from the surface are not very different. Later in the work these two boundary conditions are applied separately and the results obtained are compared. There is a way to nd out the exact temperature variation at the surface of the part. This consists in measuring the temperature at other points of the part and by extrapolation obtaining the temperature variation at the part surface. All these methods introduce errors into the nal results. It is necessary to mention that none of the numerical methods is 100 per cent accurate. To obtain the temperature variation, accurate measurement is needed but, to obtain the heat transfer coefcient, both temperature measurement and complex calculations are needed. Using surface temperature variation as a boundary condition is easier because its determination is less complex. 2.2 Thermal results

During quenching there are three phenomena. First, a thin

lm of vapour is formed at the surface of the part. During this time the heat transfer between the part and the quenchant is very low; therefore the temperature variation is not very rapid and the heat transfer coefcient is quite low. Second, this lm starts to disappear and the heat transfer increases. At this stage the temperature variation is very fast and the heat transfer coefcient very high. Third, the temperature difference between the quenchant and the part is less; thus the heat transfer decreases, resulting in a low temperature and variation in heat transfer. The studied parts are an aluminium alloy 7075 cylinder of 50 mm diameter, an aluminium alloy 7075 plate (500 mm (length) 500 mm (width) 70 mm (height)) and an aluminium alloy 7175 plate (126 mm (length) 53 mm (width) 24 mm (height)). Considering the dimensions of the parts, they can be considered as innite. Therefore, in the case of the plates, the heat ow is just through the thickness and, in the case of the cylinder, it is through the radius. Figure 4 shows the geometry and the heat ow direction in the parts. The initial temperature of the parts was 467 C. The aluminium alloy 7075 parts were quenched in cold water (20 C) and the aluminium alloy 7175 part was quenched in water at 65 C. Figure 5 shows the heat transfer coefcient as a function of time in the rst plate (thickness, 70 mm). The three stages explained before are evident. To calculate the heat transfer coefcient, thermocouples are used. Four are placed in the plate thickness as follows: at x 0 mm, x 17:5 mm, x 26 mm and x 34 mm where x is the position from the centre plate. The measured temperatures allow the calculation of the heat transfer coefcient by inverse resolution of the heat conduction equation. Figure 6 shows the measured temperatures at four points in the plate of thickness 70 mm. In the same gure the calculated temperature by extrapolation at the part surface is shown. The extrapolated temperature at the part surface

Fig. 4 Geometry and measurement directions in the parts studied

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Fig. 5

Variation in the heat transfer coefcient as a function of time

Fig. 7 Measured and calculated temperatures using two different boundary conditions (BCs) at the plate centre (thickness, 70 mm)

is obviously not different from the temperature measured 1 mm below the surface. Two different boundary conditions are applied separately: the rst is the heat transfer coefcient and the second is the surface temperature variation during quenching. The heat transfer coefcient is obtained as explained before and the surface temperature variation is measured accurately at the part surface. Figure 7 shows the temperature variation calculated at the centre of the plate of aluminium alloy 7075 using these two boundary conditions. The results obtained by each boundary condition are similar. They have been compared with the measured temperature at the plate centre. Using measured surface temperature variation is less complex than the heat transfer calculation; therefore it is more interesting to use the surface temperature variation as the boundary condition. 2.3 Residual stress eld calculation

used in the second calculation. The geometry and meshing are the same as in the rst calculation. The procedure used in the nite element program is based on an incremental approach. This means that the total strain consists of elastic, plastic and thermal strains. The basic equation to be used is [11]
p dtij del ij dij dij dTh

The total strain is strictly a function of geometry and it must satisfy compatibility. The material is considered isotropic; therefore the plastic calculations are based on the classic plasticity theory (the von Mises criterion). The hardening law is a non-linear isotropic hardening law which means that the yield stress varies as a function of the plastic strain: j jel K p r 6

The temperature eld in the rst calculation is recorded and

Equation (6) denes the exact curve of stress as the function of strain. K and r depend on temperature; they are very low at high temperatures. All the mechanical and physical properties have been taken from previous literature [1214]. 2.4 Mechanical results

Fig. 6

Measured temperature variation at different points of the plate (thickness, 70 mm) quenched in water at 20 C

For mechanical analysis, the calculated temperature eld is transferred. The boundary conditions in this part will be of the geometrical type. The plates and the cylinder explained above are modelled respectively as two-dimensional and axisymmetrical parts. Figure 4 shows the directions of measurement in the plates and in the cylinder. The residual stress eld is calculated as explained before. The calculated eld is compared with the experimental eld. Figures 8 and 9 show the residual stresses in the plate (thickness, 70 mm) and in the cylinder (diameter, 50 mm). In these two cases the measured residual stress eld is obtained by the layer removal method [15, 16]. The results for the plate
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Fig. 8

Residual stress in the plate (thickness, 70 mm) quenched in cold water (20 C)

Fig. 10 Residual stress in the quenched plate (thickness, 24 mm) obtained by the neutron diffraction method and the numerical method

and cylinder are given for only half the depth because of symmetry of the parts. The residual stress eld obtained for the plate of aluminium alloy 7175 (thickness, 24 mm) is developed further. In the case of the plates the calculated residual stresses along the X and Y directions are similar and therefore just one of these stresses is presented. The calculated residual stress along the Z direction is zero. In the case of the cylinder, the residual stresses along the three directions are different. With regard to the aluminium alloy 7175 plate (thickness, 24 mm) the quenching has been modelled. As mentioned before, in the case of the innite plates the residual stresses induced by quenching are similar along the X and Y directions (Fig. 10) (for the directions see Fig. 4). In this plate the residual stress eld has been measured by the incremental large hole drilling method and the neutron diffraction method. In the next section, the bases of these two experimental methods have been developed.

3 3.1

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS Neutron diffraction method Principle

3.1.1

Neutron diffraction is a non-destructive technique enabling the in-depth residual stress to be evaluated, owing to the penetration of most materials up to a depth z of several centimetres by the neutron beam. The principle of this method is very similar to the well-known X-ray diffraction technique which is widely used to determine the surface residual stress. When a monochromatic neutron beam interacts with a crystalline material, incident neutrons are subject to diffraction at the planes of atoms and produce strongly diffracted beams leaving in directions dened by Braggs law [17]: l 2d sin v 7

Assuming that l is constant, the differentiation of Braggs law (7) gives the following relationship: i di d0 1 1 2v 2v 0 d0 2 tan v i 8

Then, assuming that the principal directions are not very far from the natural coordinates of the specimen, the strain components measured by neutron diffraction are converted to stress by the generalized Hookes law: jj   E n j j 1n 1 2n j Results 9

3.1.2
Fig. 9 Axial residual stress in the cylinder (diameter, 50 mm) quenched in cold water (20 C)

Neutron diffraction measurements were carried out in the

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diffractometer of residual stress and texture measurement (REST) of the Studsvik Neutron Research Laboratory (NFL) in Sweden. Strain scans were made in the longitudinal, transverse and normal directions (Y, X and Z directions respectively) across the (24 mm) thickness of the sample. The (311) reection of aluminium, with a 2 mm 2 mm 20 mm gauge volume, was used for transverse and normal measurements. For longitudinal measurements, the gauge height was reduced to 15 mm because of geometric problems. The stress-free interplanar spacing d0 was obtained by studying three small samples cut out of the same specimen. Youngs modulus E and Poissons ratio n were calculated for the (113) crystallographic orientation from ner [18] aluminium single-crystal constants using the Kro model. They were 66 GPa and 0.357 respectively. The residual stress distribution is plotted in Fig. 10. The mid-plane located at a depth of 12 mm is the symmetry plane. The longitudinal (Y direction) and transverse (X direction) stresses reach as high as 80 MPa in the mid-thickness but are slightly lower in magnitude near both surfaces; they become tensile at around 7 mm under each surface. The normal stress does not uctuate very much and remains near to a zero value. To validate the quenching modelling, the numerical results have been compared with the experimental results obtained from the neutron diffraction method in Fig. 10. 3.2 3.2.1 Incremental large hole drilling method Principle

 trts C5s sin2as

j2ks j1ks 2

 12

where C1s, C2s, C3s, C4s and C5s are the constants which depend on the gauge positions, hole diameters, layer s locations and the total hole depths: rs 1 j n j t s E rs 13

Equation (14) is obtained from equations (10) to (13): rs as Asn j1ks j2ks Bsn j1ks j2ks cos2as 14 The Asn and Bsn coefcients are called calibration coefcients and they depend on the geometry of the hole diameter gauges, the location of layer s and the hole depth. These coefcients are calculated by numerical methods based on the nite element method [20]. The radial strains are measured by gauges; therefore as , j1ks and j2ks can be calculated. 3.2.2 Results

The classic incremental hole drilling method is semidestructive [19]. It consists in drilling a small hole (diameter, from 1 to 5 mm) in the sample and at each depth measuring the strain in the hole plane. The hole diameter is chosen according to the part thickness and the residual stress gradient. Generally the hole can be drilled to a depth of 50 per cent of the nal hole diameter to measure the residual stress distribution. The greater the hole diameter, the further one can drill into the part. In the quenching case the residual stress is distributed over the depth of the whole part, which means that there is high compressive residual stress at the part surface and a very high tensile residual stress in the centre of the part; therefore a large drilling diameter is necessary. The large hole drilling method is carried out in two faces of the aluminium alloy 7175 plate (thickness, 24 mm). Using materials equilibrium laws before and after removing a layer and if just the layer s is considered, the reaction stresses at the part surface in the zone where gauges are placed after hole drilling can be obtained from the following equations: j rs C1s j1ks j2ks C2s j1ks j2ks cos 2as 2 2 10

jts

C3s j1ks j2ks C4s j1ks j2ks cos2as 2 2

11

In the quenched plate case, the part thickness is about 24 mm. The chosen diameter is about 10 mm. The hole position is in the XY plane (Fig. 4) as far as possible from the part edges because the plate has been obtained from an innite plate and, when cutting the original plate, the residual stresses were relaxed near the edges of the obtained part. For the chosen diameter there is no existing rosette. As is known each classic rosette is made of three gauges. In this case, six gauges are placed around the drilled hole at a distance equal to approximately the hole diameter from the hole centre. The angle between two gauges is about 45. Each rosette uses three gauges; thus from these six gauges it is possible to form different rosettes which are similar by simply changing the orientation. In this way the strains which relax during cutting can be measured at more points on the part surface and the uniformity veried for the residual stresses calculated from the measured strains at each depth. The part has been drilled up to 5 mm. To obtain more information about the residual stress level, another hole was drilled at exactly the same place as the rst but on the other part face (parallel to the XY plane). As regards the hole depth, it was possible to go deeper but the chosen diameter was quite large and, the more the part is drilled, the more the gauge sensitivity decreases and the more difcult it is to detect the strains. Our chosen hole diameter is larger than the usual hole diameters. The nite element calculation method for the calibration coefcients which are required to obtain the residual stress eld from the measured strains is the technique generally applied for small holes. In the case studied, we applied the calculation method to a hole diameter of 10 mm. Figure 11 shows the measured residual stress using the large incremental hole drilling method and the neutron diffraction method. The Y and X residual
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Fig. 11

Residual stress in the quenched plate (thickness, 24 mm) obtained by the neutron diffraction method and the incremental large hole drilling method

Fig. 12 Residual stress in the plate (thickness, 70 mm) quenched in cold (20 C) and hot (80 C) water

5 stresses are obtained; the difference between them is not very great. With the incremental hole drilling technique, the normal (Z direction) residual stress cannot be measured but in the case of our sample geometry this is not important because the normal residual stress is nearly zero. As was expected, there is compressive residual stress at the surface and it is about 70 MPa.

DISCUSSION

INFLUENCE OF THE QUENCH PARAMETERS ON THE LEVEL OF RESIDUAL STRESS

After the validation of our model, the effects of the quenching parameters were studied. The level of residual stress changes with different quenching parameters. These parameters are generally dened by the quenchant, the quenching temperature and the quenched zones (with controlled cooling methods in quenching). The residual stress eld due to quenching has never been integrated in a fatigue life calculation. For a given fatigue life, it is possible to dene the necessary residual stress eld [21]. Thus it can be interesting to change quenching conditions so as to obtain the residual stress eld required for improved fatigue life. Figure 12 shows the inuence of the quenching temperature on the residual stress level. A low quenching temperature introduces a high residual stress into the part, and a high quenching temperature introduces a low residual stress and a lower distortion. Generally the quenchant and the quenching temperature inuence the cooling speed; therefore, to vary the residual stress level, both the quenchant and the quenching temperature can be varied. The compressive residual stress is known to increase the fatigue life. From the fatigue life calculation it is possible to determine the part of the sample in which the compressive residual stress is required so as to dene the quenched zone as a function of the fatigue life [21].
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In Fig. 11 the residual stress eld obtained by the modied incremental hole drilling method and the neutron diffraction method are compared. In this gure the results are shown to be not very different. The existing difference is not very great considering the errors introduced by the measurement techniques. Estimated errors are 20 MPa for the incremental hole drilling method and 10 MPa for the neutron diffraction method. The level of the measured residual stresses is not very high. Considering the errors of each method and the level of the measured residual stress, the results of each method seem to be acceptable. In Fig. 10 the calculated residual stress is compared with the experimental data. The part has been quenched in water at 65 C. Considering the quenching temperature and the plate thickness (24 mm), the induced residual stress is not very high. The maximum compressive stress and the maximum tensile stress obtained by calculation are about 75 and 55 MPa respectively. These maxima are very similar to experimental values. The only difference between them is that the calculated value changes sign (compressive to tensile) at a lower depth than the experimental value does. It is necessary to mention that, the higher the level of the induced residual stress, the more accurately the residual stress can be calculated (Figs 8 and 9). This may be due to mechanical data such as the yield stress, which in the calculation is supposed to be temperature dependent. Yield stress measurements at different temperatures are not very accurate, and thus errors can be introduced in the calculation. Another possible source of error is the residual stress measurements. Globally the maximum tensile and compressive stresses have been predicted correctly. The differences obtained between numerical and experimental results are similar to the differences obtained in the previous studies [22]. For high residual stress elds even the distribution throughout the thickness is correct, whereas for low residual stress
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elds the calculation predicts fewer thickness effects from the compressive residual stress. As this calculated residual stress eld is required in a fatigue life calculation, a smaller depth for the compressive residual stress does not create a problem because the estimated fatigue life will be shorter than the real value, thus giving greater safety.

The next stage of this study is to integrate the residual stress eld due to quenching in a fatigue life calculation. Before this, calculation of the relaxation of residual stress has to be taken into account.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 6 CONCLUSIONS The authors are grateful to the Studsvik Neutron Research Laboratory for their help in the measurement of residual stress by neutron diffraction method. The authors are also grateful to Mr G. Houset and Mr A. Voinier at the Univer de Technologie de Troyes for their technical help. The site lisation for its authors are also grateful to Pole de Mode nancial support.

In this study, the hybrid approach of numerical and experimental techniques is developed for a residual stress eld study of quenched parts. This is the rst procedure in the global approach for residual stress integration in fatigue life prediction. Quenching has been modelled using the nite element method. Both thermal and mechanical data are necessary for this modelling. The most important thermal parameter is the heat transfer coefcient which enables the boundary conditions in the thermal problem to be dened. This coefcient is obtained from an experimental temperature eld. The heat transfer coefcient is obtained by inverse resolution of the heat conduction equation. Different numerical methods can be applied to determine this coefcient but all of them need the experimental temperature elds. To reduce the difculty at this point, instead of using the heat transfer coefcient to dene the boundary conditions, the measured temperature as near as possible to the part surface has been used. From these two different boundary conditions the same temperature eld is obtained. Thus, in the case of materials and quenchants with a high conductivity, the temperature measured exactly at the part surface can be used as the boundary condition in the thermal problem. It is true that using this method can introduce errors into the calculation but these errors are small and they are less than the errors obtained from heat transfer coefcient calculation. The calculated residual stress eld has been compared with the measured residual stress eld. The numerical residual stress eld is close to the experimental value; therefore the quenching model has been validated. Using the same model, the quenching has been modelled for different quenching temperatures. The lower the quenching temperature, the higher is the residual stress obtained. The measurement techniques used were the neutron diffraction method and the incremental large hole drilling method. The incremental large hole drilling method is an extension of the classic incremental hole drilling method. This technique enables more rapid measurement of the residual stress at a greater depth to be made. The residual stress obtained by this method has been compared with the residual stress eld obtained by the neutron diffraction method. The residual stress levels in these two cases are close considering the errors due to each technique; therefore the incremental large hole drilling method can be taken as valid. With this modied technique it is possible to measure the through-thickness residual stress eld induced by heat treatments or surface treatments of different types of alloy.
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JOURNAL OF STRAIN ANALYSIS VOL 33 NO 6

S00598 IMechE 1998